Lighthouse Fresnel lens, on display at the Musée national de la Marine

A Fresnel lens (/freɪˈnɛl/ fray-NEL or /ˈfrɛznəl/ FREZ-nel) is a type of lens originally developed by French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel for lighthouses.

The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design. Compared to conventional bulky lenses, the Fresnel lens is much thinner, larger, and flatter, and captures more oblique light from a light source, thus allowing lighthouses to be visible over much greater distances.

History[link]

The idea of creating a thinner, lighter lens by making it with separate sections mounted in a frame is often attributed to Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon.^[1] The marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794) proposed grinding such a lens from a single thin piece of glass.^[2] French physicist and engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel is most often given credit for the development of the multi-part lens for use in lighthouses. According to Smithsonian magazine, the first Fresnel lens was used in 1823 in the Cordouan lighthouse at the mouth of the Gironde estuary; its light could be seen from more than 20 miles (32 km) out.^[3] Scottish physicist Sir David Brewster is credited with convincing the United Kingdom to adopt these lenses in their lighthouses.^[4][5]

Description [link]

How a Fresnel lens focuses light

1: Cross section of a Fresnel lens
2: Cross section of a conventional plano-convex lens of equivalent power

The Fresnel lens reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional spherical lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections known as "Fresnel zones". In theory there are infinitely many such zones.^[6]

In the first (and largest) variations of the lens, each zone was actually a separate prism. Though a Fresnel lens might appear like a single piece of glass, closer examination reveals that it is many small pieces. 'Single-piece' Fresnel lenses were later produced, being used for automobile headlamps, brake, parking, and turn signal lenses, and so on. In modern times, computer-controlled milling equipment (CNC) might be used to manufacture more complex lenses.

In each of these zones, the overall thickness of the lens is decreased, effectively dividing the continuous surface of a standard lens into a set of surfaces of the same curvature, with stepwise discontinuities between them. A Fresnel lens can be regarded as an array of prisms arranged in a circular fashion, with steeper prisms on the edges and a nearly flat convex center.

Fresnel lens design allows a substantial reduction in thickness (and thus mass and volume of material), at the expense of reducing the imaging quality of the lens, which is why precise imaging applications such as photography still use conventional bulky (non-Fresnel) lenses.

Fresnel lenses are usually made of glass or plastic; their size varies from large (old historical lighthouses, meter size) to medium (book-reading aids, OHP viewgraph projectors) to small (TLR/SLR camera screens, micro-optics). In many cases they are very thin and flat, almost flexible, with thicknesses in the 1 to 5 millimetre range.

Sizes of lighthouse lenses [link]

Fresnel's lighthouse lenses originally fell into six orders based on their focal length. The order of a Fresnel lens is approximately the dioptre or optical power of the lens.^{[citation needed]} The dioptre (also spelled diopter) is the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens in meters. A Fresnel lens with a focal length of 50 cm or 0.5 m would be classified as a second-order lens.

However, there are a few hyperradiant Fresnel lenses—the largest ever made—'off the chart' of sixth through first order. One such lens was on hand when it was decided to build and outfit the Makapuu Point Light. Rather than order a new lens, the huge optic construction—twelve feet tall and with over a thousand prisms—was used there.^[7]

The largest (first-order) lens has a focal length of 920 mm (36 in) and an optical area 2590 mm (8.5 ft) high. The complete assembly is about 3.7 m (12 ft) tall and 1.8 m (6 ft) wide. The smallest (sixth-order) has a focal length of 150 mm (5.9 in) and an optical area 433 mm (17 in) high.^[8][9][10]

Subsequent development extended this to seventh and eighth orders, an intermediate three-and-one-half order, and two orders even larger than first: mesoradial and hyperradial.

Types[link]

Spherical fresnel lens[link]

This fresnel lens is equivalent to a normal spherical lens.

Cylindrical fresnel lens[link]

This fresnel lens is equivalent to a normal cylindrical lens.

Linear fresnel lens[link]

Linear fresnel reflector

This section requires expansion.

Spot fresnel lens[link]

This section requires expansion.

Examples and uses[link]

• 

  Close-up of a lighthouse lens

• 

  Model showing a plastic Fresnel lens commercialized as a TV-screen enlarging device

• 

  Cutaway fixed Fresnel lens of Loschen-lighthouse, Bremerhaven

• 

  First-order Fresnel lens
  (Block Island Lighthouse)

• 

  Third-order Fresnel lens
  (Split Rock Lighthouse)

• 

  Fourth Order Fresnel Lens, (Nobska Light)

• 1st order Fresnel lighthouse lens.jpg

  1st-order Fresnel Lens

• 

  Fresnel lens optics

• 
• 
• 
• 

Cape Meares Lighthouse (Oregon, USA) first-order Fresnel lens

The use of Fresnel lenses for image projection reduces image quality, so they tend to occur only where quality is not critical or where the bulk of a solid lens would be prohibitive. Cheap Fresnel lenses can be stamped or molded of transparent plastic and are used in overhead projectors, projection televisions, and hand-held sheet magnifying glasses. Fresnel lenses have been used to increase the visual size of CRT displays in pocket televisions, notably the Sinclair TV80. They are also used in traffic lights. Fresnel lenses are also used to correct several visual disorders, including several ocular-motility disorders such as strabismus.

Since plastic Fresnel lenses can be made larger than glass lenses, as well as being much cheaper and lighter, they are used to concentrate sunlight for heating in solar cookers, in solar forges, and in solar collectors used to heat water for domestic use.

Perhaps the most widespread use of Fresnel lenses, for a time, occurred in automobile headlamps, where they can shape the roughly parallel beam from the parabolic reflector to meet requirements for dipped and main-beam patterns, often both in the same headlamp unit (such as the European H4 design). For reasons of cost, weight, and impact resistance, newer cars have dispensed with glass Fresnel lenses, using multifaceted reflectors with plain polycarbonate lenses. However, Fresnel lenses continue in wide used in automobile tail, marker, and backup lights.

Fresnel lenses are also used in left-hand-drive European lorries entering the UK and Republic of Ireland (and vice versa, right-hand-drive Irish and British trucks entering mainland Europe) to overcome the blind spots caused by the driver operating the lorry while sitting on the "wrong" side of the cab and driving on the "wrong" side of the road. They attach to the passenger-side window.

High-quality glass Fresnel lenses were used in lighthouses, where they were considered state of the art in the late 19th and through the middle of the 20th centuries; most are now retired from service.^[11] Lighthouse Fresnel lens systems typically include extra annular prismatic elements, arrayed in faceted domes above and below the central planar Fresnel, in order to catch all light emitted from the light source. The light path through these elements can include an internal reflection, rather than the simple refraction in the planar Fresnel element. These lenses conferred many practical benefits upon the designers, builders, and users of lighthouses and their illumination. Among other things, smaller lenses could fit into more compact spaces. Greater light transmission over longer distances, and varied patterns, made it possible to triangulate a position.^[12]

Glass Fresnel lenses also are used in lighting instruments for theatre and motion pictures (see Fresnel lantern); such instruments are often called simply Fresnels. The entire instrument consists of a metal housing, a reflector, a lamp assembly, and a Fresnel lens. Many Fresnel instruments allow the lamp to be moved relative to the lens' focal point, to increase or decrease the size of the light beam. As a result, they are very flexible, and can often produce a beam as narrow as 7° or as wide as 70°.^[13] The Fresnel lens produces a very soft-edged beam, so is often used as a wash light. A holder in front of the lens can hold a colored plastic film (gel) to tint the light or wire screens or frosted plastic to diffuse it. The Fresnel lens is useful in the making of motion pictures not only because of its ability to focus the beam brighter than a typical lens, but also because the light is a relatively consistent intensity across the entire width of the beam of light.

Optical Landing System on US Navy aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower

Aircraft carriers and naval air stations typically use Fresnel lenses in their optical landing systems. The "meatball" light aids the pilot in maintaining proper glide slope for the landing. In the center are amber and red lights composed of Fresnel lenses. Although the lights are always on, the angle of the lens from the pilot's point of view determines the color and position of the visible light. If the lights appear above the green horizontal bar, the pilot is too high. If it is below, the pilot is too low, and if the lights are red, the pilot is very low.

New applications have appeared in solar energy, where Fresnel lenses can concentrate sunlight (with a ratio of almost 500:1) onto solar cells. Thus the active solar-cell surface can be reduced to a fraction compared to conventional solar modules. This offers a considerable cost-saving potential by low material consumption, and it is possible to use high-quality and expensive solar cells, which achieve a very high efficiency under concentration due to thermodynamic effects.^[14]

Fresnel reflectors are also currently being incorporated into next-generation solar thermal-energy systems. See solar power for more information.

In photography, Canon developed a diffractive optics (DO) version of its EF 70-300mm lens using Fresnel lenses. Also, the Polaroid SX-70 camera used a Fresnel reflector as part of its viewing system.

Multi-focal Fresnel lenses are also used as a part of retina identification cameras, where they provide multiple in- and out-of-focus images of a fixation target inside the camera. For virtually all users, at least one of the images will be in focus, thus allowing correct eye alignment.

The Fresnel lens has seen applications for enhancing passenger reading lights on Airbus aircraft: in a dark cabin, the focused beam of light does not dazzle neighbouring passengers.

Fresnel lenses have also been used in the field of popular entertainment. The British rock artist Peter Gabriel made use of them in his early solo live performances to magnify the size of his head, in contrast to the rest of his body, for dramatic and comic effect. In the Terry Gilliam film Brazil, plastic Fresnel screens appear ostensibly as magnifiers for the small CRT monitors used throughout the offices of the Ministry of Information. However, they occasionally appear between the actors and the camera, distorting the scale and composition of the scene to humorous effect.

Projection uses [link]

Fresnel lenses of different focal lengths (one collimator, and one collector) are used in commercial and DIY projection. The collimator lens has the lower focal length and is placed closer to the light source, and the collector lens, which focuses the light into the triplet lens, is placed after the projection image (an active matrix LCD panel in LCD projectors). Fresnel lenses are also used as collimators in overhead projectors.

Generating solar power [link]

This section requires expansion.

More recently^[when?] Fresnel reflectors are used in concentrating solar power (CSP) plants to concentrate solar energy.

References [link]

Further reading[link]

• "The Fresnel Lens." The Keeper's Log (Winter 1985), pp. 12–14.
• Lighthouses, Illuminants, Lenses Engineering and Augustin Fresnel, An Historical Bibliography, United States Coast Guard.
• United States Coast Guard, Aids to Navigation, (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1945).
• Scott T. Price. "U. S. Coast Guard Aids to Navigation: A Historical Bibliography". United States Coast Guard Historian's Office. http://www.uscg.mil/History/weblighthouses/h_lhbib.asp. 

• United States Coast Guard, Fresnel Lenses Still in Operation.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fresnel lenses

• Lighthouse Getaway: Fresnel lens (contains photographs.)
• Pepper, Terry. "Seeing the Light: Lighthouses on the western Great Lakes". http://www.terrypepper.com/lights/index.htm. 
• Random Destructive Acts via Focused Solar Radiation.
• How the Fresnel lens works.
• A computer analysis of the Fresnel lens cross section depicted in the 'graphic examples' section of this very Wikipedia article.

Augustin-Jean Fresnel
Augustin-Jean Fresnel
Born	(1788-05-10)10 May 1788 Broglie (Eure)
Died	14 July 1827(1827-07-14) (aged 39) Ville-d'Avray (Hauts-de-Seine)
Nationality	French
Fields	physics
Known for	wave optics

Augustin-Jean Fresnel (/freɪˈnɛl/ fray-NEL; French: [ɔ.ɡy.stɛ̃ ʒɑ̃ fʁɛ.nɛl]; 1788–1827), was a French engineer who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally.

He is perhaps best known as the inventor of the Fresnel lens, first adopted in lighthouses while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today. His Fresnel equations on waves and reflectivity also form the basis for many applications in computer graphics today - for instance, the rendering of water.

Biography[link]

Fresnel was the son of an architect, born at Broglie (Eure). His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when he was eight years old. At thirteen he entered the École Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half the École Polytechnique, where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the École des Ponts et Chaussées. He served as an engineer successively in the departments of Vendée, Drôme and Ille-et-Vilaine; but having supported the Bourbons in 1814 he lost his appointment on Napoleon's return to power.^[1]

In 1815 on the second restoration of the monarchy he obtained a post as engineer in Paris, where he spent much of his life from that time onwards. He appears to have begun his research in optics around 1814 when he prepared a paper on the aberration of light, although it was never published. In 1818 he wrote a memoir on diffraction for which he received the prize of the Académie des Sciences at Paris in the ensuing year. He was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a Fresnel lens, as a substitute for mirrors in lighthouses. In 1819 he was nominated to be a commissioner of lighthouses. In 1823 he was unanimously elected a member of the academy, and in 1825 he became a member of the Royal Society of London. In 1827, the time of his last illness, the Royal Society of London awarded him the Rumford Medal.^[1]

Fresnel died of tuberculosis at Ville-d'Avray, near Paris.^[1]

He received only scant public recognition during his lifetime for his labours in the cause of optical science. Some of his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences until many years after his death. But as he wrote to Young in 1824: in himself "that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory" had been blunted. "All the compliments," he says, "that I have received from Arago, Laplace and Biot never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by experiment".^[1]

His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

Research[link]

His discoveries and mathematical deductions, building on experimental work by Thomas Young, extended the wave theory of light to a large class of optical phenomena. In 1817, Young had proposed a small transverse component to light, while yet retaining a far larger longitudinal component. Fresnel, by the year 1821, was able to show via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.

He proposed the aether drag hypothesis to explain a lack of variation in astronomical observations.

His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi on interference. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory.

With François Arago he studied the laws of the interference of polarized rays. He obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass, known as a Fresnel rhomb, having obtuse angles of 126° and acute angles of 54°.

Bibliography[link]

Perhaps Fresnel's most widely interpreted written work was his Memoir on the Diffraction of Light, submitted to the Academe of science in 1812. Below are translations of his publications into English:

• Fresnel, Augustin (1819). "Memoir on the Diffraction of Light". The Wave Theory of Light – Memoirs by Huygens, Young and Fresnel. American Book Company. pp. 79–145. http://books.google.com/?id=_0hWAAAAMAAJ&dq=memoir%20of%20fresnel&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
• Fresnel, Augustin (1819). "On the Action of Rays of Polarized Light upon Each Other". The Wave Theory of Light – Memoirs by Huygens, Young and Fresnel. American Book Company. pp. 145–156. http://books.google.com/?id=_0hWAAAAMAAJ&dq=memoir%20of%20fresnel&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q&f=false. 

See also[link]

• Fizeau experiment
• Fresnel equations
• Fresnel diffraction
• Fresnel drag
• Fresnel imager
• Fresnel integral
• Fresnel lantern
• Fresnel lens
• Fresnel number
• Fresnel rhomb
• Fresnel zone
• Fresnel zone plate
• Huygens–Fresnel principle
• Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector

Notes[link]

References[link]

• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Augustin-Jean Fresnel", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/{{{id}}}.html .

Attribution

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fresnel, Augustin Jean". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. http://www.1911encyclopedia.com/Augustin_Jean_Fresnel. 

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