Kamp Store
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
Location:	Jct. of Oak and Broadway, NE corner, Kampsville, Illinois
Coordinates:	39°17′54″N 90°36′37″W / 39.29833°N 90.61028°W / 39.29833; -90.61028Coordinates: 39°17′54″N 90°36′37″W / 39.29833°N 90.61028°W / 39.29833; -90.61028
Area:	less than one acre
Built:	1902
Architectural style:	Early Commercial
Governing body:	Private
NRHP Reference#:	94000027[1]
Added to NRHP:	February 4, 1994

The Center for American Archeology, or CAA, is an independent non-profit 501(c)(3) research and education institution located near the Illinois River, in Kampsville, Illinois, USA. It is dedicated to the exploration of the culture of prehistoric Native Americans and, to a lesser extent, the European settlers who supplanted them.

Founded on what is often referred to as the "Nile of North America," the region surrounding the confluence of the Mississippi and the Illinois rivers, the Center for American Archeology specializes in North American pre-Columbian cultures of the area. Due to successive settlement along the rivers, the area is particularly rich in Woodland Period artifacts, especially those of the Middle Woodland Hopewell culture, and later Mississippian culture. The Center has been associated with years of excavation at the Koster Site in Greene County, Illinois. Researchers have uncovered evidence of more than 7,000 years of human habitation, back to the Early Archaic period (8000 BC to 1000 BC).

The center is located about 90 minutes north of St. Louis and the Cahokia Mounds near Pittsfield, Illinois. It uses the Kamp Store as the site of the CAA's Visitor’s Center and Museum. The converted early 1900s mercantile building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

References[link]

External links[link]

• Center for American Archeology

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Indian Americans

Nikki Haley Bobby Jindal Fareed Zakaria Rajiv Shah Vivek Kundra Kalpen Modi Kalpana Chawla Padma Lakshmi
Total population
Indian alone: 2,843,391[1] 0.9% of the U.S. population (2010) Multiracial: 3,183,063[2] 1.0% of the U.S. population (2010)
Regions with significant populations
New Jersey · New York City · Atlanta · Baltimore-Washington · Boston · Chicago · Dallas · Houston · Los Angeles · Philadelphia · San Francisco Bay Area
Languages
American English · Hindi[3][4] · Gujarati[3][4] · other Indian languages[4]
Religion
Hinduism · Sikhism · Buddhism · Jainism · Christianity · Islam · Zoroastrianism · others
Related ethnic groups
Indian Diaspora · Indian people Indo-Canadians · Indo-Caribbeans · British Indians

Indian Americans are Americans whose ancestral roots lie in India. The U.S. Census Bureau uses the term Asian Indian to avoid confusion with the indigenous peoples of the Americas commonly referred to as American Indians.

History[link]

The term: Indian[link]

In North America, the term Indian has an ambiguous meaning. In the western hemisphere, historically and currently, Indian has been commonly used to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Qualifying terms such as American Indian and East Indian were and are commonly used to avoid ambiguity.

While East Indian remains in use, South Asian is often chosen instead. The U.S. government coined Native American to refer to the indigenous peoples of the United States, but American Indian remains popular among the indigenous and general populations.

People of Indian origin often prefer the term Desi to refer to the diasporic subculture of South Asians. Indian Americans are categorized as Asian Indian (and more broadly, Asian American) by the United States Census Bureau.

Arrival in the U.S.[link]

It was after the Luce–Celler Act of 1946, that Indian Americans were restored naturalization rights in the United States.^[5] A number of Indian Americans came to the U.S. via Indian communities in other countries such as the United Kingdom and Canada, in both of which 2% of the population is currently of Indian origin,^[6] Mauritius, nations of Southeast Asia such as Malaysia and Singapore, South Africa, Suriname, Guyana, Fiji, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Trinidad & Tobago, and Jamaica.

Demographics[link]

According to the 2010 U.S. Census,^[7] the Asian Indian population in the United States grew from almost 1,678,765 in 2000 (0.6% of U.S. population) to 2,843,391 in 2010 (0.9% of U.S. population), a growth rate of 69.37%, one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States.^{[8][9][10][11]}

India Square in Jersey City, New Jersey, is one of at least 20 Indian American enclaves characterized as a Little India which have emerged within the New York City Metropolitan Area.

The New York metropolitan area, consisting of New York City, Long Island, and adjacent areas within New York, as well as nearby areas within the states of New Jersey (extending to Trenton), Connecticut (extending to Bridgeport), and including Pike County, Pennsylvania, is home to approximately 557,000 Indian Americans as of the 2010 Census, comprising by far the largest Indian American population of any metropolitan area in the United States. New York City itself contains the highest Indian American population of any city proper, at approximately 195,000. As of June 2011, Indian airline carriers Air India and Jet Airways as well as United States airline carrier Continental Airlines were all offering flights from the New York City Metropolitan Area to and from India. At least twenty Indian American enclaves characterized as a Little India have emerged in the New York City Metropolitan Area.

Other metropolitan areas with large Indian American populations include Atlanta, Baltimore–Washington, Boston, Chicago, Dallas – Ft. Worth, Detroit, Houston, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and San Francisco – San Jose – Oakland.

U.S. metropolitan areas with large Indian American populations[link]

While the table above provides a picture of the population of Indian American (alone) and Asian Americans (alone) in some of the metropolitan areas of the US, it is incomplete as it does NOT include multi-racial Asian Americans. Please note that data for Multi-racial Asian Americans has not yet been released by the US Census Bureau.

List of U.S. States by population of Asian Indians[link]

Statistics on Indians in the U.S.[link]

In the year 2006, of the total 1,266,264 legal immigrants to the United States, 58,072 were from India. Immigration from India is currently at its highest level in history. Between 2000 and 2006, 421,006 Indian immigrants were admitted to the U.S., up from 352,278 during the 1990–1999 period.^[14] According to the 2000 U.S. census, the overall growth rate for Indians from 1990 to 2000 was 105.87 percent. The average growth rate for the whole of USA was only 7.6 percent.

Indians comprise 16.4 percent of the Asian-American community. They are the third largest in the Asian American population. In 2000, of all the foreign born population in U.S., Indians were 1.007 million. From 2000 onwards the growth rate and the per cent rate of Indians amongst all the immigrants has increased by over 100 percent. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, between 1990 and 2000, the Indian population in the U.S. grew 130% — 10 times the national average of 13%.

Indian Americans are the third largest Asian American ethnic group today, following Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans.^[15][16][17]

A joint Duke University – UC Berkeley study revealed that Indian immigrants have founded more engineering and technology companies from 1995 to 2005 than immigrants from the UK, China, Taiwan and Japan combined.^[18] A University of California, Berkeley, study reported that one-third of the engineers in Silicon Valley are of Indian descent, while 7% of valley hi-tech firms are led by Indian CEOs.

Socioeconomic[link]

Education[link]

With the recent wave of highly educated Indian professionals, Indian Americans continuously outpace most ethnic groups socioeconomically to reach the summit of the U.S. Census charts.^[19] Indian Americans, along with other Asian Americans, have one of the highest educational levels of all ethnic groups in the U.S. Almost 67% of all Indians have a bachelor's or high degree (compared to 28% nationally and 44% average for all Asian American groups). Almost 40% of all Indians in the United States have a master’s, doctorate or other professional degree, which is five times the national average.^[20][21] Thomas Friedman, in his recent book, The World is Flat, explains this trend in terms of brain drain, whereby the best and brightest elements in India emigrate to the U.S. in order to seek better financial opportunities.^[22]

Economics[link]

According to the 2010 U.S. Census, Indian Americans had the highest household income of all ethnic groups in the United States.

According to the American Association of Physicians of Indian Origin, there are close to 35,000 Indian American doctors.^[24]

Among Indian Americans, 72.3% participate in the U.S. work force, of which 57.7% are employed in managerial and professional specialties.^[25]As of 2010 66.3% of Indian Americans are employed in select professional and managerial specialties compared with the national average of 35.9%.^[26]

In 2002, there were over 223,000 Asian Indian-owned firms in the U.S., employing more than 610,000 workers, and generating more than $88 billion in revenue.^[27]

Culture[link]

Entertainment[link]

Hindi radio stations are available in areas with high Indian populations, for example, Easy96 Radio in the New York tri - state areas, KLOK 1170 AM IN San Francisco, RBC Radio; Radio Humsafar, Desi Junction in Chicago; Radio Salaam Namaste in Dallas; and FunAsia Radio, Sangeet Radio and Radio Naya Andaz in Houston. There are also some radio stations broadcasting in Tamil and Telugu within these communities.^[29][30]. Houston based Kannada Kaaranji radio focuses on a multitude of programs for children and adults.^[31]

South Asian magazine, SBR MAGAZINE(Style & Beauty Resource - Previously known as "Sabse Bada Rupaiya Magazine") , one of the world’s leading publications, offers readers a print and online magazine filled with various beauty, health, fashion, and entertainment news and updates targeted to the young professionals in the Indian community nationwide.

Several cable and satellite providers offer Indian channels: Sony TV, Zee TV, Star Plus, Sahara One, Colors, regional channels, and others have offered Indian content for subscription, such as the Cricket World Cup.

Many metropolitan areas with large Indian-American populations now have movie theaters which specialize in showing Indian movies, especially Bollywood. Silicon Valley, for example has two such multiplexes: one in Fremont and one in San Jose.

In July 2005, MTV premiered a spin-off network called MTV Desi which targets Indian Americans.^[32] It has been discontinued by MTV.

Religions[link]

Indian religions

BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Chicago

Gurdwara Sahib of San Jose

Jain Center of Greater Phoenix (JCGP)

Communities of Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, Parsis, and Jews from India have established their religions in the United States.

The first religious centre of an Indian religion to be established in the US was a Sikh Gurudwara in Stockton, California in 1912. Today there are many Sikh Gurudwaras, Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Temples in all the 50 states. As of 2008, the American Hindu population was around 2.2 million,^[33] and Hindus are the majority of Indian Americans.^[34][35] Many sects such as ISKCON, Swaminarayan Sampraday, BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha, Chinmaya Mission, and Swadhyay Pariwar are well-established in the U.S. The Hindu Americans have formed the Hindu American Foundation which is represents American Hindus and aims to educate people about Hinduism.

Swami Vivekananda brought Hinduism to the West at the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions.^[36] The Vedanta Society has been important in subsequent Parliaments. Today, many Hindu temples, most of them built by Indian Americans have emerged in different cities and towns of America.^[37][38] More than 18 million Americans are now practicing some form of Yoga. Kriya Yoga was introduced to America by Paramahansa Yogananda. In addition, A.C Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada initiated a popular ISKCON also known as Hare Krishna movement while preaching Bhakti yoga.

Indian Muslim Americans generally congregate with other American Muslims, including those from Pakistan and Bangladesh, but there are prominent organizations such as the Indian Muslim Council - USA.^[39]

Adherents of Jainism first arrived in the United States in the 20th century. The most significant time of Jain immigration was in the early 1970s. The United States has since become a center of the Jain Diaspora. The Federation of Jain Associations in North America is an umbrella organization of local American and Canadian Jain congregations to preserve, practice, and promote Jainism and the Jain Way of Life.^[40]

There are many Indian Christian churches across the US; Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, Knanaya, Indian Orthodox Church, Mar Thoma Church (reformed orthodox), Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church, Church of South India, Church of North India, The Pentecostal Mission, and the India Pentecostal Church of God; there are also a number of Indian Christians in mainstream American churches.^[41] The Indian Christian Americans have formed the Federation of Indian American Christian Organizations of North America (FIACONA) to represent a network of Indian Christian Organizations in the United States and Canada. FIACONA estimates the Indian American Christian population to be 600,000.^[42]

The large Parsi community is represented by the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America.^[43] Indian Jews are perhaps the smallest organized religious group among Indian Americans, consisting of approximately 350 members in the United States. They form the Indian Jewish Congregation of USA with headquarters in New York City.^[44]

Ethnicity[link]

Like the terms "Asian American" or "South Asian American", the term "Indian American" is also an umbrella label applying to a variety of views, values, lifestyles, and appearances. Although Asian-Indian Americans retain a high ethnic identity, they are known to assimilate into American culture while at the same time keeping the culture of their ancestors.^[45] They may assimilate more easily than many other immigrant groups because they have fewer language barriers (English is widely spoken in India among professional classes), more educational credentials (Indian immigrants are disproportionately well-educated), and come from a democratic society. Additionally, Indian culture, like many other Asian cultures, puts emphasis upon achievement and personal responsibility of the individual as a reflection upon the family and community.

Ajay K. Ojha argues that in terms of assimilation, "One main problem that faces Asian Indians and Asian Indian Americans is the jokes that are used between the two cultural groups that divide them from their own heritage and community. That is, Asian Indians who are born in India and either reside in India or move to the United States, and Asian Indian Americans who were born in the United States...have a tendency to use humor with one another." ^[46] Although Indian Americans have prospered well over time in the United States and have a high ethnic value among the general population, there are problems of fully assimilating into the American culture with intracultural barriers that are faced between Asian Indians and Indian Americans.

In countries such as the United States, Canada, and until more recently, the United Kingdom, there has been a large influx of Indian immigrants, beginning in the late 1960s. As a result of assimilation, mixed Caucasian and Indian backgrounds are becoming more prevalent. The 2001 U.S. Census Bureau’s publication of the 56,497,000 married couples, shows that overall the percentage of Indian males married to White females (7.1%) was higher than Indian females marrying with White males (3.7%); whilst for those who were US born the reverse was true with more Indian females marrying with White males (39.1%) than Indian males married to White females (27.3%).^[47]

The United States is also home to associations of Indians united by ethno-linguistic affiliation. The big organizations include Cultural Association of Bengal and their annually sponsored event the North American Bengali Conference, Association of Kannada Kootas of America (AKKA), Kannada Sangha and Kannada Koota, Telugu Association of North America (TANA), Orissa Society of the Americas, Brihan Maharashtra Mandals of North America (BMM), Federation of Tamil Sangams of North America, Boston Thamil Association, Tamil sangam of Greater Washington Inc,New Jersy Tamil Sangam, Tamil Sangam of Carolina, Inc, Gujarati Samaj, Pravasi Federation of Kerala, Associations of North America (FOKANA), Punjabi American Heritage Society and Punjabi-American Cultural Association. These associations generally put on cultural programs, plays, and concerts during the major Hindu festivals (Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Padva, Pongal, Sankranti, Ugadi, Baisakh, Onam, Vishu) and other religious (e.g., Christian) and cultural events such as Christmas and New Years.

Immigration and progression timeline[link]

Timeline[link]

• 1600s: The East India Company brought over Indian indentured servants to the British American colonies.^[48]
• 1680: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, a Eurasian daughter born to an Indian father and Irish mother in Maryland was classified as a "mulatto" and sold into slavery.^[48]
• 1790: Following American independence from the British, Indian immigrants began entering the independent United States as maritime workers.
• 1838: (May 5) - First two ships arrive in the Caribbean with Indian indentured workers (landing in British Guiana).
• 1899–1914: First significant wave of Indian immigrants, mostly Sikh farmers and laborers from Punjab region of British India, start arriving in California (Angel Island) on ships via Hong Kong. They find employment on farms and in lumber mills in California, Oregon and Washington states.
• 1912: The first Sikh temple opens its doors in Stockton, California.
• 1913: A.K. Mozumdar became the first Indian-born person to earn U.S. citizenship, having convinced the Spokane district judge that he was "Caucasian" and met the requirements of naturalization law that restricted citizenship to free white persons. In 1923, as a result of a U.S. Supreme Court decision that no person of East Indian origin could become a naturalized American citizen, his citizenship was revoked.
• 1917: The Barred Zone Act passes in Congress through two-thirds majority, overriding President Woodrow Wilson's earlier veto. Asians, including Indians, are barred from immigrating to the U.S.
• 1918: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, there was significant controversy in Arizona when an Indian farmer B. K. Singh married the sixteen year-old daughter of one of his white American tenants.^[49]
• 1918: Bhagat Singh Thind becomes the first person of East-Indian descent recruited by the US Army on July 22, 1918. He goes on to fight in World War I. A few months later, on November 8, 1918, Bhagat Singh was promoted to the rank of an Acting Sergeant.
• 1922: Yellapragada Subbarao arrived in Boston on 26 October 1922. He discovered the role of Phosphocreatine and Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) in muscular activity, which earned him an entry into biochemistry textbooks in the 1930s. He obtained his Ph.D. degree the same year.
• 1923: The US Supreme Court rules that people from India (at the time, British India, e.g. South Asians) are aliens ineligible for citizenship in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind. Bhagat Singh Thind becomes a citizen a few years later in New York – he had earlier applied and been rejected in Oregon.^[50]
• 1928: Dhan Gopal Mukerji wins the Newbery Medal, and thus becomes the first successful India-born man of letters in the United States.
• 1943: Republican Clara Booth Luce and Democrat Emanuel Celler introduce a bill to open naturalization to Indian immigrants to the US. Prominent Americans Pearl Buck, Louis Fischer, Albert Einstein and Robert Millikan give their endorsement to the bill. President Franklin Roosevelt also endorses the bill, calling for an end to the "statutory discrimination against the Indians".
• 1946: President Harry Truman signs into law the Luce-Celler Act of 1946, returning to Indian Americans the right to immigrate and naturalize.
• 1956: Dalip Singh Saund elected to the US House of Representatives from California. He was re-elected to a 2nd and 3rd term, winning over 60% of the votes. He is also the first Asian immigrant to be elected to Congress.
• 1962: Zubin Mehta appointed music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, becoming the first person of Indian origin to become the principal conductor of a major American orchestra. Subsequently he was appointed principal conductor of the New York Philharmonic.
• 1964: Amar G. Bose founded Bose Corporation. He is the Chairman, primary stockholder, and also holds the title of Technical Director at Bose Corporation. He was former professor of electrical engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
• 1965: President Lyndon Johnson signs the INS Act of 1965 into law, eliminating per-country immigration quotas and introducing immigration on the basis of professional experience and education. Dr. Satinder Mullick, Ph.D. Johns Hopkins University, is one of the first to immigrate under the new law in November 1965—sponsored by Corning Glass Works Corning Inc..
• 1981: Suhas Patil co-founded Cirrus Logic, one of the first fabless semiconductor companies.
• 1982: Vinod Khosla co-founded Sun Microsystems.
• 1983: Asian Indian Women in America^[51] attended the first White House Briefing for Asian American Women. (AAIWA, formed in 1980, is the 1st Indian women's organization in North America.)
• 1987: President Ronald Reagan appoints Dr. Joy Cherian, the first Indian Commissioner of the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
• 1988: Sanjay Mehrotra co-founded SanDisk.
• 1989: Rohit Jagessar founded RBC Radio, the first Asian Indian radio station in the US.
• 1994: Rajat Gupta elected managing director of McKinsey & Company, the first Indian-born CEO of a multinational company.
• 1994: Guitarist Kim Thayil, of Indian origin, wins Grammy award for his Indian inspired guitarwork on the album Superunknown by his band Soundgarden.
• 1994: Raj Reddy received the ACM Turing Award (with Edward Feigenbaum) "For pioneering the design and construction of large scale artificial intelligence systems, demonstrating the practical importance and potential commercial impact of artificial intelligence technology".
• 1996: Pradeep Sindhu co-founded Juniper Networks
• 1996: Rajat Gupta and Anil Kumar of McKinsey & Company co-found the Indian School of Business.
• 1997: Kalpana Chawla, one of the six-member crew of STS-87 mission, becomes the first Indian American astronaut.
• 1999: NASA names the third of its four "Great Observatories" Chandra X-ray Observatory after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar the Indian-born American astrophysicist and a Nobel laureate.
• 1999: Filmmaker M. Night Shyamalan enters film history with his film The Sixth Sense becoming one of the all-time highest-grossing films, worldwide.
• 1999: Rono Dutta becomes the President of United Airlines.
• 2001: Professor Dipak C. Jain (born in Tezpur - Assam, India) appointed as dean of the Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University. He is the Sandy and Morton Goldman Professor in Entrepreneurial Studies and a professor of marketing at the Kellogg School of Management, where he has been a member of the faculty since 1987.
• 2002: Professor Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao — 'the world renowned statistician' is awarded National Medal of Science by President George W. Bush.
• 2005: Abhijit Y. Talwalkar, President and Chief Executive Officer of LSI Corporation
• 2006: Indra Nooyi (born in Chennai, India) appointed as CEO of PepsiCo. She is a Successor Fellow of the Yale Corporation — sometimes, and more formally, known as The President and Fellows of Yale College, is the governing body of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. She also serves as a member of the boards of the International Rescue Committee, Catalyst and the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, Trustees of Eisenhower Fellowships, and currently serves as Chairman of the U.S.–India Business Council.
• 2007: Bobby Jindal is elected governor of Louisiana and is the first person of Indian descent to be elected governor of an American state; he is inaugurated on January 14, 2008.
• 2007: Renu Khator appointed as the chancellor of the University of Houston System and the president of the University of Houston on October 15, 2007.
• 2007: Francisco D'Souza appointed as the President and Chief Executive Officer and a member of the Board of Directors of Cognizant Technology Solutions. He is one of the youngest Chief Executive Officers in the software services sector at the age 38 in the United States. He was part of the team founded, in 1994, the Nasdaq-100 Cognizant Technology Solutions.
• 2007: Vikram Pandit (born in Maharashtra, India) appointed as CEO of Citigroup. He was previously the President and Chief Operating Officer of the Institutional Securities and Investment Banking Group at Morgan Stanley. He also serves on the boards of Columbia University, Columbia Business School, the Indian School of Business and The Trinity School. He is a former board member of NASDAQ (2000–2003), the New York City Investment Fund.
• 2007: Shantanu Narayen appointed as CEO of Adobe Systems.
• 2008: Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson appoints Neel Kashkari as the Interim U.S. Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability.
• 2008: Raj Chetty appointed as professor of economics at Harvard University. As of today, he is the youngest person 'at the age of 29' to ever receive tenure of professorship in the Department of Economics at Harvard. He is one of the top 8 young economists in the world.
• 2008: Sanjay Jha appointed as Co-CEO of Motorola, Inc..
• 2008: Establishment of the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA) to document the history of the South Asian American community.^[52]
• 2009: President Barack Obama appoints Preetinder S. Bharara (born in Firozpur, India; graduate of Harvard College Class of 1990 and Columbia Law School Class of 1993) as United States attorney for the Southern District of New York Manhattan.
• Farah Pandith appointed as Special Representative to Muslim Communities for the United States Department of State.
• 2009: President Barack Obama appoints Eboo Patel and Anju Bhargava on President's Advisory Council on Faith Based and Neighborhood Parnerships.
• 2009: President Barack Obama appoints Vinai Thummalapally as the U.S. Ambassador to Belize
• 2009: President Barack Obama nominates Rajiv Shah, M.D. as the new head of United States Agency for International Development.
• 2009: President Barack Obama nominates Islam A. Siddiqui as the Chief Agricultural Negotiator in the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative.
• 2010: President of Harvard University Catherine Drew Gilpin Faust appoints Nitin Nohria as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School.
• 2010: President of University of Chicago Robert Zimmer appoints Sunil Kumar as the dean of University of Chicago Booth School of Business.
• 2010: Deven Sharma appointed President of Standard & Poor's.
• 2010: Ajaypal Banga appointed President and CEO of MasterCard.
• 2010: Year marks the most number of candidates of Indian origin, running for political offices in the United States, including candidates such as Kamala Harris and Ami Bera.
• 2010: State Senator Nikki Haley is elected governor of South Carolina, and becomes the first Indian American woman, and second Indian American in general to become Governor of an American state.
• 2011: Jamshed Bharucha (born in Mumbai) named President of Cooper Union.^[53] He was formerly Dean of the Faculty of Arts & Sciences at Dartmouth College and Provost at Tufts University.
• 2011: Satish K. Tripathi appointed as President of University at Buffalo, The State University of New York.

Classification[link]

This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (August 2010)

According to the current parameters defining the official U.S. racial categories employed by the United States Census Bureau, Office of Management and Budget and other U.S. government agencies, American citizens or resident aliens who marked "Asian-Indian" as their ancestry or wrote in a term that automatically gets classified as an "Asian-Indian" gets classified as part of the Asian race on the 2000 US Census. As with other modern official U.S. government racial categories, the term "Asian" is in itself a broad and heterogeneous classification, encompassing all peoples with origins in the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. For further discussion on the term Asian American, please see that article.

In previous decades, Indian Americans were also variously classified as White American, the "Hindu race", and Other.^[54] Even today, where individual Indian Americans do not racially self-identify, and instead report Muslim (or a sect of Islam such as Shi'ite or Sunni), Jewish, and Zoroastrian as their "race" in the "Some other race" section without noting their country of origin, they are automatically tallied as white.^[55] This may result in the counting of persons such as Indian Muslims, Indian Jews, and Indian Zoroastrians as white, if they solely report their religious heritage without their national origin.

Staying in America for several months in the 1940s, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, an Indian independence movement fighter, wrote of the Indian racial identity as being Black.^[56] After studying and living with African-American families, she concluded Indians in America should form ties with African Americans as they shared a common struggle for independence.^[57]

Punjabi author and politician Lala Lajpat Rai, who toured America in 1907 and during World War I, living in and touring Sikh communities in the country, also came to a conclusion that Indians are of the same category as Black Americans. During his visits he spent much time at the historically Black Tuskegee University in Alabama, meeting with prominent African-American intellectuals such as W.E.B Dubois and Fredrick Douglass.^[58]

Current social issues[link]

Discrimination[link]

In the 1980s, a gang known as the Dotbusters specifically targeted Indian Americans in Jersey City, New Jersey with violence and harassment.^[59] Studies of racial discrimination, as well as stereotyping and scapegoating of Indian Americans have been conducted in recent years.^[60] In particular, racial discrimination of Indian Americans in the workplace has been correlated with Indophobia due to the rise in outsourcing/offshoring paranoia, whereby Indian Americans are blamed for US companies offshoring white-collar labor to India.^[61][62] According to the offices of the Congressional Caucus on India, many Indian Americans are severely concerned of a backlash, though nothing serious has taken place yet.^[62] Due to various socio-cultural reasons, implicit racial discrimination against Indian Americans largely go unreported by the Indian American community.^[60]

Numerous cases of religious stereotyping of American Hindus (mainly of Indian origin) have also been documented.^[63]

Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, there have been scattered incidents of Indian Americans becoming mistaken targets for hate crimes. In one example, a Sikh, Balbir Singh Sodhi, was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a white supremacist. This happened after September 11, and the murderer claimed that his turban made him think that the victim was a Middle Eastern American. In another example, a pizza deliverer was mugged and beaten in Massachusetts for "being Muslim" though the victim pleaded with the assailants that he was in fact Hindu.^[64]

In 2004, New York Senator Hillary Clinton joked at a fundraising event with South Asians for Nancy Farmer that Mahatma Gandhi owned a gas station in downtown St. Louis, fueling the stereotype that gas stations are owned by Indians and other South Asians. She clarified in the speech later that she was just joking, but still received some criticism for the statement later on for which she apologized again. ^[65]

On April 5, 2006, the Hindu Mandir of Minnesota was vandalized allegedly on the basis of religious discrimination^{[citation needed]}. The vandals damaged temple property leading to $200,000 worth of damage.^[66][67][68]

On August 11, 2006, Senator George Allen allegedly referred to an opponent's political staffer of Indian ancestry as "macaca" and commenting, "Welcome to America." Some members of the Indian American community saw Allen's comments, and the backlash that may have contributed to Allen losing his re-election bid, as demonstrative of the power of YouTube in the 21st century.^[69]

Immigration[link]

Indians are among the largest ethnic groups legally immigrating to the United States. The immigration of Indian Americans has taken place in several waves since the first Indian American came to the United States in the 1700s. A major wave of immigration to California from the region of Punjab took place in the first decade of the 20th century. Another significant wave followed in the 1950s which mainly included students and professionals. The elimination of immigration quotas in 1965 spurred successively larger waves of immigrants in the late 1970s and early 1980s. With the technology boom of the 1990s, the largest influx of Indians arrived between 1995 and 2000. This latter group has also caused surge in the application for various immigration benefits including applications for green card. This has resulted in long waiting periods for people born in India from receiving these benefits.

Media[link]

Politics[link]

Several groups have tried to create a unified or dominant voice for the Indian American community in political affairs, including US India PAC.^[70] Additionally, there are also industry-wide Indian American groupings including the Asian American Hotel Owners Association and the Association of American Physicians of Indian Origin. A majority of Indian Americans tend to identify as moderates and have voted for Democrats in recent elections. Polls before the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election showed Indian Americans favoring Democratic candidate John Kerry over Republican George W. Bush by a 53% to 14% margin, with 30% undecided at the time.^[71] The Republican party has tried to target this community for political support,^[72] and several prominent conservative activists are of Indian origin.

In 2007, Republican Congressman Bobby Jindal became the first United States Governor of Indian descent when he was elected Governor of Louisiana and is cited as a leading GOP presidential contender in 2012 or 2016.^[73] Nikki Haley is the governor of South Carolina. A list of notable Indian American politicians and commentators can be found here.

Notable Indian Americans[link]

See also[link]

• Hinduism in the United States
• Jainism in the United States
• Sikhism in the United States
• American-Born Confused Desi
• Demography of the United States
• Desi
• Hyphenated American
• Indian students abroad
• British Indian
• Indian diaspora
• United States foreign born per capita income
• Demographics of India
• Americans in India
• Indo-Caribbean American

References[link]

External links[link]

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (August 2010)

Articles[link]

• Indian Americans: The New Model Minority Forbes
• Stereotypes in Schooling: Negative Pressures in the American Educational System on Hindu Identity Formation by Yvette Rosser

News[link]

• Asian-Americans' diverse voices share similar stories
• The Indian-American population boom - September 1, 2006, Rediff.com
• CNN.com: "India's influence soars: The 'un-China' could be world's next economic superpower", June 18, 2006 (summary of TIME Magazine cover story)
• The Indian Express, December 17, 2004: "Indians are No 1 among Asians in US, census shows"
• ModelMinority.com, March 10, 2004: "Indian-Americans Fear Outsourcing Impact: Worries about technical-job losses, discrimination" (reprint of March 3, 2004 Financial Times article by Amy Yee)
• Echoes of Freedom: South Asian Pioneers in California, 1899-1965 (University of California at Berkeley's South/Southeast Asia Library's online exhibit, last updated October 3, 2001)
• Newsweek, March 6, 2006: "My Two Lives" by Jhumpa Lahiri ('The Pulitzer-winning writer felt intense pressure to be at once 'loyal to the old world and fluent in the new.')

Photography project[link]

• Widely exhibited across museums in the US, historic photography project, of Indians living in late 1980s in America.

v t e Asian Americans East Asian Chinese (Tibetan1) Japanese Korean Mongolian Taiwanese South Asian2 Bangladeshi Indian Indo-Caribbean Nepalese Pakistani Sri Lankan Tamil Southeast Asian Burmese Cambodian Filipino Hmong Indonesian Laotian Mien Singaporean Thai Vietnamese Other Afro-Asian Amerasian Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans Eurasian Multiracial American Punjabi Mexican History General Immigration Military Topics Arts and Entertainment Demographics Politics Stereotypes 1 The US Census Bureau reclassifies anyone identifying as "Tibetan American" as "Chinese American".[6] 2 The US Census Bureau considers Afghanistan a South Asian country, but does not classify Afghan Americans as Asian.[7]

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Miami

Adolphe Menjou
from the film A Star Is Born (1937).
Born	Adolphe Jean Menjou (1890-02-18)February 18, 1890 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Died	October 29, 1963(1963-10-29) (aged 73) Beverly Hills, California, U.S.
Cause of death	Hepatitis
Occupation	Actor
Years active	1914–1960
Spouse	Kathryn Carver (m. 1927–1933) «start: (1927)–end+1: (1934)»"Marriage: Kathryn Carver to Adolphe Menjou" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Adolphe_Menjou) Verree Teasdale (m. 1934–1963) «start: (1934)–end+1: (1964)»"Marriage: Verree Teasdale to Adolphe Menjou" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Adolphe_Menjou)

Adolphe Jean Menjou (February 18, 1890 – October 29, 1963) was an American actor.^[1] His career spanned both silent films and talkies, appearing in such films as The Sheik, A Woman of Paris, Morocco, and A Star is Born. He was nominated for an Academy Award for The Front Page in 1931.

Early life[link]

Menjou was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to a French father, Albert Menjou, and an Irish mother from Galway, Nora (née Joyce).^[2][3] He was raised Catholic and attended the Culver Military Academy, graduating from Cornell University with a degree in engineering. Attracted to the vaudeville stage, he made his movie debut in 1916 in The Blue Envelope Mystery. During World War I, he served as a captain in the ambulance service.

Stardom[link]

Returning from the war, he became a star in such films as The Sheik and The Three Musketeers. When he starred in 1923's A Woman of Paris, he solidified the image of a well-dressed man-about-town, and was later voted the Best Dressed Man in America nine times.^[4] His career stalled with the coming of talkies, but in 1930, he starred in Morocco, with Marlene Dietrich. He was nominated for an Academy Award for The Front Page (1931).

McCarthy era[link]

In 1947, Menjou cooperated with the House Committee on Un-American Activities in its hunt for Communists in Hollywood.^[5] Menjou was a leading member of the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, a group formed to oppose Communist influence in Hollywood. Other members included John Wayne, Barbara Stanwyck (with whom he co-starred in Forbidden in 1932 and Golden Boy in 1939) and her husband, actor Robert Taylor.

Because of his political sympathies, Menjou came into conflict with actress Katharine Hepburn. Menjou appeared with her in the films Stage Door and State of the Union, which also starred Spencer Tracy. Hepburn was strongly opposed to Americans co-operating with the McCarthy hearings. Their clashes were reportedly instant, and mutually cutting; Menjou said of Hepburn during the House Committee on Un-American Activities investigation into alleged Communist infiltration, "Scratch a do-gooder, like Hepburn, and they'll yell, 'Pravda'."^[6] To this, Hepburn called Menjou, "Wisecracking, witty—a flag-waving superpatriot who invested his American dollars in Canadian bonds and had a thing about Communists."^[6] Unsurprisingly, it was reported by William Mann in his biography of Hepburn, Kate, that during the filming of State of the Union, she and Menjou only spoke to each other when required to in the film script.^{[6][citation needed]}

Later years and death[link]

Menjou ended his film career with such roles as French General George Broulard in 1957's Paths of Glory, and as the town curmudgeon in Pollyanna in 1960.

He guest starred as Fitch, with Orson Bean and Sue Randall as John and Ellen Monroe, in an 1961 episode, "The Secret Life of James Thurber", based on the works of the American humorist James Thurber, of the CBS anthology series The DuPont Show with June Allyson. He also appeared in the Thanksgiving episode of NBC's The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford, which aired on November 22, 1956.^[7] His final film, Disney's Pollyanna (1960) was one his best known roles.

Menjou died on October 29, 1963 of hepatitis in Beverly Hills.^[8] He was interred at Hollywood Forever Cemetery.

Legacy[link]

In 1948, he published his autobiography, It Took Nine Tailors. Menjou has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6822 Hollywood Blvd.

Menjou had a brother Henri Menjou (1891–1956) who made an attempt to become an actor. He made three films for Paramount in the mid 1930s.

Partial filmography[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Adolphe Menjou

Biography portal

• Adolphe Menjou at the Internet Movie Database
• Adolphe Menjou at the TCM Movie Database
• Adolphe Menjou at AllRovi
• Photographs of Adolphe Menjou

Edward Everett
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 4th district
In office March 4, 1825 – March 4, 1835
Preceded by	Timothy Fuller
Succeeded by	Samuel Hoar
15th Governor of Massachusetts
In office January 13, 1836 – January 18, 1840
Lieutenant	George Hull
Preceded by	John Davis Samuel Turell Armstrong as Acting Governor
Succeeded by	Marcus Morton
20th United States Secretary of State
In office November 6, 1852 – March 4, 1853
President	Millard Fillmore
Preceded by	Daniel Webster
Succeeded by	William L. Marcy
United States Senator from Massachusetts
In office March 4, 1853 – June 1, 1854
Preceded by	John Davis
Succeeded by	Julius Rockwell
Personal details
Born	(1794-04-11)April 11, 1794 Boston, Massachusetts
Died	January 15, 1865(1865-01-15) (aged 70) Boston, Massachusetts
Political party	Whig
Spouse(s)	Charlotte Gray Brooks
Children	Anne Gorham Everett Charlotte Brooks Everett Grace Webster Everett Edward Brooks Everett Henry Sidney Everett William Everett
Alma mater	Harvard University
Occupation	Politician, educator
Religion	Unitarian
Signature	Edward Everett's signature

Edward Everett (April 11, 1794 – January 15, 1865) was an American politician and educator from Massachusetts. Everett, a Whig, served as U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator, the 15th Governor of Massachusetts, Minister to Great Britain, and United States Secretary of State. He also taught at Harvard University and served as president of Harvard.

Everett was one of the great American orators of the ante-bellum and Civil War era. He is often remembered today as the featured orator at the dedication ceremony of the National Cemetery in Gettysburg in 1863, where he spoke for over two hours — immediately before President Abraham Lincoln delivered his famous, two-minute Gettysburg Address.

Early life and education[link]

Birthplace of Everett in Dorchester, MA. ca.1898 photo

Everett was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the Rev. Oliver Everett,^[1] a 1779 graduate of Harvard College,^[2] and Lucy Hill, the daughter of Alexander S. Hill of Philadelphia. He was a direct descendant of Richard Everett and first cousin to Congressman Horace Everett. He attended Boston Latin School and Phillips Exeter Academy and, at the age of 13, he was admitted to Harvard University. In 1811, at age 17, he graduated as the valedictorian of his class. He studied theology under the urging of the Rev. Joseph Stevens Buckminster, and was ordained pastor of the Brattle Street Church in Boston in 1814. But he soon gave up the pulpit for further studies and a post as professor of Greek literature.

By arrangement with Harvard, Everett spent two years in Europe, studying and traveling on full salary. He spent much of this time at the University of Göttingen in Germany, where he became the first American to receive a German Ph.D. in Prussia. He learned French, German, and Italian, and studied Roman law, archaeology, and Greek art.

He returned to Harvard in 1819, and took up his teaching duties. He hoped to implant the scholarly methods of Germany at Harvard, but after a few years became bored with drilling students in Greek grammar, and became active in politics.

Marriage and children[link]

On May 8, 1822 Edward Everett married Charlotte Gray Brooks, a descendant of John Howland, (c. 1599–1673) who was one of the Pilgrims who travelled from England to North America on the Mayflower, signed the Mayflower Compact, and helped found Plymouth Colony.^[3] She was the daughter of Peter Chardon Brooks and Ann Gorham. Ann was the daughter of Rebecca Call and Nathaniel Gorham, the fourteenth President of the United States in Congress assembled, under the Articles of Confederation. They had six children:

1. Anne Gorham Everett (March 3, 1823 – October 18, 1854)
2. Charlotte Brooks Everett (August 13, 1825 – December 15, 1879); married Captain Henry Augustus Wise USN
3. Grace Webster Everett (December 24, 1827 – 1836)
4. Edward Brooks Everett (May 6, 1830 – November 5, 1861); married Helen Cordis Adams
5. Henry Sidney Everett (December 31, 1834 – October 4, 1898); married Katherine Pickman Fay
6. William Everett (October 10, 1839 – February 16, 1910); U.S. Representative from Massachusetts

He was the great uncle of Edward Everett Hale.^[4]

Early political career[link]

In 1824, Everett was elected U.S. Representative from Massachusetts' 4th Congressional District. The Federalist Party had collapsed, and the victorious Democratic-Republican Party had become diffuse, so no formal party affiliations existed at this time. Everett was associated with the "National Republican" faction of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. He supported Clay's "National System" and the interests of Massachusetts' propertied class. Everett was re-elected to four additional terms as a National Republican, serving until 1835. The National Republicans became the Whig Party in 1834.

Everett resigned his professorship in 1826, but remained associated with Harvard as a member of the Board of Overseers, serving until 1847.

Everett retired from Congress in 1835. Instead he ran for Governor of Massachusetts as a Whig. He was elected, taking office in January 1836. He was re-elected in 1836, 1837, and 1838, but was narrowly defeated in 1839.

Implementation of the Prussian education system (of which he himself was a graduate) was to become a goal of Everett's. From 1837-1840, he collaborated with Horace Mann to develop public education in Massachusetts along the lines of the Prussian model.

Shortly after the adoption of the Prussian system in Massachusetts, the Governor of New York set up the same method in twelve different New York schools on a trial basis.

Diplomatic service[link]

After leaving office in January 1840, Everett traveled in Europe with his family for several months. When the Whigs won the 1840 election, Everett was appointed "Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James" (that is, ambassador to Great Britain) at the recommendation of his friend Daniel Webster. He served until 1845, when after a change of administrations he was replaced by Democrat Louis McLane.

He brought several manuscripts from the East. Everett stated: "I omitted no opportunity of searching for Greek manuscripts in the libraries of the religious houses which I visited in Greece, particularly those of Megaspelion in the Morea and of Meteora in Thessaly. (...) I heard from Mr. Cartwright, the British Consul-General, of a few Greek MSS. belonged to the family of a Greek prince in decay, which were offered for sale."^[5]

Return to Harvard[link]

With the Democrats in power, Everett was out of office. He took up the post of President of Harvard University in 1846, serving until 1849. He was not enamored of the job, finding that Harvard was short of resources. He was not popular with the rowdy students, who nicknamed him “Old Granny.” Nonetheless, he completed several important reforms and established Harvard's first school of science.

Later political career[link]

Edward Everett

When the Whigs won the 1848 election and returned to power in 1849, Everett resigned from Harvard and resumed political activity in Washington. He assisted Webster, now Secretary of State, and when Webster died in November 1852, President Fillmore appointed him to serve the remaining four months of Webster's term, to March 1853.

Meanwhile, Massachusetts elected Everett to the Senate, for a term starting March 4, 1853. As a Senator he angered Massachusetts anti-slavery men by not voting on the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Everett was nominally anti-slavery, but seemed overly concerned with placating pro-slavery Southerners to avoid civil war. This did not satisfy the increasingly vehement anti-slavery Massachusetts public. In April 1854, he presented a petition from the people of Dedham against the Missouri Compromise and one from the people of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in favor of securing religious freedom for Americans abroad.^[6] On June 1, 1854, after only a little more than one year of a six year term, Everett resigned.

Everett lived on Summer Street, Boston, 1852-1865^[7]

Last years[link]

Free of political obligations, Everett traveled the country with his family, occasionally giving public speeches in support of the Union and other causes. He was by this time a famous orator, known for both the quality of his text and his outstanding delivery. He took up the cause of preserving George Washington's home at Mount Vernon. His speaking tour raised almost $70,000 for that purpose.

The 1860 election threatened to produce a national crisis, with pro-slavery Southerners splitting the Democratic Party, and threatening secession if a Republican was selected President. The Whig Party no longer existed, but a group of former Whigs formed the Constitutional Union Party, which claimed as its sole principle the preservation of the Union. The Constitutional Union Party nominated John Bell for President, and Everett for Vice President. The Bell-Everett ticket received less than 13% of the vote, mostly in the South.

With the election of Lincoln, the Civil War broke out. Everett, though he had been a moderate on the slavery issue, was an ardent Unionist. He devoted his efforts to raising support for the Union cause through public speaking. In November 1863, when the military cemetery at Gettysburg was dedicated, Everett was the featured speaker. His two-hour formal oration preceded the much shorter, but now far more famous Gettysburg Address of President Lincoln. For his part, Everett was deeply impressed by the concise speech and wrote to Lincoln noting "I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes."^[8]

In the 1864 election, Everett campaigned extensively for Lincoln and the "Union" Party, as the Republicans called themselves that year. He exhausted himself in this effort, and died on January 15, 1865.

Everett died in Boston and is interred at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Everett also had a love for mathematics as can be seen from a famous quote: ‘In the pure mathematics we contemplate absolute truths which existed in the divine mind before the morning stars sang together, and which will continue to exist there when the last of their radiant host shall have fallen from heaven.’

Honors[link]

The city of Everett, Massachusetts is named for him. It lies 4.1 miles (6.6 km) from Boston.^[9]

Edward Everett Square, in Dorchester, Boston, is named for him. It is the intersection of Columbia Road, Massachusetts Avenue, East Cottage Street and Boston Street.

An elementary school in Chicago, Illinois was named for him in 1891. The school still stands at 3410 S. Bell Street.

Edward Everett donated 130 volumes to the Everett School (named in his honor) in St. Cloud, MN on February 12, 1858. This was the first library in the city of St. Cloud. The Everett School was torn down in 1887.

See also[link]

Biography portal

Manuscripts acquired by Everett in Constantinople

• Lectionary 172
• Lectionary 296
• Lectionary 297
• Lectionary 298

References[link]

• Bush, Philippa Call, and Anne Gorham Everett. Memoir of Anne Gorham Everett; With Extracts from Her Correspondence and Journal. Boston: Priv. print, 1857. googlebooks Retrieved December 6, 2008.
• Haxtun, Annie Arnoux. Signers of the Mayflower Compact . Publisher: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 0-8063-0173-2.
• "Thirty-Third Congress". The New York Times. April 7, 1854. 

Further reading[link]

• Everett. Orations and speeches on various occasions. v.1 (8th ed., 1870); v.3 (1839)
• E. Everett, An account of some Greek Manuscripts, procured at Constantinople in 1819 and now belonging to the Library of the University at Cambridge, Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 4 (1820)
• Frothingham, Paul Revere, Edward Everett, Orator and Statesman, Houghton Mifflin Company (1925)

External links[link]

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Edward Everett

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Edward Everett

• Works of Edward Everett at HolyeBooks.org
• Full text of Everett's Gettysburg Oration
• Biography, and career summary
• Works by Edward Everett at Project Gutenberg
• Edward Everett at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress Retrieved on 2009-04-11
• Official Commonwealth of Massachusetts Governor Biography
• Internet archive.org
• "Edward Everett". Find a Grave. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=321. Retrieved September 3, 2010. 

Articles Related to Edward Everett v t e Governors of Massachusetts Colony (1629–1686) Endecott Winthrop T. Dudley Haynes Vane Winthrop T. Dudley Bellingham Winthrop Endecott T. Dudley Winthrop Endecott T. Dudley Endecott Bellingham Endecott Bellingham Leverett Bradstreet Dominion (1686–1689) J. Dudley Andros Bradstreet Province (1692–1776) W. Phips Stoughton Bellomont Stoughton Governor's Council J. Dudley Governor's Council J. Dudley Tailer Shute Dummer Burnet Dummer Tailer Belcher Shirley S. Phips Shirley S. Phips Governor's Council Pownall Hutchinson Bernard Hutchinson Gage Commonwealth (since 1776) Hancock Cushing Bowdoin Hancock Adams Sumner Gill Governor's Council Strong Sullivan Lincoln, Sr. Gore Gerry Strong Brooks Eustis Morton Lincoln, Jr. Davis Armstrong Everett Morton Davis Morton Briggs Boutwell Clifford E. Washburn Gardner Banks Andrew Bullock Claflin W. 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Stuart (1850–1853) v t e United States Ambassadors to the United Kingdom Ministers Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James's 1785–1811 John Adams 1785–1788 Thomas Pinckney 1792–1796 Rufus King 1796–1803 James Monroe 1803–1807 William Pinkney 1808–1811 Jonathan Russell (chargé d'affaires) 1811–1812 Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James's 1815–1893 John Quincy Adams 1815–1817 Richard Rush 1818–1825 Rufus King 1825–1826 Albert Gallatin 1826–1827 James Barbour 1828–1829 Louis McLane 1829–1831 Martin Van Buren 1831–1832 Aaron Vail (chargé d'affaires) 1832–1836 Andrew Stevenson 1836–1841 Edward Everett 1841–1845 Louis McLane 1845–1846 George Bancroft 1846–1849 Abbott Lawrence 1849–1852 Joseph R. Ingersoll 1852–1853 James Buchanan 1853–1856 George M. Dallas 1856–1861 Charles Adams, Sr. 1861–1868 Reverdy Johnson 1868–1869 John Lothrop Motley 1869–1870 Robert C. Schenck 1871–1876 Edwards Pierrepont 1876–1877 John Welsh 1877–1879 James Russell Lowell 1880–1885 Edward J. Phelps 1885–1889 Robert Todd Lincoln 1889–1893 Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James's 1893–present Thomas F. Bayard, Sr. 1893–1897 John Hay 1897–1898 Joseph Choate 1899–1905 Whitelaw Reid 1905–1912 Walter Page 1913-1918 John W. Davis 1918–1921 George Harvey 1921–1923 Frank B. Kellogg 1924–1925 Alanson B. Houghton 1925–1929 Charles G. Dawes 1929–1931 Andrew W. Mellon 1932–1933 Robert Bingham 1933–1937 Joseph P. Kennedy 1938–1940 John G. Winant 1941–1946 W. Averell Harriman 1946 Lewis W. Douglas 1947–1950 Walter S. Gifford 1950–1953 Winthrop W. Aldrich 1953–1957 John Hay Whitney 1957–1961 David K. E. Bruce 1961–1969 Walter H. Annenberg 1969–1974 Elliot L. Richardson 1975–1976 Anne Armstrong 1976–1977 Kingman Brewster, Jr. 1977–1981 John J. Louis, Jr. 1981–1983 Charles H. Price II 1983–1989 Henry E. Catto, Jr. 1989–1991 Raymond G. H. Seitz 1991–1994 William J. Crowe 1994–1997 Philip Lader 1997–2001 William Stamps Farish III 2001–2004 Robert H. Tuttle 2005–2009 Louis Susman 2009– v t e Presidents of Harvard University Eaton (as schoolmaster) Dunster Chauncy Hoar Oakes Rogers Mather* S. Willard* Leverett Wadsworth Holyoke Winthrop* Locke* Winthrop* Langdon J. Willard Pearson* Webber Kirkland Quincy Everett Sparks Walker Felton Hill Eliot Lowell Conant Pusey Bok Rudenstine Summers Bok* Faust * indicates acting president v t e State Secretaries of the United States Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1781–1789 R. Livingston Jay Secretary of State 1789–present Jefferson Randolph Pickering J. Marshall Madison Smith Monroe Adams Clay Van Buren E. 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