A vassal or feudatory is a person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain privileges, usually including the grant of land held as a fiefdom. The term can be applied to similar arrangements in other feudal societies. In contrast, a fidelity, or ''fidelitas'', was a sworn loyalty, subject to the king.

Western vassalage

In a fully developed vassalage, the lord and the vassal would undertake a commendation ceremony composed of two parts, the homage and the fealty, including the use of Christian sacraments to show its importance. According to Eginhard's brief description, the ''commendatio'' made to Pippin the Younger in 757 by Tassillo, Duke of Bavaria, involved the relics of Saints Denis, Rusticus, and Éleuthère, Saint Martin, and Saint Germain, which had apparently been assembled at Compiègne for the event. Such refinements were not included from the outset, however.

Feudal society was increasingly based on the concept of "lordship" (French ''seigneur''), which was one of the distinguishing features of the Early Middle Ages and had evolved out of Late Antiquity.

In Charlemagne's time, the connection slowly developed between vassalage and the grant of land, the main form of capital at that time. Contemporaneous social developments included agricultural "manorialism" and the social and legal structures labelled "feudalism"—but only since the 18th century. These developments proceeded at different rates in various regions. In Merovingian times, only the greatest and most trusted vassals would be rewarded with lands. Even at the most extreme devolution of any remnants of central power, in 10th century France, the majority of vassals still had no fixed estates.

The stratification of a fighting band of vassals into distinct groups might roughly be correlated with the new term "fief" that was superseding "benefice" in the 9th century. An "upper" group was composed of great territorial magnates, which were strong enough to ensure the inheritance of their benefice to the heirs of their family. The "lower" group consisted of landless knights attached to a count or duke. This social settling process also received impetus in fundamental changes in the conducting of warfare. As disorganised infantry were superseded by cavalry, armies became more expensive to maintain. A vassal needed economic resources to equip the cavalry he was bound to contribute to his lord to fight his frequent wars. Such resources, in the absence of a money economy, were only to be found in land and its associated assets, which included peasants, as well as wood and water.

Difference between "vassal" and "vassal state"

Many empires have created vassal states out of cities, kingdoms, and tribes that they wish to bring under their auspices without having to conquer or govern them. In these cases, vassalage (or suzerainty) just means forfeiting foreign policy independence in exchange for full autonomy and perhaps a formal tribute. A lesser state that might be called a "junior ally" would be called a "vassal" as a reference to a domestic "fiefholder" or "trustee", simply to apply a common domestic norm to diplomatic culture. This allows different cultures to understand formal hegemonic relationships in personal terms, even among states using non-personal forms of rule. Imperial states that have used this terminology include Ancient Rome, the Mongol Empire, and the British Empire.

See also

Vassal state

Feudalism

Freeborn

Mandala (Southeast Asian history)

Suzerainty

Thegn

Vavasour, a type of vassal

Zamindar

Compare

Manrent, Scottish Clan treaties of offensive and defensive alliance

Gokenin, vassals of the shogunate in Japan

''nöken'' (plural: ''nöker'') was the Mongol term for a tribal leader acknowledging another as his liege

Notes

References

Cantor, Norman, ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages'' 1993

Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in ''A History of Private Life'' vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987 ISBN 0-674-39974-9

Category:Feudalism

af:Vasal als:Vasall ar:مقطع (إقطاعية) bs:Vazal ca:Vassall cs:Vazal da:Vasal de:Vasall es:Vasallo eo:Vasalo eu:Basailu fr:Vassalité hr:Vazal id:Vasal io:Vasalo it:Vassallo he:וסאל nl:Vazal no:Vasall oc:Vassal pl:Wasal pt:Vassalagem ru:Вассалитет sl:Vazal sr:Вазал sh:Vazal sv:Vasall uk:Васал

Character name	The Russian
Converted	y
Alter ego	Ivan Vassilovitch Dragovsky
Publisher	Marvel Comics
Debut	''The Punisher'' vol. 4, #8 (November 2000)
Creators	Garth EnnisSteve Dillon
Alliances	The Gnucci family
Aliases	Ma Gnucci
Powers	Superhuman level endurance, reflexes, and strength
Cat	super
Subcat	Marvel Comics
Villain	y
Sortkey	Russian (Comics) }}

The Russian is a Marvel Comics supervillain created by Garth Ennis and Steve Dillon to become an assassin during the Punisher's relaunch in November 2000.

Fictional character biography

The man known as the Russian was hired by the crime boss Ma Gnucci to eliminate the Punisher. He located him while the Punisher was moving out of his latest safe house, still recovering from severe wounds suffered in a previous battle with the Gnucci army. Almost unarmed and weak, Frank Castle is beaten severely by the Russian, who took the chance to enlighten Frank about his views on capitalism and American comic heroes and enjoyed the exercise immensely. During the course of the fight, though, the Punisher learns that the hired killer has a serious aversion towards hot things. When the fight ends up in the apartment of Frank's obese friend, Mr. Bumpo, the Russian is stunned when Frank hits him with Bumpo's fresh pizza. Frank then has Bumpo lay on the Russian's head for many minutes. The Russian's severed head is later used as an intimidation tactic against the remnants of Ma Gnucci's army.

Revival

Several months after his death at the hands of the vigilante, a secret paramilitary organization retrieves his body parts. Using technology stolen from S.H.I.E.L.D., they "reattached" his head onto his body, and augmented him with super-hard alloy coating to his skeleton. The Russian receives many other internal augmentations, rendering him resistant to injury. A side effect of this surgery is that he is required to regularly take large quantities of female hormones, preventing the rejection of his implants, causing him to develop large breasts. The Russian becomes quite enamoured with these, even wearing a dress in his next encounter with Castle.

He enthusiastically agrees to serve the organization's head, General Kreigkopf, only to be allowed to take a one-off attempt at revenge on the Punisher. His efforts lead to throwing Frank Castle off the Empire State Building, but the vigilante is rescued by Spider-Man, who becomes deeply involved in the fight. Spider-Man refers to this version of the Russian as "Giant-Sized Ma'am Thing", a pun on ''Giant-Size Man-Thing'', an infamous comic. Frank, using Spider-Man as a human shield, fills the Russian's mouth with webs and pushes him off the building. The Russian smashes through the pavement, is hit by a subway train, and manages to escape in the confusion. Though heavily damaged, he is eventually repaired. Though willing to follow the General via his old bargain, he cannot wait to clash once again with his adversary.

Grand Nixon Island

Later, the Russian is given his opportunity when the Punisher, having learned who was behind the Russian's resurrection, travels to the mercenary and criminal populated Grand Nixon Island to take out its leader, General Kreigkopf. The deranged general is about to crash a Boeing 747 brimming with commandos into a European Union council to prove, once and for all, that he was not a man to be trifled with. The Russian is on board, too, and when the Punisher blasts the plane before it could even take off, it crashes into a fuel depot. The Russian emerges, the only survivor.

Kreigkopf gives the Russian the order to take over a French atomic bomb test plane that had stopped on Grand Nixon island for refueling. The General wanted to take the bomb and drop it on the European Union in lieu of the 747. Frank, on the plane as well, briefly fights the Russian, then literally hooks the bomb into the Russian's face and sends both out the cargo door to the island below. Amused by the Punisher's boldness, the Russian literally laughed all the way to the ground. The entirety of Grand Nixon Island is destroyed in the atomic blast; presumably the Russian is killed as well, but his survival rate to date suggests a return from even such a cataclysm may not be unimaginable.

Powers and abilities

The Russian is a gigantic man (officially, he is tall and weighs 500 pounds) with tremendous strength and endurance. It is possible that the Russian himself does not know the exact limits of his abilities. He was seen crushing a man to death when attempting to give him a "friendly" hug. During his first appearance, the Russian was able to rip a toilet out off the wall and beat the Punisher with it. He was also seen punching through walls with apparently no loss of stamina, and due to his incredibly strong body, he is nearly impervious to bullets.

Obsession with American culture

In his initial comic appearances, the Russian was shown to have a minor obsession with American pop culture. His first thoughts upon being offered $10 million to kill the Punisher was a realization of how many pairs of Levi's and Compact Discs he could buy with that amount. The Russian is also a self-confessed superhero fan. He is the president of "The Daredevil, Man Without Fear, Fan Club" of Smolensk. He also wished to gain autographs from the X-Men, the Fantastic Four, and Spider-Man before his death at Frank Castle's hands. He also believes Thor would make a good communist because of his big hammer.

Other versions

Marvel Noir

In ''Punisher Noir'', the Russian is a Russian soldier turned independent mercenary during World War I, who is sent to murder Frank Castelione while on a train headed for England after the end of the war. A fight ensues and moves to the top of the train, where Frank shoves a grenade into the crotch of his pants and pushes him away. Years later, the Russian has taken to wearing women's clothing and, along with Barracuda and Jigsaw, murder Castelione at Dutch Schutlz's orders.

In other media

Film

The Russian appeared in 2004's ''The Punisher'', portrayed by professional wrestler Kevin Nash and had no dialogue other than growls and snarls. He is dressed in a Spetznaz-type costume that he wears during his first comic book appearance. He is hired by Howard Saint to kill the Punisher. Forcing his way into the Punisher's apartment, the two engaged in a brutal fight which mirrors their first encounter in the comics. Despite sustaining a superficial knife wound to his shoulder, the Russian manages to give the Punisher a severe beating that includes returning the shoulder wound, tossing him through several layers of drywall, and hitting him with a toilet he ripped out of the foundation. In addition like the comics, the fight takes a turn for the better when the Punisher throws a pot of boiling water in his face which causes severe burns. This gives the Punisher the opportunity to knock the Russian down the apartment stairs. The Russian dies of a broken neck.

Video games

The Russian also appears in the 2005 ''Punisher'' video game, which is a game based on the comic books. In the game, he has speaking lines (referring to the Punisher as "Big boy"). He references other Marvel heroes, with phrases such as "Russian Smash!", a classic tagline of the Hulk; "It's clobbering time!", the favorite saying of the Thing of the Fantastic Four; and "Big superhero in Russia!" In the game, he is similar to his comics counterpart, working for Kreigkopf. He manages to knock out Nick Fury, and he serves as a stage boss twice in the game before being defeated for good.

References

Category:Fictional assassins Category:Fictional cyborgs Category:Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength Category:Comics characters introduced in 2000 Category:Film characters Category:Characters created by Garth Ennis

es:El Ruso (Marvel Comics) fr:Le Russe (comics) it:Russo (fumetto) fi:Ryssä (sarjakuvahahmo)

name	Jane Krakowski
birth date	October 11, 1968
birth place	Parsippany, New Jersey, U.S.
birth name	Jane Krajkowski
occupation	Actress/Singer
years active	1983–present }}

Jane Krakowski (; born October 11, 1968) is a American actress and singer. She is best known for her performance as Elaine Vassal on ''Ally McBeal'', for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award, and for her current role as Jenna Maroney on the NBC sitcom ''30 Rock'', for which she has received three Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. She also regularly performs on the stage and won a Tony Award for her performance in the Broadway revival of ''Nine'' and an Olivier Award for her role as Miss Adelaide in the West End revival of ''Guys and Dolls''.

Early life

Krakowski was born Jane Krajkowski in Parsippany, New Jersey. Her mother, Barbara (née Benoit), is a college theater instructor and producing artistic director for the Women's Theater Company, and her father, Ed Krajkowski, is a chemical engineer. She has an older brother. Krakowski's father's family is entirely Polish and comes from Kraków, and although she only knows a few words in Polish, her father and grandparents are fluent. Krakowski was a childhood classmate of astronaut Garrett Reisman.

Krakowski grew up immersed in the local theater scene as a result of her parents' activities, saying in one interview, "Instead of hiring baby sitters, they brought me along with them." She took ballet lessons from age four, but later stopped because she was the wrong body shape, instead moving more towards Broadway dancing. She attended the Professional Children's School in New York City.

She dropped the "j" from the family last name when she began working as an actress.

Television

In her first major television role, Krakowski joined the soap opera ''Search for Tomorrow'' in 1984, playing the role of Theresa Rebecca (T.R.) Kendall, a role she played until the show ended in 1986. She was nominated for two consecutive Daytime Emmy Awards for the role in 1986 and 1987.

In 1996, she made an appearance on the television series ''Early Edition'' as Dr. Handleman (season 1, episode 3 "Baby").

In 1997, she played office assistant Elaine Vassal on the television series ''Ally McBeal'' for five seasons until 2002; her role earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress in 1999. In 2003, Krakowski guest-starred in the TV drama ''Everwood'' as psychologist Dr Gretchen Trott, a love interest for Treat Williams' Dr Andrew Brown. In 2003, she guest starred on ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' as Emma Spevak, a serial killer of elderly women. In 2006, Krakowski was cast in the NBC sitcom ''30 Rock'', where she plays Jenna Maroney, a cast member of the fictional late night sketch show ''TGS with Tracy Jordan''. In 2009, 2010 and 2011, she received Emmy nominations in the Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series category for her role in ''30 Rock''.

Film

Krakowski made her film debut in ''National Lampoon's Vacation''; she has also appeared in ''Fatal Attraction'', ''The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas'' (where she played Betty Rubble), ''Marci X'', ''Alfie'', ''Go'', ''Cirque du Freak: The Vampire's Assistant'', ''Dance with Me'', ''Stepping Out'', ''Pretty Persuasion'', ''Kit Kittredge: An American Girl'', and ''Mom at Sixteen''. Krakowski was originally cast in the horror film ''Sleepaway Camp'', but dropped out just before filming began because she felt her character's death scene with a curling iron was so violent. She appeared in ''When Zachary Beaver Came to Town'' as a mother who wants to become a singer. In 2004, she starred in Alan Menken's TV movie version of ''A Christmas Carol'', featured as ''The Ghost of Christmas Past''.

Stage

A trained singer, Krakowski has made numerous appearances on stage. At age 18 she originated the role of Dinah the Dining Car in the 1987 Broadway production of ''Starlight Express''. She appeared in the 1989 Broadway musical ''Grand Hotel'' as the typist and would-be-film-star Flaemmchen, for which she was nominated for a Tony Award. Her solo number "I Want to go to Hollywood" is included on the original cast recording. At the 2000 American Comedy Awards, Krakowski won rave reviews when she performed a sexually-charged musical tribute and love letter to Microsoft chairman, Bill Gates.

In 1995, she played the ditzy flight attendant April in The Roundabout Theatre Company's revival of ''Company''. In 1996, she starred alongside Sarah Jessica Parker in the Broadway revival of ''Once Upon a Mattress''.

In January 2002, Windham Hill Records released a Jim Brickman album titled ''Love Songs & Lullabies'' featuring Krakowski as a vocalist for the song "You", which became a hit on adult contemporary radio stations. Brickman and Krakowski also recorded an alternate Christmas version of the song. She also appeared on the album ''Broadway Cares: Home For The Holidays'', singing the song "Santa Baby".

In 2003, she starred in the Broadway revival of ''Nine'' playing Carla, for which she won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. Krakowski is known for her famous anti-gravity stunt during the number "A Call From The Vatican". Krakowski and the director struggled finding a company that would let her do air stunts without a harness; Krakowski came up with the idea of using the method previously portrayed in ''Broadway Bares''. Krakowski recalled that the material took a long time to arrive, and the second time she ever did it was on the first performance.

In 2005, she starred as Miss Adelaide in Michael Grandage's West End revival of ''Guys and Dolls'' at London's Piccadilly Theatre. She starred opposite Jenna Russell, Ewan MacGregor and Douglas Hodge. Krakowski received the 2006 Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her performance.

In 2005, she performed a cabaret show called ''Better When It's Banned'', which featured various songs deemed racy from the 1920s and '30s.

Krakowski performed in a January 2007 workshop production and backers' audition for a Broadway musical adaption of the 1980 film, ''Xanadu'', with music from the film's soundtrack and a book by Douglas Carter Beane. ''Xanadu'' premiered on Broadway summer 2007, although Krakowski's role is played by Kerry Butler.

In 2008, Krakowski starred as Lola in New York City Center's production of ''Damn Yankees'' opposite Sean Hayes and Cheyenne Jackson.

On July 30 and 31 of 2009, Krakowski played the title character in a reading of ''Mrs. Sharp'', with music and lyrics by Ryan Scott Oliver and book by Kirsten A. Guenther, at Playwrights Horizons.

Other works

Krakowski played "Wanda" in the video for the Dixie Chicks' song "Goodbye Earl" in 2000, alongside Dennis Franz and Lauren Holly Guest starred in an episode of ''Due South'' opposite Paul Gross.

Personal life

In 2007, it was reported that Krakowski was in a relationship with English documentarian Marc Singer, whom she met at a screening for ''Children of Men'' in 2006. Before that, she dated Julian Ovenden.

She married Robert Godley in 2010. On April 13, 2011, their son, Bennett Robert Godley, was born.

Recordings

Krakowski released her debut solo album on July 15, 2010 — an album of cover versions called ''Laziest Gal in Town'' — on DRG Records.

Selected recordings include:

1992: ''Grand Hotel'', Studio Cast Recording (Mostly Original Broadway Cast)

1995: ''Company'', Broadway Revival Cast Recording

1997: ''Once Upon a Mattress'', Broadway Revival Cast Recording

1997: ''Sondheim at the Movies'' (singing the Academy Award-winning song "Sooner or Later" from ''Dick Tracy'')

1998: ''The Burt Bacharach Album''

2002: ''A Broadway Valentine''

2003: ''Nine'', Broadway Revival Cast Recording

2004: ''A Christmas Carol'', Television Cast Recording

2010: ''The Laziest Gal in Town'', solo album

Filmography

! Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
1983	''National Lampoon's Vacation''	Cousin Vicki
1987	''Fatal Attraction''	Babysitter
1991		Lynne
1996	''Mrs. Winterbourne''	Christine
1998		Patricia
1999		Irene
2000	''''	Betty O'Shale
2002		Female Sloth	Voice
2003	''Marci X''	Lauren Farb
2003	''When Zachary Beaver Came to Town''	Heather
2004		Dorie
2004	''''	Ghost of Christmas Past
2005	''Pretty Persuasion''	Emily Klein
2005		Donna Cooper
2006			Voice
2007		Sheila Limberfin	Deleted scenes
2008	''''	Rennett
2008	''Kit Kittredge: An American Girl''	Miss May Dooley
2008	''Open Season 2''		Direct-to-videoVoice
2009	''Bygone Days: An Ally McBeal Retrospective''	Elaine
2009	''Cirque du Freak: The Vampire's Assistant''	Corma Limbs

Television work

! Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
2006–Present	''30 Rock''	Jenna Maroney	Series Regular
2006	''Sex, Love, Power and Politics''	Sloan	TV Movie
2003	''Law and Order: Special Victims Unit''	Emma Spevak	Episode: "Bound"
1997–2002	''Ally McBeal''	Elaine	Series Regular

Awards and nominations

+	! Year!! Award !! Title !! Work !! Result
1986	Daytime Emmy Award	Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series
1987	Daytime Emmy Award	Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series
	Drama Desk Award	Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical
Tony Award	Best Featured Actress in a Musical
1998	Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
	Golden Globe Award	Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series, Mini Series or TV Movie
Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
2000	Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
	Satellite Award	Best Actress in a TV Series: Comedy or Musical
Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
	Drama Desk Award	Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical
Outer Critics Circle Award	Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical
Tony Award	Best Featured Actress in a Musical
2006	Laurence Olivier Award	Best Leading Actress in a Musical	''Guys and Dolls''
2008	Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
	Primetime Emmy Award	Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series
Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
	Primetime Emmy Award	Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series
Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
	Primetime Emmy Award	Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series
Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series
Critics Choice TV Award	Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series
2012	Screen Actors Guild Award	Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series

References

External links

Category:1968 births Category:Actors from New Jersey Category:American film actors Category:American musical theatre actors Category:American people of Polish descent Category:American soap opera actors Category:American television actors Category:Drama Desk Award winners Category:Living people Category:Laurence Olivier Award winners Category:Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners Category:People from Morris County, New Jersey Category:Rutgers University alumni Category:Tony Award winners

cy:Jane Krakowski de:Jane Krakowski et:Jane Krakowski es:Jane Krakowski fr:Jane Krakowski hr:Jane Krakowski it:Jane Krakowski he:ג'יין קרקובסקי nl:Jane Krakowski ja:ジェーン・クラコウスキー pl:Jane Krakowski pt:Jane Krakowski ru:Краковски, Джейн simple:Jane Krakowski fi:Jane Krakowski sv:Jane Krakowski vi:Jane Krakowski