The lung is the essential respiration organ in many air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases is accomplished in the mosaic of specialized cells that form millions of tiny, exceptionally thin-walled air sacs called alveoli.

To completely explain the anatomy of the lungs, it is necessary to discuss the passage of air through the mouth to the alveoli. Once air progresses through the mouth or nose, it travels through the oropharynx, nasopharynx, the larynx, the trachea, and a progressively subdividing system of bronchi and bronchioles until it finally reaches the alveoli where the gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen takes place.

The drawing and expulsion of air (ventilation) is driven by muscular action; in early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, whereas in reptiles, birds and mammals a more complicated musculoskeletal system is used.

Medical terms related to the lung often begin with ''pulmo-'', such as in the (adjectival form: pulmonary) or from the Latin ''pulmonarius'' ("of the lungs"), or with ''pneumo-'' (from Greek πνεύμων "lung").

Mammalian lungs

The lungs of mammals have a spongelike and soft texture and are honeycombed with epithelium, having a much larger surface area in total than the outer surface area of the lung itself. The lungs of humans are a typical example of this type of lung.

Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm at the bottom of the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm pulls the bottom of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed downward, increasing volume and thus decreasing pressure, causing air to flow into the airways. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities; it flows through the pharynx, then the larynx and into the trachea, which branches out into the main bronchi and then subsequent divisions. During normal breathing, expiration is passive and no muscles are contracted (the diaphragm relaxes). The rib cage itself is also able to expand and contract to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is transported into or expelled out of the lungs. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles a blacksmith's bellows.

Anatomy

In humans, the trachea divides into the two main bronchi that enter the roots of the lungs. The bronchi continue to divide within the lung, and after multiple divisions, give rise to bronchioles. The bronchial tree continues branching until it reaches the level of terminal bronchioles, which lead to alveolar sacs. Alveolar sacs are made up of clusters of alveoli, like individual grapes within a bunch. The individual alveoli are tightly wrapped in blood vessels and it is here that gas exchange actually occurs. Deoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood and is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the hemoglobin of the erythrocytes. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins to be pumped back into systemic circulation. Human lungs are located in two cavities on either side of the heart. Though similar in appearance, the two are not identical. Both are separated into lobes by fissures, with three lobes on the right and two on the left. The lobes are further divided into segments and then into lobules, hexagonal divisions of the lungs that are the smallest subdivision visible to the naked eye. The connective tissue that divides lobules is often blackened in smokers. The medial border of the right lung is nearly vertical, while the left lung contains a cardiac notch. The cardiac notch is a concave impression molded to accommodate the shape of the heart.

Each lobe is surrounded by a pleural cavity, which consists of two pleurae. The parietal pleura lies against the rib cage, and the visceral pleura lies on the surface of the lungs. In between the pleura is pleural fluid. The pleural cavity helps the lubricate the lungs, as well as providing surface tension to keep the lung surface in contact with the rib cage.

Lungs are to a certain extent 'overbuilt' and have a tremendous reserve volume as compared to the oxygen exchange requirements when at rest. Such excess capacity is one of the reasons that individuals can smoke for years without having a noticeable decrease in lung function while still or moving slowly; in situations like these only a small portion of the lungs are actually perfused with blood for gas exchange. Destruction of too many alveoli over time leads to the condition emphysema, which is associated with extreme shortness of breath. As oxygen requirements increase due to exercise, a greater volume of the lungs is perfused, allowing the body to match its CO₂/O₂ exchange requirements. Additionally, due to the excess capacity, it is possible for humans to live with only one lung, with the one compensating for the other's loss.

The environment of the lung is very moist, which makes it hospitable for bacteria. Many respiratory illnesses are the result of bacterial or viral infection of the lungs. Inflammation of the lungs is known as pneumonia; inflammation of the pleura surrounding the lungs is known as pleurisy.

Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that a person can exhale after maximum inhalation; it can be measured with a spirometer. In combination with other physiological measurements, the vital capacity can help make a diagnosis of underlying lung disease.

The ''lung parenchyma'' is strictly used to refer solely to alveolar tissue with respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and terminal bronchioles. However, it often includes any form of lung tissue, also including bronchioles, bronchi, blood vessels and lung interstitium.

Non respiratory functions

In addition to their function in respiration, the lungs also:

Alter the pH of blood by facilitating alterations in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide

Filter out small blood clots formed in veins

Filter out gas micro-bubbles occurring in the venous blood stream such as those created during decompression after underwater diving .

Influence the concentration of some biologic substances and drugs used in medicine in blood

Convert angiotensin I to angiotensin II by the action of angiotensin-converting enzyme

May serve as a layer of soft, shock-absorbent protection for the heart, which the lungs flank and nearly enclose.

Immunoglobulin-A is secreted in the bronchial secretion and protects against respiratory infections.

Maintain sterility by producing mucus containing antimicrobial compounds. Mucus contains glycoproteins, e.g. mucins, lactoferrin, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase. We find also on the epithelium Dual oxidase 2 proteins generating hydrogen peroxide, useful for hypothiocyanite endogenous antimicrobial synthesis. Function not in place in cystic fibrosis patient lungs.

Ciliary escalator action is an important defence system against air-borne infection.The dust particles and bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucous layer present at the mucosal surface of respiratory passages and are moved up towards pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia.

Provide airflow for the creation of vocal sounds.

Thermoregulation (panting)

Avian lungs

Avian lungs do not have alveoli as mammalian lungs do, they have Faveolar lungs. They contain millions of tiny passages known as parabronchi. There are air vesicles, called atria, which project radially from the walls of the parabronchi. The gas exchange tissues are set into the walls of the atria and gases travel via diffusion between the gas exchange tissues and the lumen of each parabronchus. There are two categories of parabronchi. The paleopulmonic parabronchi are found in all birds and air flows through them in the same directionposterior to anterior during inhalation and exhalation. Some bird species also have neopulmonic parabronch where the air flow is bidirectional. The paleopulmonic unidirectional airflow is in contrast to the mammalian system, in which the direction of airflow in the lung is tidal, reversing between inhalation and exhalation.

By utilizing a unidirectional flow of air, avian lungs are able to extract a greater concentration of oxygen from inhaled air. Birds are thus equipped to fly at altitudes at which mammals would succumb to hypoxia. This also allows them to sustain a higher metabolic rate than most equivalent weight mammals. Note than some species of small bats have a higher mean total morphometnc pulmonary diffusing capacity for oxygen than equivalent weight birds but this is the exception and is not the rule.

The lungs of birds are relatively small, but are connected to 8-9 air sacs that extend through much of the body, and are in turn connected to air spaces within the bones. The air sacs, although thin walled, are poorly vascularized, and do not themselves contribute much to gas exchange, but they do act like bellows to ventilate the lungs. The air sacs expand and contract due to changes in the volume of the combined thorax and abdominal cavity. This volume change is caused by the movement of the sternum and ribs and this movement is often synchronized with movement of the flight muscles.

Because of the complexity of the system, misunderstanding is common and it is incorrectly believed that it takes two breathing cycles for air to pass entirely through a bird's respiratory system. Air is not stored in either the posterior or anterior sacs between respiration cycles, air moves continuously from the posterior to the anterior of the lungs throughout respiration. This type of lung construction is called a circulatory lung, as distinct from the bellows lung possessed by other animals.

Reptilian lungs

Reptilian lungs are typically ventilated by a combination of expansion and contraction of the ribs via axial muscles and buccal pumping. Crocodilians also rely on the hepatic piston method, in which the liver is pulled back by a muscle anchored to the pubic bone (part of the pelvis), which in turn pulls the bottom of the lungs backward, expanding them. Turtles, which are unable to move their ribs, instead use their forelimbs and pectoral girdle to force air in and out of the lungs.

The lung of most reptiles has a single bronchus running down the centre, from which numerous branches reach out to individual pockets throughout the lungs. These pockets are similar to, but much larger and fewer in number than, mammalian alveoli, and give the lung a sponge-like texture. In tuataras, snakes, and some lizards, the lungs are simpler in structure, similar to that of typical amphibians.

Snakes and limbless lizards typically possess only the right lung as a major respiratory organ; the left lung is greatly reduced, or even absent. Amphisbaenians, however, have the opposite arrangement, with a major left lung, and a reduced or absent right lung.

Amphibian lungs

The lungs of most frogs and other amphibians are simple balloon-like structures, with gas exchange limited to the outer surface area of the lung. This is not a very efficient arrangement, but amphibians have low metabolic demands and also frequently supplement their oxygen supply by diffusion across the moist outer skin of their bodies. Unlike mammals, which use a breathing system driven by negative pressure, amphibians employ positive pressure. The majority of salamander species are lungless salamanders, which respirate through their skin and tissues lining their mouth. The only other known lungless tetrapods are also amphibians; the Bornean Flat-headed Frog (''Barbourula kalimantanensis'') and ''Atretochoana eiselti'', a caecilian.

The lungs of amphibians typically have a few narrow septa of soft tissue around the outer walls, increasing the respiratory surface area and giving the lung a honey-comb appearance. In some salamanders even these are lacking, and the lung has a smooth wall. In caecilians, as in snakes, only the right lung attains any size or development.

Lungfish

The lungs of lungfish are similar to those of amphibians, with few, if any, internal septa. In the Australian lungfish, there is only a single lung, albeit divided into two lobes. Other lungfish and ''Polypterus'', however, have two lungs, which are located in the upper part of the body, with the connecting duct curving round and above the esophagus. The blood supply also twists around the esophagus, suggesting that the lungs originally evolved in the ventral part of the body, as in other vertebrates.

Invertebrate lungs

Some invertebrates have "lungs" that serve a similar respiratory purpose as, but are not evolutionarily related to, vertebrate lungs. Some arachnids have structures called "book lungs" used for atmospheric gas exchange. The Coconut crab uses structures called Branchiostegal lungs to breathe air and indeed will drown in water, hence it breathes on land and holds its breath underwater. The Pulmonata are an order of snails and slugs that have developed "lungs".

Origins of the vertebrate lung

The lungs of today's terrestrial vertebrates and the gas bladders of today's fish are believed to have evolved from simple sacs (outpocketings) of the esophagus that allowed early fish to gulp air under oxygen-poor conditions. These outpocketings first arose in the bony fish; in some of the ray-finned fish the sacs evolved into gas bladders, while in other ray-finned fish (such as the gar, bichir and amia) as well as the lobe-finned fish they evolved into lungs. The lobe-finned fish gave rise to the land-based tetrapods. Thus, the lungs of vertebrates are homologous to the gas bladders of fish (but not to their gills). This is reflected by the fact that the lungs of a fetus also develop from an outpocketing of the esophagus and in the case of gas bladders, this connection to the gut continues to exist as the pneumatic duct in more "primitive" teleosts, and is lost in the higher orders. (This is an instance of correlation between ontogeny and phylogeny.) No known animals have both a gas bladder and lungs.

See also

Further reading

Lung Function Fundamentals. http://www.anaesthetist.com/icu/organs/lung/lungfx.htm

Dr D.R. Johnson: Introductory anatomy, respiratory system

Franlink Institute Online: The Respiratory System

Lungs 'best in late afternoon'

Chronic Respiratory Disease - leading research and articles on respiratory disease.

Avian lungs and respiration

Footnotes

Category:Organs

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name	Joe Bonamassa
background	solo_singer
birth date	May 08, 1977New Hartford, New YorkUnited States
instrument	Vocals, guitar, theremin
genre	Blues rock, hard rock, rock and roll
occupation	Musician, singer-songwriter
years active	1989–present
label	J&R; Adventures
associated acts	Bloodline, Black Country Communion, Beth Hart
website
notable instruments	Gibson Les PaulGibson Lucille }}

Joe Bonamassa (born May 8, 1977) is an American blues rock guitarist and singer.

Early life

Bonamassa was born and raised in New Hartford, New York. His parents owned and ran a guitar shop. He is a fourth-generation musician; with a great-grandfather and grandfather who both played trumpet, and a father who plays guitar, Bonamassa credits his parents with fostering an appreciation of music in his life as early as he can remember. When he was a young child, he would listen to his parents' large record collection. He recalls at age 7, sitting with his parents on Saturdays and listening to Guitar Slim, Bonnie Raitt, Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young, Eric Clapton, and Jethro Tull. Thus, he sees his music as an amalgam of all the various rock and blues he heard as a child.

He received his first guitar from his father at the age of 4, and by age 7 he was playing Stevie Ray Vaughan and Jimi Hendrix tunes note for note. At the age of 11, during a short period of being mentored by Danny Gatton, he learned such styles as country and jazz as well as Polka. During this time with Gatton, Bonamassa sat in with Gatton's band whenever they played in New York. He first opened for B. B. King at 12 years of age. At 14, he was invited to attend a Fender guitar event; during that trip to the West Coast he met Berry Oakley, Jr. Bonamassa and Berry founded the group Bloodline with Miles Davis's son Erin and Robby Krieger's son Waylon. They released one album which produced two chart singles — "Stone Cold Hearted", and "Dixie Peach." He has since played with Buddy Guy, Foreigner, Robert Cray, Stephen Stills, Joe Cocker, Gregg Allman, Steve Winwood, Paul Jones, Ted Nugent, Warren Haynes, Eric Clapton, Derek Trucks, and Jack Bruce.

Influences

Unlike other successful blues-rock guitarists, Bonamassa cited his influences as being British and Irish blues acts, rather than American artists. Within the blues genre, hearing the traditional blues players, as with Guitar Slim, Robert Johnson, Muddy Waters, and all the traditional American blues players, (with the exception of B.B. King), comparing the music in the United States to the "European" versions of the blues, Bonamassa found the English blues, fostered by the Jeff Beck Group, Eric Clapton and the Irish blues player Rory Gallagher, to be far more interesting to him than the original Delta blues players. which debuted at #1 on the ''Billboard'' Blues Charts and #38 on the Billboard 200.

In May 2010, Ian Anderson guested at his concert at London's Hammersmith Apollo, and they played "A New Day Yesterday" along with "Locomotive Breath". At the end of 2010, Bowles announced his departure and Tal Bergman took over as touring drummer.

The Bonamassa, Glenn Hughes, Jason Bonham, Derek Sherinian supergroup is now called Black Country Communion. The band were forced to add 'Communion' to their original name Black Country after another band with the same name raised an objection.

In March 2011, Bonamassa released his eleventh full-length solo album, ''Dust Bowl'', followed in September of the same year by a collaboration with Beth Hart called "Don't Explain".

In early 2012, Bonamassa completed the recording of his twelfth studio album. The title was confirmed by Bonamassa in a post on his official Facebook page on March 12 2012 as Driving Towards The Daylight. Bonamassa debuted the title track during his UK Tour in the same month

Discography

;Solo studio albums

''A New Day Yesterday'' (2000)

''So, It's Like That'' (2002)

''Blues Deluxe'' (2003)

''Had to Cry Today'' (2004)

''You & Me'' (2006)

''Sloe Gin'' (2007)

''The Ballad of John Henry'' (2009)

''Black Rock'' (2010)

''Dust Bowl'' (2011)

''Driving Towards The Daylight'' (2012)

;Collaboration albums

''Don't Explain'' (2011) (with Beth Hart)

;Black Country Communion albums

''Black Country'' (2010)

''2'' (2011)

;Guest appearances

Joe Lynn Turner – ''Holy Man'' (2000)

Joe Lynn Turner – ''JLT'' (2003)

Walter Trout and the Radicals – ''Full Circle'' (2006)

Carl Verheyen Band – ''Trading 8s'' (2009)

Shannon Curfman – ''What You're Getting Into'' (2010)

Sandi Thom – ''Merchants and Thieves'' (2010)

Healing Sixes – ''Blue Jay'' (2010)

Lee Ritenour – ''6 String Theory'' (2010)

Henrik Freischlader – ''Still Frame Replay'' (2011)

Don Airey – ''All Out'' (2011)

Derek Sherinian – ''Oceana'' (2011)

Leslie West – ''Unusual Suspects'' (2011)

Jim Suhler & Monkey Beat - ''Tijuana Bible'' (2009)

Europe - ''Bag of Bones'' (2012)

DVDs

''Live at the Rockpalast'' was released in 2005, and recorded at the Burg Satzvey in Mechernich, Germany.

A live DVD titled ''A New Day Yesterday, Live'' was given away for a short period of time with ''So, It's Like That''. This concert was later re-released as a full CD and DVD.

An instructional DVD, ''Signature Sounds, Styles and Techniques'', was released in 2006.

A live DVD, ''Joe Bonamassa: Live From Royal Albert Hall'' was released in September 2009.

Bonamassa's performance with pedal-steel guitarist Robert Randolph, Randolph's ''Family Band'' and Pino Daniele at the 2010 edition of Crossroads Guitar Festival appears on the ''Crossroads 2010'' DVD. The song they played is ''Going Down''.

A live DVD, "Joe Bonamassa Live from New York Beacon Theatre" was released in 2012.

References

External links

Joe Bonamassa Experience official website

Joe Bonamassa Official Fan Website

European Joe Bonamassa Website

Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:People from Utica, New York Category:Lead guitarists Category:Slide guitarists Category:American blues guitarists Category:American rock guitarists Category:American blues singers Category:American rock singers Category:Blues rock musicians Category:Electric blues musicians Category:American musicians of Italian descent Category:Black Country Communion members Category:Epic Records artists

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