In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term derives from the Latin cognatus (blood relative).^[1] Cognates within the same language are called doublets. Strictly speaking, loanwords from another language are not typically considered cognates.

For example, the English words shirt and skirt are doublets; the former derives from the Old English sċyrte, while the latter is loaned from Old Norse skyrta, both of which derive from the Proto-Germanic *skurtjōn-. Additional cognates of the same word in other Germanic languages include the German Schürze and Dutch schort (apron).

Characteristics of cognate words[link]

Cognates do not need to have the same meaning, which may have changed as the languages developed separately. For example, consider English starve and Dutch sterven or German sterben ("to die"); these three words all derive from the same Proto-Germanic root, *sterƀ- ("die"). English dish and German Tisch ("table"), with their flat surfaces, both come from Latin discus, but it would be a mistake to identify their later meanings.^[2] (Such potentially misleading cognate pairs are known as false friends.)

Cognates across languages[link]

Examples of cognates in Indo-European languages are the words night (English), nuit (French), Nacht (German), nacht (Dutch), nag (Afrikaans), nicht (Scots), natt (Swedish, Norwegian), nat (Danish), nátt (Faroese), nótt (Icelandic), noc (Czech, Slovak, Polish), ночь, noch (Russian), ноќ, noć (Macedonian), нощ, nosht (Bulgarian), ніч, nich (Ukrainian), ноч, noch/noč (Belarusian), noč (Slovene), noć (Serbo-Croatian), νύξ, nyx (Ancient Greek, νύχτα/nyhta in Modern Greek), nox (Latin), nakt- (Sanskrit), natë (Albanian), noche (Spanish), nos (Welsh), nueche (Asturian), noite (Portuguese and Galician), notte (Italian), nit (Catalan), noapte (Romanian), nakts (Latvian) and naktis (Lithuanian), all meaning "night" and derived from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *nókʷts, "night".

Another Indo-European example is star (English), str- (Sanskrit), tara (Hindi-Urdu), étoile (French), ἀστήρ (astēr) (Greek or ἀστέρι/ἄστρο in Modern Greek), stella (Latin, Italian), stea (Romanian and Venetian), stairno (Gothic), astl (Armenian), Stern (German), ster (Dutch and Afrikaans), starn (Scots), stjerne (Norwegian and Danish), stjarna (Icelandic), stjärna (Swedish), stjørna (Faroese), setāre (Persian), stoorei (Pashto), seren (Welsh), steren (Cornish), estel (Catalan), estrella Spanish, estrella Asturian and Leonese, estrela (Portuguese and Galician) and estêre or stêrk (Kurdish), from the PIE *h₂stḗr, "star".

The Hebrew שלום shalom, the Arabic سلام salām, the Maltese sliem and the Amharic selam ("peace") are also cognates, derived from Proto-Semitic *šalām-.

Cognates may often be less easily recognised than the above examples and authorities sometimes differ in their interpretations of the evidence. The English word milk is clearly a cognate of German Milch, Russian молоко (moloko) and Croatian mlijeko.^[3] On the other hand, French lait and Spanish leche (both meaning "milk") are less obviously cognates of Ancient Greek γάλακτος gálaktos (genitive singular of γάλα gála, "milk"), a relationship more evidently seen through the intermediate Latin lac "milk", as well as the English word lactic and other terms borrowed from Latin. At times, cognates may even be opposites. For instance, while the Hebrew word חוצפה chutzpah means "impudence," its Arabic cognate حصافة ḥaṣāfah means "sound judgment;"^[4] even more contradictorily, the English word black and Polish biały, meaning white, both derive from the PIE *bhleg-, meaning, "to burn or shine."

A word may also enter another language, develop a new form or meaning there, and be re-borrowed into the original language; this is called a Rückwanderer (German for "one who wanders back"). For example, the Greek word κίνημα ("movement") became French cinéma (cf. American English movie) and then later returned to Greece as σινεμά ("the art of film", "movie theater"). Now in Greece κίνημα ("movement") and σινεμά ("filmmaking, cinema") exist together as a doublet (see next section).^[5]

Cognates within the same language[link]

Cognate doublets can exist within the same language, often with slightly different meanings. For example, English ward and guard (<PIE *wer-, "to perceive, watch out for") are cognates, as are shirt (garment on top) and skirt (garment on bottom) (<PIE *sker-, "to cut"). In some cases, such as "shirt" and "skirt", one of the cognate pairs has an ultimate source in another language related to English, while the other one is native, as happened with many loanwords from Old Norse borrowed during the Danelaw. Sometimes, both cognates come from other languages, often the same one but at different times. For example, the word chief (meaning the leader of any group) comes from the Middle French chef ("head"), and its modern pronunciation preserves the Middle French consonant sound; the word chef (the leader of the cooks) was borrowed from the same source centuries later, by which time the consonant had changed to a "sh"-sound in French. Such word sets can also be called etymological twins, and of course they may come in groups of higher numbers, as with, for example, the words wain (native) wagon (Dutch) and vehicle (Latin) in English.

False cognates[link]

False cognates are words that are commonly thought to be related (have a common origin) whereas linguistic examination reveals they are unrelated. Thus, for example, on the basis of superficial similarities one might suppose that the Latin verb habere and German haben, both meaning 'to have', were cognates. However, an understanding of the way words in the two languages evolve from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots shows that they cannot be cognate (see for example Grimm's law). German haben (like English have) in fact comes from PIE *kap, 'to grasp', and its real cognate in Latin is capere, 'to seize, grasp, capture'. Latin habere, on the other hand, is from PIE *gʰabʰ, 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English give and German geben. English much and Spanish mucho also look similar and even have a similar meaning yet are not cognates, with much < Proto-Germanic *mikilaz < PIE *meg-, while mucho < Latin multum < PIE *mel-.^[6]

The mere similarity of words between languages is not enough to demonstrate that the words are related to each other, in much the same way that facial resemblance does not imply a close genetic relationship between people. Over the course of hundreds and thousands of years, words may change their sound completely. Thus, for example, English five and Sanskrit pança are cognates, while English over and Hebrew ′avar are not, and neither are English dog and Mbabaram dog.

Contrast this with false friends, which frequently are cognate.

See also[link]

Look up cognate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Cognate object
• Figura etymologica
• Historical-comparative linguistics

References[link]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2011)

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Korean Chinese cuisine (Korean: 중화요리 Junghwa yori, hanja: 中華料理) is derived from traditional Chinese cuisine but has been influenced by local ingredients in Korea. Due to geographical proximity, most Korean-Chinese dishes are derived from Northern styles of Chinese cuisine such as Beijing and Shandong cuisine. However, some have regarded Korean Chinese cuisine as being more Korean than Chinese. The cuisine developed in the port city of Incheon, where the majority of Korea's ethnic Chinese population historically lived. However, Chinese restaurants in Korea are unusual in that they are owned and run by Koreans, rather than ethnic Chinese. The latter development came in part due to the assimilation of the ethnic Chinese in Korea into the Korean culture as well as due to their outward migration due to legal discrimination they were subject to, especially under the Park Chung-hee administration. Consequently, the most authentic Korean Chinese cuisine can be found in centers of overseas Korean communities such as Queens^[1] and Manhattan in New York City; Palisades Park and Fort Lee, New Jersey; as well as Los Angeles, all in the United States.

In South Korea there is an aspect of this cuisine which is unusual, in that home delivery is the main means through which it is put in front of diners. As such Korean Chinese cuisine is analogous to pizza delivery in the US or Indian take-away in the UK, and every S Korean urban household is served by no fewer than two such establishments. The cuisine also occupies the same economic position to the two a-fore mentioned analogues, in terms of relative pricing vis-a-vis other dining options. Expensive gourmet Chinese cuisine at upscale establishments dedicated to such is also popular in South Korea, but the cuisine served is mainland Chinese styles.

Korean-Chinese dishes[link]

Jjamppong

Jajangmyeon

Kkanpunggi

There are two primary Chinese menu items served in the majority of Korean Chinese restaurants in South Korea and elsewhere:

• Jajangmyeon (Korean: 자장면, Chinese: 炸醬麵), steamed noodles served in a lightly flavoured black bean paste, distinctly different from the various types of zhajiang mian served in mainland China and Taiwan.
• Jjamppong (Korean: 짬뽕, Chinese name: 炒碼麵), a spicy noodle soup flavoured with onions and chili oil. A form of jjamppong is also the local Chinese speciality in the Japanese port city of Nagasaki (see Chanpon). The noodles are made from wheat flour.

In addition, several other dishes are often served in Korean Chinese restaurants:

• Tangsuyuk (Korean: 탕수육, Chinese: 糖水肉), the Koreanized version of sweet and sour pork or orange chicken.^[2] Unlike the Americanized Chinese dish of the same name, tangsuyuk can be made with either pork or beef. If the meat is replaced with shrimp, the dish is called tangsu saeu.
• Kkanpunggi (Korean: 깐풍기, Chinese: 宫爆鸡), a type of fried chicken glazed in sweet and spicy sauce. It can be served with the bone or boneless.
  • Kkanpung saeu (Korean: 깐풍새우), deep-fried breaded sweet and sour shrimp with a bit of hot and spicy flavor unlike tangsuyuk and tangsu saeu. It is different from Kung Pao shrimp served in typical Chinese restaurants because kkanpung saeu is breaded and deep fried, as opposed to stir-fried. It is served with a sweet sauce, peas, carrots, green onions, and red chili peppers.
• Ulmyeon (Korean: 울면), similar to Udon, is a dish consisting of wheat flour noodles, chopped vegetables, and seafood in a chowder-like broth that is thickened with cornstarch. It is derived from a Chinese dish called wēnlŭmiàn (溫滷麵). [1]
• Jajangbap (Korean: 자장밥), similar to jajangmyeon but served on steamed rice. It may also be served with a fried egg and some vegetables.
• Junghwa naengmyeon (Korean: 중화냉면, Chinese: 中華冷麵), literally "Chinese cold noodles." It is favored in Chinese restaurants in South Korea during the summer. Junghwa naengmyeon is made with junghwamyeon (lit. "Chinese noodles"), shredded five-spice marinated beef or pork (五香醬肉), cucumber, crab stick, jellyfish, and a fried egg in a cold chicken broth seasoned with soy sauce and various spices. A sauce mixed with mustard and peanut sauce is topped over the dish to impart a nutty and spicy flavor.^[3]

Dumplings are also served at Korean-Chinese restaurants, in most instances a pan-fried version that is a cross between a Japanese gyoza and a Peking ravioli in terms of style.

Koreans traditionally eat Chinese food with a side serving of danmuji (yellow pickled daikon), and raw onion dipped in black bean paste. Kimchi, a staple Korean food, is also eaten with Chinese food. Dried red chili flakes are provided to season food alone or mixed with soy sauce.

See also[link]

Food portal

• Japanese Chinese cuisine
• Chinatown, Flushing
• Koreatown, Palisades Park

References[link]

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