Massika, a Sauk Indian, left, and Wakusasse, right, of the Meskwaki. By Karl Bodmer, aquatint made at Saint Louis, Missouri in March or April 1833 when Massika pleaded for the release of Chief Blackhawk following the Black Hawk War.

The Sacs or Sauks are a group of Native Americans of the Eastern Woodlands culture group. Their autonym is (oθaakiiwaki in their own language, and their exonym is Ozaagii(-wag) in Ojibwe. The latter is the source of their names in French and English.

Clan system[link]

Originally, the Sauk had a patrilineal clan system, in which descent was traced through the father. Clans which continue are: Fish, Ocean/Sea, Thunder, Bear, Fox, Potato, Deer, Beaver, Snow, and Wolf. The tribe was governed by a council of sacred clan chiefs, a war chief, the head of families, and the warriors. Chiefs fell into three categories: civil, war, and ceremonial, but only the civil chief was hereditary. The other two chiefs were determined by demonstrating their ability or their spiritual power.

This traditional manner of selecting historic clan chiefs and governance was replaced in the 19th century by United States appointees of the Sac and Fox Agency. In the 20th century, the tribe adopted a constitutional government patterned after the United States form. They elect their chiefs.^{[citation needed]}

History[link]

Sac Indian family photographed by Frank Rinehart in 1899

The Sac are believed to have had their original territory along the St. Lawrence River. They were driven by pressure from other tribes, especially the Iroquois, to migrate to Michigan, where they settled around Saginaw Bay. Due to the yellow-clay soils found around Saginaw Bay, their autonym was Oθaakiiwaki (often interpreted to mean "yellow-earth".) The Ojibwe and Ottawa name for the tribe (exonym) was Ozaagii, meaning "those at the outlet". From the sound of that, the French derived Sac and the English "Sauk". Anishinaabe expansion and the Huron attempt to gain regional stability drove the Sac out of their territory. The Huron were armed with French weapons. The Sac moved south to territory in parts of what are now northern Illinois and Wisconsin.

A closely allied tribe, the Meskwaki (Fox), were noted for their hostility toward the French, having fought two wars against them in the early 18th century. After the second war, Fox refugees took shelter with the Sac, making them subject to French attack. The Sac continued moving west to Iowa and Kansas. Two important leaders arose among the Sac: Keokuk and Black Hawk. At first Keokuk accepted the loss of land as inevitable in the face of the vast numbers of white soldiers and settlers coming west. He tried to preserve tribal land and to keep the peace.

Having failed to receive expected supplies from the Americans on credit, Black Hawk wanted to fight, saying his people were "forced into war by being deceived."^[1] Led by Black Hawk in 1832, the mainly Sac band resisted the continued loss of lands (in western Illinois, this time.) Their warfare with United States forces resulted in defeat at the hands of General Edmund P. Gaines in the Blackhawk War.

About this time, one group of Sac moved into Missouri, and later to Kansas and Nebraska. In 1869 the larger group of Sac moved into reservations in Oklahoma, where they merged with the Meskwaki as the federally recognized Sac and Fox Nation. A smaller number returned to the Midwest from Oklahoma (or did not go) and became the Mesquakie tribe in Iowa (Meswaki Settlement, Iowa).

Today the federally recognized Sac and Fox tribes are:

• Sac and Fox Nation, headquartered in Stroud, Oklahoma;
• Sac and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi in Iowa, headquartered in Tama, Iowa; and
• Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska, headquartered in Reserve, Kansas.^[2]

Language[link]

Sauk (or Sac) is a part of the Algonquin language family, and so is closely related to Fox, Miami-Illinois, Kickapoo, Ojibwa and Ottawa. Although the languages of these groups are considered to be separate (they are not just dialects of each other), they do share some words in common, and they have some similar rules in their respective grammars - perhaps survivals from a Proto-Algonquin language.

•Some linguists, however, argue that Sauk, Fox and Kickapoo are all dialects of the same Algonquin language. Each of the dialects contains “archaisms and innovations” that distinguish them from each other, and Sauk and Fox appear to be the most closely related of the three (Goddard 1978).^[3] Sauk is also considered to be mutually intelligible, to a point, with Mesquakie. In their own language, the Sauk at one time referred to themselves as asakiwaki [a-‘sak-i-wa-ki], “people of the outlet. (Bonvillain 1995)”^[4]

The Sauk people have a syllabic orthography for their language and there exists a Primer Book which was printed in 1977 (based on a “traditional” syllabary which existed in 1906), so that the modern-day Sauk people may learn to write as well as speak their ancestral tongue. A newer orthography was proposed around 1994 to better aid in language revival, since the former syllabary was targeted towards the few remaining native speakers of Sauk; the more recent orthography was presented with native English speakers in mind (Müller 1994).

Sauk has so few speakers that it is considered one of the many endangered languages native to North America.

Phonology[link]

Sauk does not have a lot of phonemes, compared to many other languages: four vowels, two semi-vowels, and eight consonants.

Consonants[link]

(Figure 1: Sauk Consonant Chart - adapted from Müller (1994))

The voiceless glottal fricative /h/ had been omitted in the 1977 syllabary, but it has been added back into later editions, because it is an important distinctive sound in the Sauk language (Müller 1994). It may be of interest to note that all of the Sauk consonants are voiceless, with the exception of both nasals.

All three stops are recognized to have at least two allophones each, as follows (adapted from Müller 1994):

/p/ → [p, b]

/t/ → [t, d]

/k/ → [k, g]

Semi-Vowels (Glides)[link]

(Figure 2: Sauk Semi-vowel chart - adapted from Müller (1994))

Please note that Müller (1994)^[5] uses the American Phonetic transcription of the palatal glide, /y/, in her article, but the International Phonetic Alphabet is used for the above chart, transcribing the phoneme as /j/.

Vowels[link]

(Figure 3: Sauk vowel chart - adapted from Müller (1994))

Vowel length is important in the Sauk language. Müller presents four vowels, each with two allophones (1994):

/ɑ/ → [ɑ, ɑː]

/e/ → [e, eː]

/i/ → [i, iː]

/o/ → [o, oː]

(Müller 1994)

Pitch & Tone[link]

Pitch and tone are also important when speaking Sauk (Müller 1994).

Syllables & Morphology[link]

Sauk is a polysynthetic language – affixes are used to modify words. Because of this, in the Sauk orthography, words are written by separating out each syllable, to aid in language learning.

Both the Sac and Fox languages are known for “swallowing” syllables that are in word-final position, which can make identification of individual sounds more difficult for the language learner. (Müller 1994)

Orthography[link]

Two samples of written Sauk language, as they appear in Müller (1994):

Ho! Ne nu ta ma!
'Hi! I speak Sauk!'

Ni swi me cli ke a ki a la se te ke wa ki a la te ki ki
e ka ta wi ke mi yak i e we li ke mi ya ki ne ko ti
me cle ke a e cla gwe ne mo tti wi ne li wi tti cle we na
li ta ske wa ne li se ke
"Two turtles were sunning on a bank when a thunderstorm approached. When it began to rain, one turtle said to the other, 'I don’t want to get wet,' and jumped into the lake."

Geographical names[link]

Lake Osakis in west-central Minnesota, the Sauk River,^[6] which flows from Lake Osakis, and the towns of Osakis, Sauk Centre, and Sauk Rapids all were named for association historically with a small party of Sac who made camp on the shores of Lake Osakis. They had been banished from their tribe for murder. According to Ojibwa oral tradition, these five Sac were killed by local Dakota in the late 18th century.^[7]

Place names with "Sauk" references include:

• Iowa: Sac City, Sac County, and Sac Township.

• Illinois: Sauk Village; Sauk Valley: The cities of Dixon, Sterling, Rock Falls and the surrounding area; Sauk Trail, a winding road south of Chicago, said to follow an old Indian trail.

• Michigan: The name of Saginaw is believed to mean "where the Sauk were" in Ojibwe; Saginaw Trail is said to follow an ancient American Indian trail.^{[citation needed]}

• Minnesota: City of Sauk Centre, Le Sauk and Little Sauk townships.

• Missouri: Sac Township.

• North Dakota: Sauk Prairie and Sauk Valley Township.

• Wisconsin: Prairie du Sac, Sauk City, Saukville, Sauk County and Ozaukee County.

Notable people[link]

• Black Hawk
• Keokuk
• Do-Hum-Me
• Quashquame
• Jim Thorpe

Notes[link]

1. ^ J. B. Patterson, Autobiography of Black Hawk or Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak, 1882, Access Genealogy
2. ^ "Tribal Governments by Tribe: S." National Congress of the American Indian. . Retrieved 11 April 2010.
3. ^ Goddard, Ives. 1978. Central Algonquin languages. Handbook of North American Indians, v. 16: Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington: Smithsonian Institution), 583-587 (As quoted in Müller)
4. ^ Bonvillain, Nancy. The Sac and Fox. 1995. Chelsea House Publishers. pp 13, 17
5. ^ Müller Reinschmidt, Kerstin. 1994. Language preservation with the help of written language: The Sauk language of the Sac and Fox of Oklahoma. Papers of the Twenty-Sixth Algonquin Conference. pp 413-430
6. ^ The name of the Sauk River in Washington State, however, comes from the Sah-kee-ma-hu (Sauk-Suiattle tribe), a group related to the Skagit tribes, not from the Sac tribe of the Midwestern U.S. (James W. Phillips, Washington State Place Names, University of Washington Press, September 1976)
7. ^ Upham, Warren (2001). Minnesota Place Names, A Geographical Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition. Saint Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society. p. 53. ISBN 0-87351-396-7. 

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sac

• African-Native Americans
• Algonquian languages
• Sac and Fox Nation
• Kickapoo
• Meskwaki
• Native Americans in the United States
• Native American tribes
• Native American tribes in Nebraska
• One Drop Rule
• Saginaw Trail

External links[link]

• Sac and Fox of Oklahoma
• General information to Sac and Fox

Sauk may refer to:

• Sauk, Albania, a village
• Sauk people, group of Native Americans of the Eastern Woodlands culture group

Persons with the surname Sauk[link]

• Jacek Sauk (born 1944), Polish politician
• Stefan Sauk (born 1955), Swedish actor and comedian

See also[link]

• Sauk-Suiattle, group of Native Americans in western Washington state in the United States
• Sauk County, Wisconsin, county in the U.S. state of Wisconsin named after the Sauk people
• Sauk Lake, a small, freshwater lake located in Cook County, Illinois, United States
• Sauk Trail, an Indian trail across Illinois, Indiana and Michigan in the United States
• Sauk Village, Illinois, a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States
• Sauk Centre (disambiguation)
• Sauk River (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Brian Boyd (b.1952 in Belfast, Northern Ireland) is known primarily as an expert on the life and works of author Vladimir Nabokov and on literature and evolution. He is University Distinguished Professor in the Department of English at the University of Auckland, New Zealand.

Boyd emigrated to New Zealand with his family in 1957.

Boyd's latest book, Why Lyrics Last: Evolution, Cognition and Shakespeare's Sonnets, was released by HUP, in April, 2012.

Academic and publishing history[link]

In 1979 Boyd completed a PhD at the University of Toronto with a dissertation on Vladimir Nabokov’s novel Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle, in the context of Nabokov’s epistemology, ethics, and metaphysics. That year he took up a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Auckland (on New Zealand novelist Maurice Gee) before being appointed a lecturer in English there in 1980. Véra Nabokov, Nabokov’s widow, in 1979 invited Boyd to catalog her husband’s archives, a task he completed in 1981. That year he also began researching a critical biography of Nabokov.

Nabokov’s Ada: The Place of Consciousness (1985; rev. 2001) examined Ada in its own terms and in relation to Nabokov’s thought and style. Vladimir Nabokov: The Russian Years (1990) and Vladimir Nabokov: The American Years (1991) won numerous awards and widespread acclaim and have been translated into seven languages.

In the 1990s Boyd edited Nabokov’s English-language fiction and memoirs for the Library of America (3 vols., 1996) and, with lepidopterist Robert Michael Pyle, Nabokov's writings on butterflies (Nabokov's Butterflies, 2000). He also began a biography of philosopher Karl Popper, and work on literature and evolution.

Boyd’s 1999 book, Nabokov’s Pale Fire: The Magic of Artistic Discovery, attracted attention both for the novelty of Boyd’s reading of Pale Fire and for his rejecting his own influential interpretation of the notoriously elusive novel in Vladimir Nabokov: The American Years.

In 2009 he published On the Origin of Stories: Evolution, Cognition and Fiction. Often^{[citation needed]} compared in scope with Northrop Frye’s Anatomy of Criticism (1957), On the Origin of Stories proposes that art and storytelling are adaptations and derive from play. It also shows evolutionary literary criticism in practice in studies of Homer’s Odyssey and Dr. Seuss’s Horton Hears a Who!.^[1]

As of 2011^[update] Boyd continues to work on Nabokov, including ongoing annotations to Ada (1993- ), collected in a website (AdaOnline, 2004- ), an edition of Nabokov’s verse translations (Verses and Versions, 2008), and forthcoming editions of his letters to Véra, and his unpublished lectures on Russian literature, and also especially on Shakespeare, Jane Austen, Art Spiegelman, and Popper.

Major works[link]

• Nabokov's Ada: The Place of Consciousness (1985; rev.2001)
• Vladimir Nabokov: The Russian Years (1990)
• Vladimir Nabokov: The American Years (1991)
• Nabokov's Pale Fire: The Magic of Artistic Discovery (1999)
• Nabokov's Butterflies: Unpublished and Uncollected Writings. (2000) Edited by Brian Boyd and Robert Michael Pyle
• Verses and Versions: Three Centuries of Russian Poetry Selected and Translated by Vladimir Nabokov (2008) Edited by Brian Boyd and Stanislav Shvabrin
• On the Origin of Stories: Evolution, Cognition, and Fiction (2009)
• "Why Lyrics Last: Evolution, Cognition and Shakespeare's Sonnets" (2012)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Staff homepage
• Ada Online - Annotations to Nabokov's novel by Boyd.
• "Shade and Shape in Pale Fire" - A somewhat controversial essay on Nabokov's novel.
• A 2000 interview - Conducted by Thomas Bolt.
• "ON THE ORIGIN OF STORIES: Evolution, Cognition, and Fiction"-Harvard University Press 2009
• Verses and Versions' companion website - Provides Russian originals in both Cyrillic and transliterations.
• "Why Lyrics Last: Evolution, Cognition and Shakespeare's Sonnets"

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This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (July 2011)

Todd Foster (born 1967-08-27 in Great Falls, Montana) is an American boxer in the Junior middleweight division.^[1]

Amateur career[link]

Foster was an amateur boxing standout. He was the 1987 National Golden Gloves Light welterweight champion, and in 1988 the United States Amateur Light welterweight champion which led to a seed in the Olympic trials.^[1]

Olympic results[link]

Foster was a member of the 1988 US Olympic Team, boxing as a Light Welterweight.^[2] His results were:^[1]

• 1st round bye
• Defeated Kampompo Miango (Zaire) KO 2
• Defeated Chun Jil-Chun (South Korea) KO 2
• Lost to Grahame Cheney (Australia) 2-3

Professional career[link]

"Kid" Foster turned pro in 1989 and won his first 22 fights, setting up a bout with former champ Jimmy Paul in 1992. Paul won by an upset KO in the 7th round. In 1995 he challenged Hector Camacho for the IBC Welterweight Title, but lost via TKO in the 5th round. Foster later retired in 2001.

References[link]

External links[link]

• Professional boxing record for Todd Foster from BoxRec

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