The 26 cantons of Switzerland are the member states of the federal state of Switzerland. Each canton was a fully sovereign state with its own borders, army and currency from the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) until the establishment of the Swiss federal state in 1848. The most recently created canton is the Canton of Jura, which separated from the Canton of Bern in 1979.

The name is derived from the French language word ''canton'' meaning ''corner'' or ''district'' (from which the term Cantonment is also derived).

History

In the 16th century, the Old Swiss Confederacy was composed of thirteen sovereign cantons, and there were two different kinds: six land (or forest) cantons and seven city (or urban) cantons. Though they were technically part of the Holy Roman Empire, they had become ''de facto'' independent when the Swiss defeated Emperor Maximillian in 1499. The six forest cantons were democratic republics, whereas the seven urban cantons were oligarchic republics controlled by noble families.

Constitution

Each canton has its own constitution, legislature, government and courts. Most of the cantons' legislatures are unicameral parliaments, their size varying between fifty-eight and two hundred seats. A few legislatures are general assemblies known as ''Landsgemeinden''. The cantonal governments consist of either five or seven members, depending on the canton. For the names of the institutions, see List of legislative and executive councils of the Cantons of Switzerland.

The Swiss Federal Constitution declares the cantons to be sovereign to the extent their sovereignty is not limited by federal law. The cantons also retain all powers and competencies not delegated to the Confederation by the Constitution. Most significantly, the cantons are responsible for healthcare, welfare, law enforcement and public education; they also retain the power of taxation. The cantonal constitutions determine the degree of autonomy accorded to the municipalities, which varies but almost always includes the power to levy taxes and pass municipal laws. The sizes of the cantons vary from 37 km² to 7,105 km²; the populations vary from 15,471 to 1,244,400.

Direct democracy

As on the federal level, all cantons provide for (half-) direct democracy. Citizens may demand a popular vote to amend the cantonal constitution or laws, or to veto laws or spending bills passed by the parliament. General popular assemblies (''Landsgemeinde'') are now limited to the cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus. In all other cantons democratic rights are exercised by secret ballot.

List

The cantons are listed in the order given in the federal constitution.

The two-letter abbreviations for Swiss cantons are widely used, e.g. on car license plates. They are also used in the ISO 3166-2 codes of Switzerland with the prefix "CH-" (''Confœderatio Helvetica'', Switzerland), e.g. CH-SZ for the canton of Schwyz.

== Half-cantons ==

Six of the 26 cantons are traditionally, but no longer officially, called "half-cantons" (, , ), reflecting a history of mutual association or partition.

The half-cantons are identified in the first article of the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1999 by being joined to their other "half" with the conjunction "and": }} The 1999 constitutional revision retained this distinction, on the request of the six cantonal governments, as a way to mark the historic association of the half-cantons to each other. In contrast, the first article of the 1848 and 1874 constitutions constituted the Confederation as the union of "twenty-two sovereign cantons", referring to the half-cantons as "Unterwalden (above and beneath the woods)", "Basel (city and country)" and "Appenzell (both Rhoden)". While the older constitutions referred to these states as "half-cantons", a term that remains in popular use, the 1999 revision and official terminology since then use the appellation "cantons with half a cantonal vote".

With their mutual association a purely historical matter, the half-cantons are since 1848 equal to the other cantons in all but two respects:

They elect only one member of the Council of States instead of two (Cst. art. 150 par. 2).

In popular referendums about constitutional amendments, which require for adoption a national popular majority as well as the assent of a majority of the cantons (''Ständemehr / majorité des cantons''), the result of the half-cantons' popular vote counts only one half of that of the other cantons (Cst. arts. 140, 142). This means that for purposes of a constitutional referendum, at least twelve out of a total of twenty-three cantonal popular votes must support the amendment.

The reasons for the association between the three pairs of half-cantons are varied:

''Unterwalden'' never consisted of a single unified jurisdiction. Originally, Obwalden, Nidwalden, and the Abbey of Engelberg formed distinct communities. The collective term ''Unterwalden'' remains in use, however, for the area that partook in the creation of the original Swiss confederation in 1291 with Uri and Schwyz. The Federal Charter of 1291 called for representatives from each of the three "areas".

The canton of Appenzell divided itself into an "inner" and "outer" half ("Rhoden") as a consequence of the Reformation in Switzerland in 1597: Appenzell Innerrhoden (Catholic) and Appenzell Ausserrhoden (Protestant).

The canton of Basel divided itself as a consequence of a revolt of the Basel countryside in 1833, in order to promote equality among its citizenry, combating claims between rural and city residents over preferential status: Basel-Landschaft and Basel-Stadt.

Names in national languages

(Names appear in bold when corresponding to the cantonal official language)

Abbr	English	German	French	Italian	Romansh
AG	Aargau (rare: ''Argovia'')		Argovie	Argovia	Argovia
AI	Appenzell Innerrhoden (Appenzell Inner-Rhodes)		Appenzell Rhodes-Intérieures	Appenzello Interno	Appenzell dadens
AR	Appenzell Ausserrhoden (Appenzell Outer-Rhodes)		Appenzell Rhodes-Extérieures	Appenzello Esterno	Appenzell dador
BS	Basel-City or Basle-City		Bâle-Ville	Basilea-Città	Basilea-Citad
BL	Basel-Country, Basle-Country, or Basel-Land		Bâle-Campagne	Basilea-Campagna	Basilea-Champagna
BE	Bern		Berne	Berna	Berna
FR	Fribourg		Fribourg	Friborgo	Friburg
GE	Geneva		Genève	Ginevra	Genevra
GL	Glarus		Glaris	Glarona	Glaruna
GR	Graubünden (Grisons)		Grisons	Grigioni	Grischun
JU	Jura		Jura	Giura	Giura
LU	Lucerne		Lucerne	Lucerna	Lucerna
NE	Neuchâtel		Neuchâtel	Neuchâtel	Neuchâtel
NW	Nidwalden		Nidwald	Nidvaldo	Sutsilvania
OW	Obwalden		Obwald	Obvaldo	Sursilvania
SH	Schaffhausen (Schaffhouse)		Schaffhouse	Sciaffusa	Schaffusa
SZ	Schwyz		Schwyz (or Schwytz)	Svitto	Sviz
SO	Solothurn		Soleure	Soletta	Soloturn
SG	St. Gallen (St. Gall)		Saint-Gall	San Gallo	Son Gagl
TG	Thurgau (Thurgovia)		Thurgovie	Turgovia	Turgovia
TI	Ticino		Tessin	Ticino	Tessin
UR	Uri		Uri	Uri	Uri
VS	Valais		Valais	Vallese	Vallais
VD	Vaud		Vaud	Vaud	Vad
ZG	Zug		Zoug	Zugo	Zug
ZH	Zurich		Zurich	Zurigo	Turitg

Admission of new cantons

The enlargement of Switzerland by way of the admission of new cantons ended in 1815. After a failed attempt of Vorarlberg to join Switzerland in 1919, the idea of resuming Swiss enlargement was revived in 2010 by a parliamentary motion that would allow the accession of regions bordering on Switzerland.

See also

List of legislative and executive councils of the Cantons of Switzerland

Data codes for Switzerland#Cantons

List of cantons of Switzerland by elevation

Flags of Swiss cantons

Cantonal bank, a commercial bank (at least partially) owned by the canton

Notes

# This is the order generally used in Swiss official documents. At the head of the list are the three city cantons that were considered preeminent in the Old Swiss Confederacy; the other cantons are listed in order of accession to the Confederation. This traditional order of precedence among the cantons has no practical relevance in the modern federal state, in which the cantons are equal to one another, although it still determines formal precedence among the cantons' officials (see Swiss order of precedence). # # km² # Per km², based on 2000 population # As of 31 December 2007, # Seat of government and parliament is Herisau, the seat of the judicial authorities is Trogen # Seat of parliament half-yearly alternates between Frauenfeld and Weinfelden

References

. Cited as ''Ehrenzeller''. Cited as ''Häfelin''.

External links

Swissworld.org – The cantons of Switzerland

GeoPuzzle Assemble cantons on a Swiss map Badac Database on Swiss cantons and cities (French/German)

Category:Subdivisions of Switzerland Switzerland, Cantons of Switzerland 1 Cantons, Switzerland Category:Switzerland-related lists

als:Kanton ar:كانتونات سويسرا an:Cantons de Suiza zh-min-nan:Sūi-se ê hêng-chèng-khu bar:Kanton bs:Kantoni u Švicarskoj br:Kantonioù Suis bg:Административно деление на Швейцария ca:Cantons de Suïssa cs:Švýcarský kanton cy:Cantons y Swistir da:Kanton (Schweiz) de:Kanton (Schweiz) el:Καντόνια της Ελβετίας es:Cantones de Suiza eo:Kantonoj de Svislando eu:Suitzako kantonamenduak fa:ایالت‌های سوئیس fr:Canton suisse gl:Cantóns de Suíza ko:스위스의 주 hy:Շվեյցարիայի վարչական բաժանում hr:Švicarski kantoni id:Daftar kanton di Swiss is:Kantónur í Sviss it:Cantoni della Svizzera he:הקנטונים של שווייץ sw:Majimbo ya Uswisi lv:Šveices administratīvais iedalījums lb:Lëscht vun de Schwäizer Kantonen lt:Šveicarijos kantonai ln:Bakanton ya Swisi hu:Svájc kantonjainak listája mr:स्वित्झर्लंडची राज्ये nl:Kantons van Zwitserland ja:スイスの地方行政区画 no:Sveits’ kantoner nn:Kantonane i Sveits oc:Cantons soïsses pl:Kanton (Szwajcaria) pt:Cantões da Suíça ro:Cantoanele Elveției rm:Chantuns da la Svizra ru:Административное деление Швейцарии sq:Njësitë administrative të Zvicrës simple:Cantons of Switzerland sl:Kantoni Švice sr:Кантони Швајцарске sh:Kantoni Švicarske fi:Kantoni sv:Schweiz kantoner tr:İsviçre'nin kantonları uk:Адміністративний поділ Швейцарії vec:Cantoni de ła Svisera vi:Bang của Thụy Sĩ zh:瑞士行政區劃

name	Canton Jones
background	solo_singer
alias	Cajo, jojo
born	Deerfield Beach, FloridaUnited States
genre	Christian: Christian hip-hop, Christian R&B;, Gospel
years active	- Present
associated acts	Milliyon, The Messenja, YoungblitZ
website	http://www.cantonjones.net/
notable instruments	}}

Canton Jones, born in Deerfield Beach, Florida, is an American Christian musician and Christian hip-hop artist.

Biography

Early years

Cantonn Jones began singing at the age of 5 in a vocal group founded by his father. By the age of 16, he was writing and producing songs for friends in his hometown.

He relocated to Atlanta, Georgia where he attended Morehouse College joining the school's renowned Glee Club. The club performed for celebrities such as Oprah Winfrey, Stevie Wonder, Dr. Bobby Jones and Ray Charles, as well as performing at high profile events such as the opening ceremony of the 1996 Olympic Games and at the first gospel concert ever heldg at the US Pentagon.

Between 1998 and 1999, he joined World Changers Church International, under the pastorship of Creflo & Taffi Dollar and in his own words, grew as a Christian under their stewardship: "My wife, who was my girlfriend at the time, took me to World Changers and I started getting the word. I was going to that church for like three years before I really rededicated my life to Christ. I was there from probably like 1998 or 1999 until 2001 before I really started getting on track."

Musical career

In 2001, Jones launched his own gospel record label, CAJO International. and independently released his first album, 2002's ''20 Years, 3 Months & 12 Days'', which chronicled his journey to salvation.

He released his second independent album in 2004: ''The Password'' and that same year, collaborated with Lil iROCC Williams on Williams's 2004 debut album, and wrote and performed a song, "You and Me", for the compilation ''Holy Hip-Hop:Taking the Gospel to the Streets''.

At this time he was now a member of the choir of World Changers International Church and a solo performance at the church attracted the attention of the church's youth pastor, who asked Jones to help him in the youth department. Not long after that, he was signed to the church's Arrow Records label, an affiliate of EMI.

He released his major label debut, ''Love Jones'', in the summer of 2005, which debuted at number 11 on Billboard's Top Gospel Albums chart. The album is named after his daughter, Love, born to him and wife Ramona in 2004. Following the album's success, Canton toured the US with over 200 appearances that year.

In November 2005, ''The Password'' was re-released nationally at the end of 2005 as ''The Password: Access Granted'' and earned him two Grammy nominations. His success in 2005 saw him listed in ''The Atlanta Business Journal'' at number 19 in their ''40 Under 40'' chart of Atlanta's rising stars.

On 5 April 2008, he released ''Kingdom Business''. In 2009, he released Kingdom Business, Pt. 2, and Kingdom Business, Pt. 3 followed in 2010.

Canton Jones's fifth and most highly anticipated album for him and for CAJO Records, Dominionaire, was released on Febuaury 1st, 2011. Three singles were released prior to the albums release, "In da Club", "Window", and "GOD", only the first two listed were released on iTunes.

Personal life

Canton Jones has a wife named Ramona and they have a daughter, Love Jones and a son, Dominion Jones. He attends World Changers Church International in College Park, Georgia, where he sings as a member of the praise & worship team.

Discography

{{infobox discography | type	Studio | Name ''20 Years 3 Months 12 Days'' | Other info | from Album | Released 2002 | Format CD | Label Cajo Records | Writer | Producer | Director | Chart position | Sales | Certification | Tracks | Bonus tracks | Singles }}

{{infobox discography | type	Studio | Name ''The Password'' | Other info | from Album | Released 2004 | Format CD | Label Independent | Writer | Producer | Director | Chart position | Sales | Certification | Tracks | Bonus tracks | Singles }}

{{infobox discography | type	Studio | Name ''Love Jones'' | Other info | from Album | Released 2005 | Format CD | Label Arrow Records | Writer | Producer Canton Jones, Dean Beresford | Director | Chart position US Christian #40, US Gospel #11 | Sales | Certification | Tracks | Bonus tracks | Singles }}

{{infobox discography | type	Studio | Name ''The Password:Access Granted'' | Other info | from Album | Released Re-release, 2005 | Format CD | Label Arrow Records | Writer | Producer Canton Jones, Big Ran, Dean Beresford | Director | Chart position | Sales | Certification | Tracks | Bonus tracks | Singles }}

{{infobox discography | type	Studio | Name ''Kingdom Business'' | Other info | from Album | Released 5 February 2008 | Format CD | Label Arrow Records | Writer | Producer Canton Jones, Big Ran | Director | Chart position #187 US, #13 US Christian, #3 US Gospel | Sales | Certification | Tracks | Bonus tracks | Singles }}

{{infobox discography | type	Studio | Name Kingdom Business 2'' | Other info | from Album | Released October 6, 2009 | Format CD | Label Cajo Records | Writer | Producer | Director | Chart position | Sales | Certification | Tracks | Bonus tracks | Singles "G.O.D.", "G.O.D. Remix ft. Big Ran" }}

{{infobox discography | type	Studio | Name Kingdom Business Pt. 3'' | Other info | from Album | Released August 21, 2010 | Format CD | Label Cajo Records | Writer | Producer | Director | Chart position | Sales | Certification | Singles "Necessary" }}

References

Category:Living people Category:American Christians Category:Performers of Christian hip hop music Category:American gospel singers Category:American rappers Category:Musicians from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Morehouse College alumni Category:People from Broward County, Florida

fr:Canton Jones

name	Adam Baldwin
birth date	February 27, 1962
birth place	Winnetka, Illinois, U.S.
occupation	Actor
yearsactive	1980–present }}

Adam Baldwin (born February 27, 1962) is an American actor, known for his roles as Animal Mother in Stanley Kubrick's ''Full Metal Jacket'', Ricky Linderman in ''My Bodyguard'', Knowle Rohrer in ''The X-Files'', and Marcus Hamilton in Joss Whedon's ''Angel''. He also established a cult following as Jayne Cobb in the series ''Firefly'' and its film sequel ''Serenity'', and for starring as Chad Shelten in ''Day Break''. He currently stars as John Casey on the NBC comedy-spy series ''Chuck'' and provides the voice of Decepticon Breakdown in ''Transformers: Prime''.

Career

Appearing in dozens of films since 1980, Baldwin rose to prominence as the troubled outcast Ricky Linderman in ''My Bodyguard'' (1980) and moved on to bigger roles in ''D.C. Cab'' (1983), ''Full Metal Jacket'' (1987), ''Predator 2'' (1990), ''Independence Day'' (1996), ''The Patriot'' (2000) and ''Serenity'' (2005)—in which he reprises his role as the mercenary Jayne Cobb from the television series ''Firefly.'' His other work includes ''Radio Flyer'' (1992), ''From the Earth to the Moon'' (1998), ''The X-Files'' (Knowle Rohrer), ''Smoke Jumpers'' (1996), ''The Cape'', ''Men in Black: The Series'', ''Stargate SG-1'', ''Angel'', ''The Inside'', ''NCIS'' and the 2005 remake of ''The Poseidon Adventure''. He also starred in the ABC series ''Day Break'' as Chad Shelten in 2006. Baldwin parodied the Ricky Linderman character in the 2008 film ''Drillbit Taylor''.

Baldwin won a SyFy Genre Award in 2006 for ''Best Supporting Actor/Television'' for his role as Jayne Cobb in the television series ''Firefly''.

Baldwin was cast as Clark Kent/Superman in the first DC animated universe movie, ''Superman: Doomsday'', based on DC Comics' ''The Death of Superman'' and is currently co-starring in the NBC television show ''Chuck'' as NSA Agent John Casey. The show premiered September 24, 2007.

Baldwin has a role as a voice actor in the Xbox 360 games ''Halo 3'' and ''Halo 3: ODST'', the latter putting him in the role of Cpl. Taylor "Dutch" Miles.

Baldwin also appears as a voice actor in ''Half Life 2: Episode 2'' for various resistance soldiers and citizens. Adam also appeared in ''Mass Effect 2'', playing the role of Quarian Marine Squad Leader Kal'Reegar.

Personal life

Baldwin was born in Winnetka, Illinois and studied at New Trier Township High School East in Winnetka. He has three children with his wife, Ami.

He has been a registered voter with the Democratic Party since 1980, but admits reexamining his views after being given a copy of David Horowitz's book ''Radical Son''. Politically, he considers himself a "small government conservative libertarian", and has contributed blogs to the Huffington Post and Big Hollywood.

As a hobby, he collects and posts links to varying viewpoints on his Twitter feed.

Recently he has become an avid supporter of Ride 2 Recovery, a bike riding organization set up for the rehabilitation of wounded veterans. Recently he participated in the "Don't Mess With Texas Challenge" bike ride.

Although sharing a common surname, Adam Baldwin bears no relation to the Baldwin brothers.

Filmography

Year	! Title	Role	Notes
1980	''My Bodyguard''	Ricky Linderman
1980	''Ordinary People''	Stillman
1983	''D.C. Cab''	Albert Hockenberry
1984		Randy Daniels
1984	''Pigs vs. Freaks''	Mickey South	TV movie
1985	''NBC Special Treat''	Otto Frommer	Episode: "Out of Time"
1985		Ike Dimmick	TV movie
1986	''Welcome Home, Bobby''	Cleary	TV movie
1986	''3:15''	Jeff Hannah
1986	''Bad Guys''	Skip Jackson
1987	''Full Metal Jacket''	Sgt. Animal Mother
1987	''Hadley's Rebellion''	Bobo McKenzie
1988	''Cohen and Tate''	Tate
1988	''''	Carter
1989		Joey Rosselini
1990	''Predator 2''	Garber
1991	''Guilt by Suspicion''	FBI Agent #1
1991	''Murder in High Places''		TV movie
1992	''Deadbolt''	Alec Danz	TV movie
1992	''Cruel Doubt''	Det. John Taylor	TV movie
1992	''Where the Day Takes You''	Officer Black
1992		The King
1993	''''	Mark Tullis Jr.	TV movie
1993		Mitch
1993	''Eight Hundred Leagues Down the Amazon''	Koja
1993	''Treacherous''	Tommy Wright
1993	''Bitter Harvest''	Bobby
1994		Tom McLaury
1994		Sgt. Hastings	TV movie
1995	''Trade-Off''	Thomas Hughes	TV movie
1995	''Sawbones''	Burt Miller	TV movie
1995		Ralph
1995	''VR.5''	Scott Cooper	Episode: "Pilot"
1995	''Digital Man''	Captain West
1995	''How to Make an American Quilt''	Finn's Father
1995	''Shadow-Ops''	Dalt	TV movie
1996	''Smoke Jumpers''	Don Mackey	TV movie
1996		Major Mitchell
1996	''Lover's Knot''	John Reed
1996–1997	''''	Col. Jack Riles	17 episodes
1997	''Starquest II''	Lee
1997	''''	Michael O'Ryan	4 episodes
1998		Fred Haise	Episode: "For Miles and Miles"
1998	''''	Major James Bowen	Episode: "Phobos Rising"
1998	''Gargantua''	Jack Ellway	TV movie
1998		Jeremy Butler	TV movie
1999	''Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde''	Dr. Jekyll / Mr. Hyde	TV movie
2000	''''	Capt. Wilkins
2000	''''	Captain Wagner
2000–2005	''Jackie Chan Adventures''	Finn, Various	48 episodes
2000–2001	''Static Shock''	York (voice)	Episodes: "Aftershock" (2000) "Junior" (2001)
2001	''Pursuit of Happiness''	Chad Harmon
2001	''''	Swen (voice)	Episode: "Crime Waves"
2001	''Men in Black: The Series''	Agent X	Episode: "The Circus Parade Syndrome"
2001	''Above & Beyond''	Peter Clerkin
2001		Mel James
2001	''Farewell, My Love''	Jimmy, the Bartender
2001	''Double Bang''	Vinnie Krailes
2001–2002	''''
2002	''''	Chris Myers / Keyman
2002–2003		Jayne Cobb	14 episodes
2002	''Hyper Sonic''	Christopher Bannon	Video
2003		John Gacy, Sr.	Video
2003	''CSI: Miami''	De Soto, Radiation Man #1	Episode: "Dead Woman Walking"
2003		Det. Mark Winston
2003	''Control Factor''	Lance Bishop	TV movie
2003	''Monster Makers''	Jay Forrest	TV movie
2004	''Stargate SG-1''	Colonel Dave Dixon	Episodes: "
2004		Cmdr. Michael Rainer	Episode: "The Weak Link"
2004		[[Marcus Hamilton">Heroes (Stargate SG-1)
2004		Cmdr. Michael Rainer	Episode: "Good Intentions"
2004		Cmdr. Michael Rainer	Episode: "The Weak Link"
2004		[[Marcus Hamilton	5 episodes
2004	''''	Dr. Viades
2004	''Evil Eyes''	Jeff Stenn
2005	''Molly & Roni's Dance Party''	School Principal	Video
2005		Various	3 episodes
2005	''''	Special Agent Danny Love	13 episodes
2005		Jayne Cobb
2005	''''	Mike Rogo	TV movie
2006			TV series
2006		Special Agent Jamie Kenton	Episode: "Two Bodies in the Lab"
2006	''Invader ZIM''	Various	Episode: "The Frycook What Came from All That Space"
2006	''''	Lenny
2006–2007	''Day Break''	Chad Shelten	13 episodes
2007	''Sands of Oblivion''	Jesse Carter	TV movie
2007	''Superman: Doomsday''		Video
2007–present			78+ episodes
2008	''Drillbit Taylor''	Disgruntled Bodyguard	Cameo
2008	''CSI: NY''	DHS Agent Brett Dunbar	Episode: "Hostage"
2009	''Little Fish, Strange Pond''	Tommy
2010	''''	Mr. Clements	Post-production
2010	''War of the Worlds: Goliath''	Wilson	TBR 2010-11
2011	''Transformers: Prime

Video games

! Year	! Title	Role	Notes
2003	''Kill.switch''	Archer
2007	''Halo 3''	Marines
2007	''Half-Life 2: Episode Two''	Citizens
2009	''Halo 3: ODST''	Dutch
2010	''Mass Effect 2''	Kal'Reegar
2012	''Mass Effect 3''	Kal'Reegar
2011	''DC Universe Online''	Superman
2012		Breakdown

References

External links

Adam Baldwin at Big Hollywood.com

Category:American film actors Category:American people of English descent Category:American television actors Category:Actors from Chicago, Illinois Category:Illinois Democrats Category:New Trier High School alumni Category:1962 births Category:Living people

cs:Adam Baldwin de:Adam Baldwin es:Adam Baldwin fr:Adam Baldwin id:Adam Baldwin is:Adam Baldwin it:Adam Baldwin hu:Adam Baldwin he:אדם בולדווין nl:Adam Baldwin ja:アダム・ボールドウィン no:Adam Baldwin pl:Adam Baldwin pt:Adam Baldwin ru:Болдуин, Адам fi:Adam Baldwin sv:Adam Baldwin tr:Adam Baldwin vi:Adam Baldwin

name	Police officer
official names
activity sector	Law enforcement
competencies	Physical fitness, sense of justice
formation	Secondary or tertiary education
employment field	Public areas
related occupation	gendarmerie, military police, security guard, bodyguard
average salary	$55,000–$100,000 }}

A police officer (also known as a policeman or policewoman, and constable in some forces, particularly in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth nations) is a warranted employee of a police force. In the United States "officer" is the formal name of the lowest police rank; in many other countries "officer" is a generic term not specifying a particular rank, and the lowest rank is often "constable". Police officers are generally charged with the apprehension of criminals and the prevention and detection of crime, and the maintenance of public order. Police officers may be sworn to an oath, and have the power to arrest people and detain them for a limited time, along with other duties and powers.

Some police officers may also be trained in special duties, such as counter-terrorism, surveillance, child protection, VIP protection, and investigation techniques into major crime, including fraud, rape, murder and drug trafficking.

Duties and functions

Responsibilities of a police officer are varied, and may differ greatly from within one political context to another. Typical duties relate to keeping the peace, law enforcement, protection of persons and property, and the investigation of crimes. Officers are expected to respond to a variety of situations that may arise while they are on duty. Rules and guidelines dictate how an officer should behave within the community, and in many contexts restrictions are placed on what the uniformed officer wears. In some countries, rules and procedures dictate that a police officer is obliged to intervene in a criminal incident, even if they are off-duty. Police officers in nearly all countries retain their lawful powers, while off duty.

In the community

In the majority of Western legal systems, the major role of the police is to maintain order, keeping the peace through surveillance of the public, and the subsequent reporting and apprehension of suspected violators of the law. They also function to discourage crimes through high-visibility policing, and most police forces have an investigative capability. Police have the legal authority to arrest, usually granted by magistrates. Police officers also respond to emergency calls, along with routine community policing.

Police are often used as an emergency service and may provide a public safety function at large gatherings, as well as in emergencies, disasters, search and rescue situations, and Road Traffic Collisions. To provide a prompt response in emergencies, the police often coordinate their operations with fire and emergency medical services. In some countries, individuals serve jointly as police officers as well as firefighters (creating the role of Fire Police) or paramedics. In many countries, there is a common emergency service number that allows the police, firefighters, or medical services to be summoned to an emergency. Some countries, such as the United Kingdom have outlined command procedures, for the use in major emergencies or disorder. The Gold Silver Bronze command structure is a system set up to improve communications between ground based officers and the control room, typically, Bronze Commander would be a senior officer on the ground, coordinating the efforts in the center of the emergency, Silver Commanders would be positioned in an 'Incident Control Room' erected to improve better communications at the scene, and a Gold Commander who would be in the Control Room.

Police are also responsible for reprimanding minor offenders by issuing citations which typically may result in the imposition of fines, particularly for violations of traffic law. Traffic enforcement is often and effectively accomplished by police officers on motorcycles—called ''motor officers,'' these officers refer to the motorcycles they ride on duty as simply ''motors.'' Police are also trained to assist persons in distress, such as motorists whose car has broken down and people experiencing a medical emergency. Police are typically trained in basic ffirst aid such as CPR.

In addition, some park rangers are commissioned as law enforcement officers and carry out a law-enforcement role within national parks and other back-country wilderness and recreational areas, whereas Military police perform law enforcement functions within the military.

Entry and promotion qualifications

In most countries, candidates for the police force must have completed some formal education. Increasing numbers of people are joining the police force who possess tertiary education and in response to this many police forces have developed a "fast-track" scheme whereby those with university degrees spend two to three years as a Constable before receiving promotion to higher ranks, such as Sergeants or Inspectors. (Officers who work within investigative divisions or plainclothes are not necessarily of a higher rank but merely have different duties.) Police officers are also recruited from those with experience in the military or security services. In the United States state laws may codify state-wide qualification standards regarding age, education, criminal record, and training but in other places requirements are set by local police agencies. Each local Police agency has different requirements.

Promotion is not automatic and usually requires the candidate to pass some kind of examination, interview board or other selection procedure. Although promotion normally includes an increase in salary, it also brings with it an increase in responsibility and for most, an increase in administrative paperwork. There is no stigma attached to this, as experienced line patrol officers are highly regarded.

Dependent upon each agency, but generally after completing two years of service, officers may also apply for specialist positions, such as detective, police dog handler, mounted police officer, motorcycle officer, water police officer, or firearms officer (in countries where police are not routinely armed).

In some countries such as in Singapore, police ranks may also be supplemented through conscription, similar to national service in the military. Qualifications may thus be relaxed or enhanced depending on the target mix of conscripts. In Singapore, for example, conscripts face tougher physical requirements in areas such as eyesight, but are less stringent with minimum academic qualification requirements. Some police officers join as volunteers, who again may do so via differing qualification requirements.

Police pay

In some societies, police officers are paid relatively well compared to other occupations; their pay depends on what rank they are with in their police force and how many years service they have.

Occupational hazards

Line of duty deaths

Line of duty deaths are deaths which occur while an officer is conducting his or her appointed duties. Despite the increased risk of being a victim of a homicide, automobile accidents are the most common cause of officer deaths. Officers are more likely to be involved in traffic accidents because of their large amount of time spent conducting vehicle patrols, or directing traffic, as well as their work outside their vehicles alongside or on the roadway, or in dangerous pursuits. Officers killed by suspects make up a smaller proportion of deaths. In the U.S. in 2005, 156 line of duty deaths were recorded of which 44% were from assaults on officers, 35% vehicle related (only 3% during vehicular pursuits) and the rest from other causes: heart attacks during arrests/foot pursuits, diseases contracted from suspects' body fluids or, more rarely, emergency blood transfusions, accidental gun discharges, falls, and drownings.

Police officers who die in the line of duty, especially those who die from the actions of suspects, are often given elaborate funerals, attended by large numbers of fellow officers. Their families may also be entitled to special pensions. Fallen officers are often remembered in public memorials, such as the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial in the U.S., the National Police Memorial in the U.K. and the Scottish Police Memorial, at the Scottish Police College.

In the United Kingdom, in the 10 years from April 2000 there were 143 line of duty deaths: 54 in road accidents travelling to or from duty, 46 in road accidents on duty, 23 from natural causes on duty, 15 from criminal acts, and 5 in other accidents. (In the United Kingdom, police do not normally carry firearms.)

The Singapore Police Force registered just over 100 deaths in a century up to the year 2000. There have been 28 New Zealand police officers killed by criminal act since 1890. Despite perceived dangers, policing has never been listed among the top ten most dangerous jobs in the U.S. In terms of deaths per capita, driver-sales work such as food delivery is a more dangerous profession than being a police officer, although some people say police work is more dangerous in some larger U.S. cities than in foreign military deployment ( e.g. during the Vietnam War, "early out" programs in certain cities were offered to recruits as alternatives to Vietnam deployment, but many soldiers chose Vietnam, figuring their chances of survival would be better).

Work stress

Indicators

The actual presence of stress in police work is well documented and evidenced by certain statistics. Researchers typically use suicide, divorce and alcoholism rates as three key indexes of stress in a group of people. These factors paint a compelling picture of police officers demonstrating signs of significant stress, for example:

A study in the United States, by National Surveillance of Police Suicide Study (NSOPS), showed 141 suicides in 2008 and 143 in 2009. This yields a suicide rate of 17/100,000, a figure that holds up under scrutiny and is consistent with CDC/NOMS data. The overall suicide rate in the United States was 11.3 suicide deaths per 100,000 people. There is some speculation or controversy that this official rate may understate the actual rate as it is often other police officers that report facts that lead to a cause of death determination, and death benefits, institutional image, and other factors may be incentives to misreport incident facts. It is speculated that some suicides are reported by fellow officers as accidents or as deaths in the line of duty perpetrated by unknown assailants. Also, many jurisdictions simply don't keep suicide statistics. Even though the information is incomplete, the raw numbers are highly compelling that police officers are much more likely to commit suicide than other occupations. However there is still controversy in the interpretation of these statistics. When comparisons are made within age, gender, and racial cohorts, the differences are much less dramatic. Although suicides may be notably more prevalent among police, it is not clear whether police suicides are the result of work stress or the consequence of other variables, such as the influence of a subculture of violence Police officers are much more likely to experience interpersonal relationship problems. Relationship problems are most dramatically demonstrated by the divorce rate among police officers, which is usually reported as being the second highest of all occupations. However in a 2009 study, the divorce rates of law enforcement personnel were compared with the rates for other occupations, where data was analyzed from the 2000 U.S. Census. The results of the analysis indicate that the divorce rate for law enforcement personnel is lower than that of the general population, even after controlling for demographic and other job-related variables. The propensity to domestic violence is also thought to be higher for police officers than the general population, though the statistics are very fuzzy and controversial. Police officers also seem to have relationship problems at work, typically with superiors or with political oversight, though the evidence is largely anecdotal and controversial.

Alcoholism is considered another aberrant statistic for police officers. Although the statistics are fuzzy, clinically treated alcohol addiction rates are usually calculated to be about twice as high for police officers than for the general population in the United States. In contrast, statistics documenting alcohol abuse are less precise. Rates for arrest for driving under the influence of alcohol, or DUI or DWI, are somewhat higher for police officers than for other drivers, but the statistics are not widely trusted outside of the insurance industry since it is other police officers that make DUI arrests. Some departments and even some individual officers tend to hold police officers to a higher behavioral and ethical standard while others will recognize a 'blue line' behind which those within the 'brotherhood' are not held to the same standards as the rest of society. Despite the controversies in the interpretation of the statistics, it is generally considered evident that police officers are more susceptible to alcohol abuse than other occupations. The same conclusions are usually made regarding the police abuse of other substances, though the statistics are even less accurate, and even though the higher rates of substance abuse may be due in part to the more ready access to drugs and the more permissive atmosphere 'behind the blue line' rather than to occupational stresses.

Hans Selye, the foremost researcher in stress in the world, said that police work is "the most stressful occupation in America even surpassing the formidable stresses of air traffic control."

Other researchers, though, claim that police officers are more psychologically healthy than the general population. Police officers are increasingly more educated, more likely to engage in a regular program of exercise and to consume less alcohol and tobacco, and increasingly family-oriented. Healthy behavior patterns typically observed at entry training usually continue throughout the career of an officer. Even though the presence of occupation related stress seems to be well documented, it is highly controversial. Many within the law enforcement industry claim the propagation of incorrect suicide, divorce, and substance abuse statistics comes from people or organizations with political or social agendas, and that the presence of these beliefs within the industry makes it hard for health workers to help police officers in need of treatment to deal with the fear of negative consequences from police work which is necessary to enable police officers to develop a healthy expectancy of success in treatment.

Sources

Even though the presence of occupational stresses appear to be well documented, though not without controversy, the causes of workplace stress are comparatively unclear or even a matter of conjecture.

Although individual policemen and institutional public relations typically cite the risks of being killed in the line of duty as the predominant source of stress for individual policemen, there is significant controversy regarding the causes of personal workplace stress due to the fact that the actual risk of being killed is so small relative to other occupations.

It is charged that the myth of the high risks of occupational mortality connected with police work is often propagated by the law enforcement community as part of its institutional advancement and a central element in its public relations. Actual homicides of police are comparatively rare, but the reports of such incidents are typically reported in the press along with quotes by police officials or police officer family members stressing the notion that police officers 'put their lives on the line for the public' or 'risk their lives everyday', making it look like individual policemen routinely place themselves in mortal danger for low pay and little recognition, and that the view of police work as 'combat' is the source of police occupational stress indications.

Another explanation often advanced is the idea that police officers will undergo some traumatic experience in their police work that they never recover from, leading to suicide, divorce, etc. However, since the effects of such traumatic stresses is readily recognized, there are usually proactive programs in place to help individual police officers deal with the psychological effects of a traumatic event. Unfortunately, there is some evidence that such programs are actually ineffective, especially group therapies, may re-traumatize the participant, weaken coping mechanisms, and contribute to the development of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Observations where police officers and other emergency workers, such as firemen, experience the same traumatic event, it is more likely that the police officer will have difficulty dealing with the long term emotional effects of the traumatic event. On this observation, some of the academic literature suggests that along these lines the causes of occupational stress is more complex for police officers. Stress in police work is often present in other occupations, but not in an ongoing capacity. One line of thinking is that the individual stresses of police work produce a condition of chronic stress. Police officers encounter stressors in call after call which sap their emotional strength. Debilitation from this daily stress accumulates making officers more vulnerable to traumatic incidents and normal pressures of life. The weakening process is often too slow to see; neither a person nor his friends are aware of the damage being done. The effects of chronic stresses is two-fold:

First, prolonged stress causes people to regress. Their psychological growth reverses, and they become more immature. They rapidly become more childish and primitive, much like a person being sick for several days becoming more irritable and childish in its demands on other people.

Second, chronic stress numbs people's sensitivity. They can't stand to continually see human misery. They must stop feeling or they won't survive. The mind has this defense mechanism so people can continue working in horrible situations. If they kept their normal sensitivity, they would fall apart. As they become insensitive to their own suffering, they become insensitive to the suffering of others. When treated with indignity, they lose not only a sense of their own dignity but also the dignity of others. The pain of others stops bothering them, and they are no longer bothered when they hurt others.

The daily work of a police officer involves certain paradoxes and conflicts which may be difficult to deal with, the predominant examples are

Any interaction with a member of the public, whether socially or officially, such as in a traffic stop, involves a non-trivial risk of verbal abuse or physical harm. Treating a person with common respect or normal social graces requires the officer to be off guard and unprepared for an attack. Being on guard for an attack and treating every interpersonal situation with safety procedures and affirmative commands makes the police officer appear cynical, brutal, and detached, and limits his actual effectiveness with the public. Considering someone a friend or an enemy produces opposite mental states, an unnatural no-win situation engendering chronic stress.

A police department is both a professional and military organization, and these two aspects oppose each other. As a professional, he is considered to be an expert in his field and is expected to use his expertise for the good of his public. He has much discretion in how he serves the people who call upon him. However, the dangers and complexities of the work require a military structure of the organization and a military leaning in the training. Although some are actually educated, all police officers are well trained. Policies, regulations, and procedures cover every facet of police work. Everything is expected to be done by the book with substantial repercussions, including civil and criminal liability, for varying from the expectations of operating procedures. Often the facts of a situation require a course of action that does not follow procedures. If he follows procedures exactly, he knows he won't fully help the public, and the public will think he is shirking his responsibility. If the officer follows his own judgment, he is taking a risk. The community and department expect officers to use judgment, but when they do, there is a danger they will be disciplined; another unnatural no-win situation engendering chronic stress.

Police officers tend to become socially isolated. The reasons given for this isolation are varied and mostly anecdotal. One theory is that police work is not balanced. Most occupations involve a combination of good and bad results. In police work, almost everything is bad, and everybody you deal with is perceived either inherently bad or at least foolish. Another is that police officers develop a 'street wisdom' and by fiat possess a degree of authority that tends to make them perceive themselves as being morally superior to the rest of society. Whatever the reason, the public that the police deal with clearly perceive it and tend to reinforce the divide. Classically when a group of people are isolated, they become disoriented and confused. Their behavior changes drastically. Ironically an isolated class are usually the ones who are losing real world wisdom and tend to judge the world incorrectly from a very limited perspective, leading to interpersonal mistakes and more chronic stress.

A more colloquial view looks at specific sources of stress in police work. The sources of stress most often actually cited are:

The fear of killing someone in the line of duty.

Having your partner or somebody else that you feel at least partly responsible for killed in the line of duty.

Lack of support by the department or superiors.

The scheduling of work and irregular work demands resulting in a disruption of family time or family events or rituals.

The daily grind of dealing with the stupidity of the public, or the "asshole factor".

Other more academic studies have produced similar lists, but may include items that the more colloquial surveys do not reveal, such as 'exposure to neglected, battered, or dead children'

Again, the actual fear of occupational death or physical harm is not high on the list of stress sources.

There have been numerous academic studies on the specific sources of police stress, and most conclude organizational culture and workload as the key issues in officer stress. Traumatic events are usually concluded to not be of sufficient scope or prevalence to account for prevalence of suicide, divorce, and substance abuse abnormalities.

Personality theories

Some of the more esoteric, least documented or cited, and more longstanding theories for police stress symptoms involves the interaction of the specifics of police work with the personalities of individual police officers. There has been a raging debate on the fringes of psychiatry as to whether there is something about police work that causes psychiatric symptomology and personality disorders or whether there are certain personalities susceptible to disorders that are attracted to police work. There are four general possibilities:

There is something about police work, the social structure, the work atmosphere, etc., which causes stresses or presents traumas that cause personality or psychiatric disorders resulting in symptoms such as suicide, divorce, violence, substance abuse, etc. (the foundations of this possibility are outlined above)

There is one or more personality types or people with certain tendencies or proclivities who are susceptible of developing personality or psychiatric disorders, regardless of their occupation, who because of their personality or preferences are attracted to police work, and then display symptoms of stress or disorders.

There is a combination of the two.

Or there is a combination and synergistic interaction of the two.

There are personality traits that have been used to determine police applicant desirability, specifically:

openness

conscientiousness

extroversion

agreeableness

neuroticism

Personality traits considered undesirable include:

hostility

lack of impulse control

substance abuse

psychosis

paranoia

There are other personality traits that are specifically not desired for police work that are equally well documented. However, there has been relatively little academic work cited regarding the personality traits attracted to police work. The nature of personality traits of people attracted to police work tends to be a matter of conjecture and anecdotal observations. The personalities of people who are actually in police work tends to be different from that which is purported to be desired by police departments. Police officers tend to be isolated and suspicious, view expression of emotions as a weakness, and find it hard to trust and confide in others. For example, police officers are often viewed by the public to be domineering, narcissistic, authoritarian, physically oppressive, and basically the opposite of the personality traits most often cited as being desirable in a police officer. There are studies that suggest that people who take risks are attracted to police work. There is a corresponding theory that police officers actually tend to be people seeking security and stability and are attracted to the job for the steady government paycheck and government pension and adverse to the risks of business, sales, or other occupations. There is ample evidence that there is something in police work that alters personality.

The theory that there is an interaction between the personality attracted to the work and the work itself is mostly conjecture. For example, people attracted to police work are thought to crave the respect and authority that they expect with a badge, gun, uniform, and commission, but most of the people that police officers come in contact with do not respect them, and their authority is strongly regulated and limited by law, policies, and procedures, setting up a conflict resulting in chronic stress.

Abuse of power

As police officers have considerable powers and are often supported by authorities who oversee them if accused of wrongdoing, abuses are inevitable on occasion.

Systematic cases

In dictatorial, corrupt, or weak states, police officers may carry out many criminal acts for the ruling regime with impunity. Examples are the Gestapo secret police in Nazi Germany, and the role of the police in the military dictatorship in Argentina in the 1970s. Institutional racism has been found in modern police forces.

Individual cases

Individual officers, or sometimes whole units, can be corrupt or carry out various other forms of misconduct; this occasionally happens in many forces, but is particularly problematic where police pay is very low unless supplemented by bribes. Police sometimes act with unwarranted brutality when they overreact to confrontational situations, to extract a confession from a person they may or may not genuinely suspect of being guilty, or in other circumstances. Instances of racism occur, even when the police force as a whole is not found to be racist.

See also

Cops (TV series)

Fictional police officers

Field Training Officer

List of slang terms for police officers

Military police

Peace officer

Police brutality

Police rank

Police procedural

President Grover Cleveland—former Sheriff of Erie County, New York

President Theodore Roosevelt—Deputy Sheriff in the Dakota Territory, and New York City Police Commissioner

References

External links

http://www.discoverpolicing.org

Metropolitan Police history

http://www.newscotlandyard.police.uk/foi/pdfs/other_information/corporate/operational_uniform_and_equipment.pdf

http://www.west-midlands.police.uk/publications/freedom-of-information/policy.asp?id=144

http://www.gmp.police.uk/mainsite/pages/pcsouniform.htm,ts=2

http://www.policelink.com

Category:Law enforcement occupations Category:People in law enforcement Officer

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