Post	Caliph
Body	the Faithful
Nativename	خليفة
Residence	MedinaDamascusBaghdadCairoIstanbul
Termlength	Life tenure
Inaugural	Abu Bakr
Formation	8 June 632
Last	Abdülmecid II
Abolished	3 March 1924
Succession	Electoral during Rashidun Caliphate, later hereditary(Succession to Muhammad) }}

The Caliph ( ''/'') is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic ''Ummah'', an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word   which means "successor" or "representative". Following Muhammad's death in 632, the early leaders of the Muslim nation were called "Khalifat Rasul Allah", the political successors to the messenger of God (referring to Muhammad). Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as ''Khalīfah''.

Caliphs were often also referred to as ''Amīr al-Mu'minīn'' (أمير المؤمنين) "Commander of the Faithful", ''Imam al-Ummah'', ''Imam al-Mu'minīn'' (إمام المؤمنين), or more colloquially, leader of the Muslims. After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was claimed by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, the Fatimids, and the Ottomans, and at times, by competing dynasties in Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim governors were called sultans or emirs, and gave allegiance to a caliph, but this caliph at times had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924, although some individuals and groups have called for its restoration. (Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and King of Hejaz, claimed the title briefly in 1924, and the Imams of Yemen had been using the title for centuries and continued to use the title until 1962.)

Succession to Muhammad

In his book ''The Early Islamic Conquests'' (1981), Fred Donner argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves. There was no specified procedure for this shura or consultation. Candidates were usually, but not necessarily, from the same lineage as the deceased leader. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual heir.

Sunni Muslims believe and confirm that Muhammad's father-in-law Abu Bakr was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. Sunnis further argue that a caliph should ideally be chosen by election or community consensus.

Shi'a Muslims believe that Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of Muhammad, should have replaced Muhammad as Caliph and that Caliphs were to assume authority through genetic lineage.

A third branch of Islam, the Ibadi Kharijites, believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. They are currently an extremely small sect, found mainly in Oman.

Word Usage

Caliph is translated from the Arabic word khalifa ( ''/'') meaning "successor", "substitute", or "lieutenant". It is used in the Qur'an to establish Adam's role as representative of Allah on earth. Kalifa is also used to describe the belief that man's role, in his real nature, is as khalifa or viceroy to Allah. The word is also most commonly used for the Islamic leader of the Ummah; starting with Muhammad and his line of successors.

The precise meaning of Khalifa is "representative". The first four Caliphs: Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Usman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib are commonly known by Sunnis, mainly, as the Khulafā’ur-Rāshideen ("rightly guided successors") Caliphs. Each Caliph was a close companion of Muhammad during his prophethood.

History

Succession and Recognition

Sunni and Shi'a Muslims differ on the legitimacy of the reigns of the ''Khulfa-e-Rashideen'', the first four Caliphs. The Sunnis follow the Caliphates of all four, while the Shi'ites recognize only the Caliphate of Ali and the short Caliphate of his son Hasan. This schism occurred following the death of Muhammad.

According to Sunni beliefs, Muhammad gave no specific directions as to the choosing of his successor when he died. At this time there were two customary means of selecting a leader: having a hereditary leader for general purposes, and choosing someone with good qualities in times of crisis or opportunities for action.

While Sunni and Shia Islam differ sharply on the conduct of a caliph and the right relations between a leader and a community, they do not differ on the underlying theory of stewardship. Both abhor waste of natural resources in particular to show off or demonstrate power.

In the initial stages the latter way of choosing leadership prevailed among the leading companions of Muhammad. Abu Bakr was elected as the first caliph or successor to Muhammad, with the other companions of Muhammad giving an oath of allegiance to him. Those opposing this method thought that Ali, Muhammad's nearest relative, should have succeeded him. However the appointment of the next two caliphs varied from the election of Abu Bakr. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr appointed Umar as his successor without an election by the community of Believers. The oath, approving the appointment of Umar, was taken only by the Companions present in Medina at the time. This led to certain groups disputing the authority of Umar. Umar also altered the way his successor would be found. Before he was assassinated, Umar decided that his successor would come from a group of six. This group included Ali and Uthman another companion of Muhammad. These six would have to establish from among themselves Umar's successor. Ultimately Uthman was chosen as Umar successor, becoming the third Caliph. After the assassination of Uthman, Ali was elected as the fourth Caliph.

Ali's Caliphate and the Rise of the Ummayyad Dynasty

Ali's reign as Caliph was plagued by great turmoil and internal strife. Ali was faced with multiple rebellions and insurrections. The primary one coming from Mu'awiyah a relative of Uthman and Governor of Damascus. Mu'awiyah attacked Ali at the Battle of Siffin. The battle lasted several months resulting in a stalemate. In order to avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'waiyah. This caused a faction of some 4,000 strict traditionalists, known as Kharijites ("Seceders"), to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali would later be assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son Hasan was elected as the fifth Caliph only to concede his title to Mu'awiyah a few months later. Mu'awiyah became the sixth Caliph, establishing the Ummayyad Dynasty.

Umayyads

Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the West, Muslim rule expanded across North Africa and into Spain. To the East, it expanded through Iran and ultimately to India. This made it one of the largest empires in the history of West Eurasia, extending its entire breadth.

However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Some Muslims supported prominent early Muslims like az-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banū Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of , should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and Alid claims united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the '''', "the Party of ", were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and not from . Following this disappointment, the finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several denominations.

Abbasids

The Abbasids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abbasids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish (and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world.

During the period of the Abbasid dynasty, Abbasid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Said ibn Husayn of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.

Fatimids

The Fatimid Caliphate or al-Fātimiyyūn (Arabic الفاطميون) was a Berber Shi'a dynasty that ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, Sicily, Malta and the Levant from 5 January 909 to 1171. The caliphate was ruled by the Fatimids, who established the Egyptian city of Cairo as their capital. The term Fatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of the state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were also Shia Ismaili Imams, hence, they had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of Caliph, as recognized by most Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which some form of the Shia Imamate and the Caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the Caliphate of Ali himself. The Fatimids, however, are not recognized and counted by all Sunnis as a caliphate.

With exceptions, the Fatimids were reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Coptic Christians.[1]

Shadow Caliphate

1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abassid caliph al-Musta'sim by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. A surviving member of the Abbasid House was installed as Caliph at Cairo under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate three years later. However, the authority of this line of Caliphs was confined to ceremonial and religious matters, and later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" caliphate.

Ottomans

As the Ottoman Empire grew in size and strength, Ottoman rulers beginning with Mehmed II began to claim caliphal authority. Their claim was strengthened when the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517 and took control of most Arab lands. The last Abbasid Caliph at Cairo, al-Mutawakkil III, was taken into custody and was transported to Istanbul, where he surrendered the Caliphate to Selim I.

Ottoman rulers were known primarily by the title of Sultan.

According to Barthold, the first time the title of caliph was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the peace treaty with Russia in 1774. The outcome of this war was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations such as Crimea, were lost to the Christian Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdulhamid I claimed a diplomatic victory, the recognition of themselves as protectors of Muslims in Russia as part of the peace treaty. This was the first time the Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having political significance outside of Ottoman borders by a European power. As a consequence of this diplomatic victory, as the Ottoman borders were shrinking, the powers of the Ottoman caliph increased.

Around 1880 Sultan Abdulhamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering creeping European colonialism in Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness vis-à-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.

Abolition of the institution

On 3 March 1924, the Turkish Grand National Assembly, on the initiative of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, dissolved the institution of the Caliphate, transferring its powers to the Turkish Grand National Assembly. Although it is widely believed that the Caliphate has been abolished, this is not the case. The powers have been vested in the Turkish Parliament, which in turn has delegated its authority to various Turkish government institutions. Shall the Republic of Turkey decide to reinstate the caliphate, it has the legislative power and also the religious authority to do so. The religious authority is derived from its possession of the Islamic relics. These Islamic Relics are housed in the Topkapi Palace compound and housed in specially designed bomb proof vaults.

Occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the reestablishment of the Caliphate.

Titular uses

Religious leaders

In 19th century Sudan, Mohammed Ahmed "the Mahdi" was succeeded by Abdallahi ibn Muhammad "the Khalifa".

In the Ahmadiyya sect, ''khalifatul Masih'' is the title of the successors of its founding Messiah, except in the break-away Lahore branch, which is led by its own Emirs.

Secular offices

In Morocco, the Sherifian Monarch awarded the title ''Khalifa'' or ''Chaliphe'', here meaning 'Viceroy', to royal princes (styled Moulay), including future Sultans, who represented the crown in a part of the sultanate:

especially in the former royal capitals Marrakesh, Fes and Meknes

also in other mayor cities, e.g. in Shawiya, Casablanca, Tafilalt, Tadla, Tiznit Tindouf, in the valley of the Draa River and in Tetouan.

but also, in the 20th century, as irrevocably fully mandated Representative of the Sultan in the Spanish Zone, known after him in Spanish as ''el Jalifato'' (note the definite article; although the Spanish word can also be applied to other deputies of various Moroccan officials), besides the ''Alto comisario'' (de facto governing 'High Commissioner') of the colonial 'protector' Spain, which called his office ''el Jalifa'' (not ''Califa'', the word for any 'imperial' Caliph, ruling a ''califato''):

:* 19 April 1913 - 9 November 1923 Mulay al-Mahdi bin Isma'il bin Muhammad (d. 1923) :* 9 November 1923 - 9 November 1925 Vacant :* 9 November 1925 - 16 March 1941 Mulay Hassan bin al-Mahdi (1st time) (born 1912) :* 16 March 1941 - October 1945 Vacant :* October 1945 - 7 April 1956 Mulay Hassan bin al-Mahdi (2nd time)

Other uses

Khalifa can have a definition, be a first name, or family or tribe name. Like many titles, Khalifa also occurs in many names.

It is the family name of the Al Khalifa dynasty, rulers of the peninsular Arab nation of Bahrain, who are descended from the Bani Utub tribe.

Authority of the successor

The question of who should succeed Muhammad was not the only issue that faced the early Muslims; they also had to clarify the extent of the leader's powers. Muhammad, during his lifetime, was not only the Muslim political leader, but the Islamic prophet. All law and spiritual practice proceeded from Muhammad. Nobody claimed that his successor would be a prophet; succession referred to political authority. The uncertainty centered on the extent of that authority. Muhammad's revelations, supposedly directly from God, were soon codified and written down as the Qur'an, which was accepted as a supreme authority, limiting what a caliph could legitimately command.

However, there is some evidence that some early caliphs did believe that they had authority to rule in matters not specified in the Qur'an. They believed themselves to be temporal and spiritual leaders even in issues not commanded in the Quran, and insisted that implicit obedience to the caliph in all things not contradicting the Quran, was the hallmark of the good Muslim. The modern scholars Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds, in their book ''God's Caliph'', outline the evidence for an early, expansive view of the caliph's importance and authority. They argue that this view of the caliph was eventually nullified (in Sunni Islam, at least) by the rising power of the ulema, or Islamic lawyers, judges, scholars, and religious specialists. The ulema insisted on their right to determine what was legal and orthodox. The proper Muslim leader, in the ulema's opinion, was the leader who enforced the rulings of the ulema, rather than making rulings of his own, unless he himself was qualified in Islamic law. Conflict between caliph and ulema, akin to a modern judiciary, was a recurring theme in early Islamic history, and ended in the victory of the ulema. The caliph was henceforth limited to temporal rule only. He would be considered a righteous caliph if he were guided by the ulema. Crone and Hinds argue that Shi'a Muslims, with their expansive view of the powers of the imamate, have preserved some of the beliefs of the early Ummayad dynasty which ironically, they despise. Crone and Hinds' thesis is not accepted by some scholars.

Most Sunni Muslims now believe that the caliph has always been a merely temporal ruler, and that the ulema has always been responsible for adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law (shari'a). The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the way or sunnah of Muhammad in all things. This formulation itself presumes the Sunni ulema's view historically.

Al-Ghazali on the desired character traits for administration

Al Ghazali wrote the "Nasihat al-Muluk" or "Advice for Kings" to a Seljuq Sultan in which he gave ten different ethics of royal administration:

# The ruler should understand the importance and danger of the authority entrusted to him. In authority there is great blessing, since he who exercises it righteously obtained unsurpassed happiness but if any ruler fails to do so he incurs torment surpassed only by the torment for unbelief. # The ruler should always be thirsting to meet devout religious scholars and ask them for advice. # The ruler should understand that he must not covet the wives of other men and be content with personally refraining from injustice, but must discipline his slave-troops, servants, and officers and never tolerate unjust conduct by them; for he will be interrogated not only about his own unjust deeds but also about those of his staff. # The ruler should not be dominated by pride; for pride gives rise to the dominance of anger, and will impel him to revenge. Anger is the evil genius and blight of the intellect. If anger is becoming dominant it will be necessary for the ruler in all his affairs to bend his inclinations in the direction of forgiveness and make a habit of generosity and forbearance unless he is to be like the wild beasts. # In every situation that arises, the ruler should figure that he is the subject and the other person is the holder of authority. He should not sanction for others anything that he would not sanction for himself. For if he would do so he would be making fraudulent and treasonable use of the authority entrusted to him. # The ruler should not disregard the attendance of petitioners at his court and should beware of the danger of so doing. He should solve the grievances of the Muslims. # The ruler should not form a habit of indulging the passions. Although he might dress more finely or eat more sumptuously, he should be content with all that he has; for without contentment, just conduct will not be possible. # The ruler should make the utmost effort to behave gently and avoid governing harshly. # The ruler should endeavor to keep all the subjects pleased with him. The ruler should not let himself be so deluded by the praise he gets from any who approach him as to believe that all the subjects are pleased with him. On the contrary, such praise is entirely due to fear. He must therefore appoint trustworthy persons to carry on espionage and inquire about his standing among the people, so that he may be able to learn his faults from men's tongues. # The ruler should not give satisfaction to any person if a contravention of God's law would be required to please him for no harm will come from such a person's displeasure.

Single Caliph for the Muslim World

It has been recorded that Muhammad has said:

''"The children of Israel have been governed by Prophets; whenever a Prophet died another Prophet succeeded him; but there will be no prophet after me. There will be caliphs and they will number many (in one time); they asked: What then do you order us? He said: Fulfil bayah to them, only the first of them, the first of them, and give them their dues; for verily Allah will ask them about what he entrusted them with"''

''"When the oath of allegiance has been taken for two Caliphs, kill the latter of them".''

Abu-Bakr Muhammad's primary disciple is reported to have said:

''"It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs for this would cause differences in their affairs and concepts, their unity would be divided and disputes would break out amongst them. The Sunnah would then be abandoned, the bida'a (innovations) would spread and Fitna would grow, and that is in no one's interests"''.

Umar bin Al-Khattab another disciple of Muhammad is reported to have said: ''"There is no way for two (leaders) together at any one time"''

Ibn Khaldun the famous 14th century Muslim scholar, economist and historian said: ''"It is not possible to appoint two men to the position (of caliph) at the same time. Religious scholars generally are of this opinion, on the basis of certain hadith(recorded statements) of Muhammad. Those hadith are found in the book entitled, "On Leadership (imarah)," in Sahih Muslim. They expressly indicate that this is so."''

The 10th century Sunni scholar Imam of al-Haramayn (i.e. Makkah and Medinah) al-Juwayni wrote:

''"Our (scholarly) associates agree on precluding the investing of two different individuals with the imamate at either end of the world. But, they add: If it should happen that two different persons were invested with the imamate, that would be analogous to the situation of two guardians contracting a marriage for the same woman to two different suitors without either being aware of the other's contract. The decision in the matter rests on the application of jurisprudence. My opinion on this issue is that investiture of two individuals with the imamate in a single locality within relatively restricted boundaries and limited provinces is not permitted and the investiture should be in accord with a consensus. But, when the distances are great and the two Imams quite remote from each other, there is room to allow it, although this cannot be established conclusively."''

The 11th century Sunni jurist Al-Mawardi wrote:

''"The investment of two rulers in two different cities is invalid in both cases, for the ummah may not have two rulers simultaneously, even though there are some dissenting voices who would make that permissible. Jurists are disagreed regarding which one of the two should be sovereign. One party take him to be the one elected in the city where the previous leader died, because its residents are more entitled to make the choice, the rest of the Community in other districts delegating the task to them... Others have suggested that each one of the two must give up the office in favour of his opponent, thus allowing the elections to opt for one or the other.."''

Imam Al-Nawawi a 12th century authority of the Sunni Shafi'i madhhab said: ''"It is forbidden to give an oath to two caliphs or more, even in different parts of the world and even if they are far apart"''

Imam Al-Juzairi, a more modern expert on the Fiqh of the four Sunni madhhabs said regarding the opinion of the four Imams, ''"...It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Imams in the world whether in agreement or discord."''

Notable Caliphs

Abu Bakr: First rightly guided caliph. Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda Wars.

Umar ibn al-Khattab: Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persia.

Uthman ibn Affan: Third rightly guided caliph. The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels.

Ali ibn Abu Talib: Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict.

Muawiya I: First caliph of the Umayyad Dynasty. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid as his successor, a trend that would continue through subsequent caliphates.

Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan - Fifth caliph of Ummayad Dynasty, translated important records into Arabic, established an Islamic currency system, led additional wars against the Byzantines and ordered construction of the Dome of the Rock.

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz: Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph.

Harun al-Rashid: Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Harun is the subject of many stories in the famous work 1001 Arabian Nights.

Al-Mustansir Billah: Fatimid Caliph who led the Shi'a Caliphate to its zenith; Cairo was a center of trade and intellectual activity during his reign.

Selim I the Brave: First Caliph of the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Egypt and the Holy Cities. Defeated the powerful Shia Safavid Empire.

Suleiman the Magnificent: Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith.

Abdul Mejid II: Last Caliph of the Ottoman Dynasty, the 101st Caliph in line from Caliph Abu Bakr. On August 23, 1944, Abdul Mejid II died at his house in the Boulevard Suchet, Paris XVIe, France. He was buried at Medina, Saudi Arabia.

*

Several Arabic surnames found throughout the Middle East are derived from the word ''khalifa''. These include: Khalif, Khalifa, Khillif, Kalif, Kalaf, Khalaf, and Kaylif. The usage of this title as a surname is comparable to the existence of surnames such as King, Duke, and Noble in the English language.

Dynasties

The more important dynasties include:

The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661–750), followed by:

The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750–1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluk control) (1260–1517).

The Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (909–1171). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the list here.

The Rahmanids, a surviving branch of the Damascus Umayyads, established "in exile" as emirs of Córdoba, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliphs of Cordoba; not universally accepted; 929–1031).

The Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain (not universally accepted; 1145–1269). Traced their descent not from Muhammad, but from a puritanic reformer in Morocco who claimed to be the Mahdi (a puritanic reformer in Morocco, bringing down the "decadent" Almoravid emirate) whose son established a sultanate and claimed to be a caliph.

The Ottomans (1517–1924; main title Padishah, also known as Great Sultan etc.), assumed the title after defeating the Mamluk Sultanate and used it sporadically between the 16th and early 20th centuries.

Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was Abd-ar-rahman I. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From 756 to 929, this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until Abd-ar-rahman III reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until 929. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the Umayyad article.

Claims to the caliphate

Many local rulers throughout Islamic history have claimed to be caliphs. Most claims were ignored outside their limited domains. In many cases, these claims were made by rebels against established authorities and died when the rebellion was crushed. Notable claimants include:

Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, who held the Hijaz against the Ummayad، certain scholars considered him a legitimate caliph, being a close companion of Muhammad. His rebellion, centered in Makkah, was crushed by an infamous Umayyad general, Hajjaj. Hajjaj's attack caused some damage in Makkah, and necessitated the rebuilding of the Kaaba.

Caliph of the Sudan, a Songhai king of the Sahel.

The Zaydi Imams of Yemen, had been using the title for centuries and continued to use the title till 1962.

Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, proclaimed himself caliph at Medina (see Sharifian Caliphate) two days after the office was abolished by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The Saudis, realizing that a unified Islamic government would pose a threat to the absolute monarchy that they held over Arabia, quickly defeated his movement.

See also

Sunni view of the Sahaba

Amir al-Mu'minin

Caliphate

Khalifatul Masih

List of Caliphs

Sheikh ul-Islam

Succession to Muhammad

References

Bibliography

Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. ''God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0521321859.

Donner, Fred. ''The Early Islamic Conquests''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981. ISBN 0691053278.

External links

Ahmadiyya Muslim Caliphs

Worldstatesmen.org

Hizb-ut-tahrir UK website

Khilafah.com official website

Caliphate.eu official website

Islam's World Kahifa Election

Category:Arabic words and phrases * * Category:Gubernatorial titles Category:Heads of state Category:Islamic philosophy Category:Religious leadership roles Category:Sharia Category:Noble titles Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership Category:Turkish titles

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name	Ennio Morricone
background	non_performing_personnel
birth date	November 10, 1928
alias	Maestro
genre	Film music, Classical music, Pop music, Jazz, Lounge music, Easy listening
origin	Rome, Italy
occupation	Composer, orchestrator, music director, conductor, trumpeter
associated acts	Bruno Nicolai, Alessandro Alessandroni, Mina, Yo-Yo Ma, Mireille Mathieu, Joan Baez, Andrea Bocelli, Roger Waters, Sarah Brightman, Amii Stewart, Paul Anka, Milva, Gianni Morandi, Dalida, Catherine Spaak, Pet Shop Boys, Hayley Westenra, and others
years active	1946 – present
website	http://www.enniomorricone.it }}

Ennio Morricone,Grand Officer OMRI, , (born November 10, 1928) is an Italian composer and conductor.

For over five decades he has composed and arranged music for more than 400 motion pictures including some award-winning film scores as well as several symphonic and choral pieces. He wrote the characteristic film scores of Leone's Spaghetti Westerns ''A Fistful of Dollars'' (1964), ''For a Few Dollars More'' (1965), ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966) and ''Once Upon a Time in the West'' (1968). In the 80s, Morricone composed the scores for Leone's ''Once Upon a Time in America'' (1984), Roland Joffé's ''The Mission'' (1986), Brian De Palma's ''The Untouchables'' (1987) and Giuseppe Tornatore's ''Cinema Paradiso'' (1988). His more recent compositions include the scores for ''The Legend of 1900'' (1998), ''Malèna'' (2000), ''Fateless'' (2005), and ''Baaria - La porta del vento'' (2009).

Morricone has received two Grammy Awards, two Golden Globes, five BAFTAs during 1979–1992, seven David di Donatello, eight Nastro d'Argento, and the Polar Music Prize in 2010. In 2007, he received the Academy Honorary Award "for his magnificent and multifaceted contributions to the art of film music". The composer also has been nominated for five Oscars in the category of Best Original Score during 1979–2001, but has never won competitively.

Life and career

Classical music

Ennio Morricone was born in Rome, the son of Libera and Mario Morricone, a jazz trumpeter. Morricone wrote his first compositions when he was six years old and was encouraged to develop his natural talents. Compelled to take up the trumpet, he attended the National Academy of Santa Cecilia to take lessons on the instrument at the age of nine. Morricone formally entered the conservatory in 1940 at the age of 12, enrolling in a four-year harmony program. According to various reports, he completed it in either two years or six months (date approximate). He studied the trumpet, composition, choral music, and choral direction under Goffredo Petrassi, who deeply influenced him and to whom Morricone has dedicated concert pieces.

These were the difficult years of World War II in the heavily bombed "open city"; the composer remarked that what he mostly remembered of those years was the hunger. His wartime experiences influenced many of his scores for films set in that period.

After he graduated, he continued to work in classical composition and arrangement. In 1946, Morricone received his trumpet diploma and in the same year he composed "Il Mattino" ("The Morning") for voice and piano on a text by Fukuko, first in a group of 7 "youth" Lieder. Other serious compositions are "Imitazione" (1947) for voice and piano on a text by Giacomo Leopardi and "Intimità" for voice and piano on a text by Olinto Dini.

In the early 1950s, Morricone began writing his first background music for radio dramas. Nonetheless he continued composing classical pieces as "Distacco I e Distacco II" for voice and piano on a text by Ranieri Gnoli, "Verrà la Morte" for contralto and piano on a text by Cesare Pavese, "Oboe Sommerso" for baritone and five instruments on a text by Salvatore Quasimodo.

Although the composer had received the "Diploma in Instrumentation for Band" (fanfare) in 1952, his studies concluded in 1954, obtaining a diploma in Composition under the composer Goffredo Petrassi. In 1955, Morricone started to write or arrange music for films credited to other already well-known composers (ghost writing). He occasionally adopted Anglicized pseudonyms, such as Dan Savio and Leo Nichols.

Morricone wrote more works in the climate of the Italian avant-garde. A few of these compositions have been made available on CD, such as "Ut", his trumpet concerto dedicated to the soloist Mauro Maur, one of his favorite musicians; some have yet to be premiered. From the mid-sixties and onwards, he was part of Gruppo di Improvvisazione di Nuova Consonanza, a group of composers who performed and recorded avant garde free improvisations, even scoring a few films during the 1970s.

Public reputation

In 1956, Morricone started to support his family by playing in a jazz band and arranging pop songs for the Italian broadcasting service RAI. He was hired by RAI in 1958, but quit his job on his first day at work when he was told that broadcasting of music composed by employees was forbidden by a company rule. Subsequently, Morricone became a top studio arranger at RCA, working with Renato Rascel, Rita Pavone, and Mario Lanza. A particular success was one of his own songs, "Se telefonando". Performed by Mina, it was a standout track of ''Studio Uno 66'', the fifth-biggest-selling album of the year 1966 in Italy. Morricone's sophisticated arrangement of "Se telefonando" was a combination of melodic trumpet lines, Hal Blaine–style drumming, a string set, a '60s Europop female choir, and intensive subsonic-sounding trombones. The Italian Hitparade #7 song had eight transitions of tonality building tension throughout the chorus. During the following decades, the song was covered by several performers in Italy and abroad—most notably by Françoise Hardy and Iva Zanicchi (1966), Delta V (2005), Vanessa and the O's (2007), and Neil Hannon (2008). In the reader's poll conducted by the la Repubblica newspaper to celebrate Mina's 70th anniversary in 2010, 30,000 voters picked the track as the best song ever recorded by Mina. Throughout the '60s Morricone composed songs for other artists including Milva, Gianni Morandi, Paul Anka, Amii Stewart, and Mireille Mathieu.

Leone film scores

Well-versed in a variety of musical idioms from his RCA experience, Morricone began composing film scores in the early 1960s. Though his first films were undistinguished, Morricone's arrangement of an American folk song intrigued director and former schoolmate Sergio Leone. Leone hired Morricone, and together they created a distinctive score to accompany Leone's different version of the Western, ''A Fistful of Dollars'' (1964). As budget strictures limited Morricone's access to a full orchestra, he used gunshots, cracking whips, whistle, voices, guimbarde (jaw harp), trumpets, and the new Fender electric guitar, instead of orchestral arrangements of Western standards à la John Ford. Morricone used his special effects to punctuate and comically tweak the action—cluing in the audience to the taciturn man's ironic stance. Though sonically bizarre for a movie score, Morricone's music was viscerally true to Leone's vision. As memorable as Leone's close-ups, harsh violence, and black comedy, Morricone's work helped to expand the musical possibilities of film scoring. Morricone was initially billed on the film as Dan Savio.

Morricone composed music for about 40 Westerns (the last was ''North Star'' (1996)), most of them Spaghetti Westerns. He scored Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Westerns, from ''A Fistful of Dollars'' (1964) and including ''For a Few Dollars More'' (1965), ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966), and ''Once Upon a Time in the West'' (1968), as well as later films such as ''A Fistful of Dynamite'' (1971), ''My Name Is Nobody'' (1973), and ''A Genius, Two Partners and a Dupe'' (1975). The collaboration with Leone is considered one of the exemplary collaborations between a director and a composer.

In addition, Morricone composed music for many other, not so popular Spaghetti Westerns, including ''Duello nel Texas'' (1963), ''Le pistole non discutono'' (1964), ''A Pistol for Ringo'' (1965), ''The Return of Ringo'' (1965), ''Navajo Joe'' (1966), ''The Big Gundown'', (1966), ''Face to Face'' (1967), ''Death Rides a Horse'' (1967), ''The Hellbenders'' (1967), ''A Bullet for the General'' (1967), ''The Mercenary'' (1968), ''Tepepa'' (1968), ''The Great Silence'' (1968), ''Guns for San Sebastian'' (1968), ''…And for a Roof a Sky Full of Stars'' (1968), ''The Five Man Army'' (1969), ''Queimada!'' (1969), ''Vamos a matar, compañeros'' (1970), ''Two Mules for Sister Sara'' (1970), ''Sonny and Jed'' (1972), and ''Buddy Goes West'' (1981).

Ensemble

With the score of ''A Fistful of Dollars'', Morricone began his 10-year collaboration with his childhood friend Alessandro Alessandroni and his Cantori Moderni. Alessandroni provided the whistling and the twanging guitar on the film scores, while his Cantori Moderni were a flexible troupe of modern singers. Morricone specifically exploited the solo soprano of the group, Edda Dell'Orso, at the height of her powers—"an extraordinary voice at my disposal".

Other film scores

Most of Morricone's film scores of the 1960s were composed outside the Spaghetti Western genre, while still using Alessandroni's team. Their music included the themes for ''Il Malamondo'' (1964), ''Slalom'' (1965), ''The Battle of Algiers'' (1965), and ''Listen, Let's Make Love'' (1967). In 1968, Morricone reduced his work outside the movie business and wrote scores for 20 films in the same year. The scores included psychedelic accompaniment for Mario Bava's superhero romp ''Danger: Diabolik'' (1968). The next year marked the start of a series of evocative scores for Dario Argento's stylized thrillers, including ''The Bird with the Crystal Plumage'' (1969), ''The Cat o' Nine Tails'' (1971), and ''Four Flies on Grey Velvet'' (1974). In 1970, Morricone wrote the score for ''Violent City''. That same year, he received his first Nastro d'Argento for the music in ''Metti una sera a cena'' (Giuseppe Patroni Griffi, 1969) and his second only a year later for ''Sacco e Vanzetti'' (Giuliano Montaldo, 1971), in which he had made a memorable collaboration with the legendary American folk singer and activist Joan Baez. In 1973, he scored a theme for the crime film ''Revolver'' (1973). He received his first nomination for an Academy Award in 1979 for the score to ''Days of Heaven'' (Terrence Malick, 1978) and another in 1986 for ''The Mission'' (Roland Joffé, 1986), in 1987 for ''The Untouchables'' (Brian De Palma, 1987), in 1991 for ''Bugsy'' (Barry Levinson, 1991), and in 2001 for ''Malèna'' (Giuseppe Tornatore, 2000). Morricone composed the score for John Carpenter's science-fiction/horror movie ''The Thing'' (1982) as well as Brian De Palma's war drama ''Casualties of War'' (1989).

Morricone has worked for television, from a single title piece to variety shows and documentaries to TV series, including the US TV Western ''The Virginian'' (1971), ''Moses'' (1974) and ''Marco Polo'' (1982). One notable composition, "Chi Mai" was used in the films, ''Maddalena'' (1971) and ''Le Professionnel'' (1981) as well as the TV series ''The Life and Times of David Lloyd George'' (1981). It was a surprise hit in the UK, almost topping the charts. He wrote the score for the Mafia television series ''La piovra'' seasons 2 to 10 from 1985 to 2001, including the themes "Droga e sangue" ("Drugs and Blood"), "La morale", and "L'immorale". Morricone worked as the conductor of seasons 3 to 5 of the series. He also worked as the music supervisor for the television project ''La bibbia'' ("The Bible"). In the late 1990s, he collaborated with his son, Andrea, on the ''Ultimo'' crime dramas. Their collaboration yielded the BAFTA-winning ''Nuovo cinema Paradiso''. In 2003, Ennio Morricone scored another epic, for Japanese television, called ''Musashi'' and was the Taiga drama about Miyamoto Musashi, Japan's legendary warrior. A part of his "applied music" is now applied to Italian television films.

Concerts and conducting

Since 2001, Morricone has been on a world tour, the latter part sponsored by Giorgio Armani, with the Orchestra Roma Sinfonietta, touring London (Barbican 2001; 75th birthday ''Concerto'', Royal Albert Hall 2003), Paris, Verona, and Tokyo. Morricone performed his classic film scores at the Munich Philharmonie in 2005 and Hammersmith Apollo Theatre in London, UK, on 2006-12-01 and 2006-12-02.

He made his North American concert debut on January 29, 2007 Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City and four days later at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The previous evening, Morricone had already presented at the United Nations a concert comprising some of his film themes, as well as the cantata ''Voci dal silenzio'' to welcome the new Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon. A ''Los Angeles Times'' review bemoaned the poor acoustics and opined of Morricone: "His stick technique is adequate, but his charisma as a conductor is zero." Morricone, though, has said: "Conducting has never been important to me. If the audience comes for my gestures, they had better stay outside."

On December 12, 2007, Morricone conducted the Roma Sinfonietta at the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna, presenting a selection of his own works. Together with the Roma Sinfonietta and the Belfast Philharmonic Choir, Morricone performed at the Opening Concerts of the Belfast Festival at Queen's, in the Waterfront Hall on October 17 and 18, 2008. Morricone and Roma Sinfonietta also held a concert at the Belgrade Arena (Belgrade, Serbia) on February 14, 2009.

On April 10, 2010, Morricone conducted a concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London with the Roma Sinfonietta and (as in all of his previous London concerts) the Crouch End Festival Chorus. On August 27, 2010, he conducted a concert in Hungary. Two other concerts took place in Verona and Sofia (Bulgaria) on 11 and 17 September 2010.

Influence

Oscar-winning film composer Hans Zimmer has called Ennio Morricone his favorite composer in the world. Zimmer's ''Parlay'' in ''Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End'' Soundtrack is a tribute to Ennio Morricone's ''Man with a Harmonica''.

Morricone's influence also extends into the realm of pop music. Hugo Montenegro had a hit with a version of the main theme from ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' in both the United Kingdom and the United States. This was followed by his album of Morricone's music in 1968.

Aside from his music having been sampled by everyone from rappers (Jay-Z) to electronic outfits (the Orb), Morricone wrote "Se Telefonando", which became Italy's fifth biggest-selling record of 1966 and has since been re-recorded by Françoise Hardy, among many others, and scored the strings for "Dear God, Please Help Me" on Morrissey's 2006 "Ringleader of the Tormentors" album.

Morricone's film music was also recorded by many artists. John Zorn recorded an album of Morricone's music, ''The Big Gundown'', with Keith Rosenberg in the mid-1980s. Lyricists and poets have helped convert some of his melodies into a songbook.

Morricone collaborated with world music artists, like Portuguese fado singer Dulce Pontes (in 2003 with ''Focus'', an album praised by Paulo Coelho and where his songbook can be sampled) and virtuoso cellist Yo-Yo Ma (in 2004), who both recorded albums of Morricone classics with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra and Morricone himself conducting.

In 1990 the American singer Amii Stewart, best known for the 1979 disco hit "Knock On Wood", recorded a tribute album entitled ''Pearls - Amii Stewart Sings Ennio Morricone'' for the RCA label, including a selection of the composer's best known songs. Since the mid 1980s Stewart resides in Italy, the ''Pearls'' album features Rome's Philharmonic Orchestra and was co-produced by Morricone himself.

The 2003 Quentin Tarantino film ''Kill Bill'' Volumes 1 & 2 makes extensive use of several Morricone pieces from several 1960s film scores. The 2009 film ''Inglourious Basterds'' also uses many Morricone pieces, as well as sharing "Il Mercenario (Ripresa)" with Kill Bill.

Metallica uses Morricone's ''The Ecstasy of Gold'' as an intro at their concerts (shock jocks Opie and Anthony also use the song at the start of their XM Satellite Radio and CBS Radio shows.) The San Francisco Symphony Orchestra also played it on Metallica's Symphonic rock album S&M;. Ramones used the theme from ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' as a concert intro. The theme from ''A Fistful Of Dollars'' is also used as a concert intro by The Mars Volta.

His influence extends from Michael Nyman to Muse. He even has his own tribute band, a large group which started in Australia, touring as The Ennio Morricone Experience.

Morricone is mentioned by Myles, a musician/scorer (played by Jack Black in "The Holiday" [2006 film]), as creator of magical sounds that formed a charracter as much as lines of music in his films. This played out in a scene at a video rental store between Black and actress Kate Winslett.

In 2007, the tribute album ''We All Love Ennio Morricone'' was released. It features performances by various artists, including Sarah Brightman, Andrea Bocelli, Celine Dion, Bruce Springsteen and Metallica.

British band Muse cites Morricone as an influence for the songs "City of Delusion", "Hoodoo", and "Knights of Cydonia" on their album ''Black Holes and Revelations''.. The band has recently started playing the song "Man With A Harmonica" live played by Chris Wolstenholme, as an intro to "Knights of Cydonia".

In January 2010, tenor Donald Braswell II released his album "We Fall and We Rise Again" on which he presented his tribute to Ennio Morricone with his original composition entitled "Ennio".

Recent activity

Morricone provided the string arrangements on Morrissey's "Dear God Please Help Me" from the album ''Ringleader of the Tormentors'' in 2006.

Quentin Tarantino originally wanted Morricone to compose the soundtrack for his most recent film, ''Inglourious Basterds''. However, Morricone refused because of the sped-up production schedule of the film. Tarantino did use several Morricone tracks from previous films in the soundtrack.

Morricone instead wrote the music for Baaria - La porta del vento, the most recent movie by Giuseppe Tornatore. The composer is also writing music for Tornatore's upcoming movie Leningrad.

In spring and summer 2010, Morricone worked with Hayley Westenra for a collaboration on her album ''Paradiso''. The album features new songs written by Morricone, as well as some of his best known film compositions of the last 50 years. Hayley recorded the album with Morricone's orchestra in Rome during the summer of 2010.

Personal life

On 13 October 1956, he married Maria Travia and had his first son, Marco, in 1957. Travia has written lyrics to complement her husband's pieces. Her works include the Latin texts for ''The Mission''. They have three sons and a daughter, in order of birth: Marco, Alessandra, the conductor and film composer Andrea (Andrew), and Giovanni (a filmmaker who lives in New York City).

Discography

Ennio Morricone has sold over 50 million records worldwide, including 6.5 million copies in France and more than two million albums in Korea.

Top worldwide film grosses

Ennio Morricone has been involved with eight movies grossing over $25 million at the box office:

{|class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Year !! class="unsortable"|Title !! class="unsortable"|Director !! Gross |- | 1966 || ''The Good, The Bad & The Ugly'' || Sergio Leone || $25,100,000 |- | 1977 || ''Exorcist II: The Heretic'' || John Boorman || $30,749,142 |- | 1987 || ''The Untouchables'' || Brian De Palma || $76,270,454 |- | 1991 || ''Bugsy'' || Barry Levinson || $49,114,016 |- | 1993 || ''In the Line of Fire'' || Wolfgang Petersen || $176,997,168 |- | 1994 || ''Wolf'' || Mike Nichols || $131,002,597 |- | 1994 || ''Disclosure'' || Barry Levinson || $214,015,089 |- | 2000 || ''Mission to Mars'' || Brian De Palma || $110,983,407 |}

Other successful movies with Morricone's work are ''Kill Bill Vol. 1 & 2'' (2003, 2004) and ''Inglourious Basterds'' (2009), though the tracks used are sampled from older pictures.

Awards

Academy Honorary Award

Morricone received an honorary Academy Award on February 25, 2007, presented by Clint Eastwood, "for his magnificent and multifaceted contributions to the art of film music." With the statuette came a standing ovation. Though nominated five times, he had not previously received an Oscar. In conjunction with the honor, Morricone released a tribute album, ''We All Love Ennio Morricone'', that featured as its centerpiece Celine Dion's rendition of "I Knew I Loved You" (based on "Deborah's Theme" from ''Once Upon a Time in America''), which she performed at the ceremony. Behind-the-scenes studio production and recording footage of "I Knew I Loved You" can be viewed in the debut episode of the QuincyJones.com Podcast. The lyric, as with Morricone's ''Love Affair'', had been penned by Oscar-winning husband-and-wife duo Marilyn and Alan Bergman. Morricone's acceptance speech was in his native Italian tongue and was interpreted by Clint Eastwood, who stood to his left. Eastwood and Morricone had in fact met two days earlier—for the first time in 40 years—at a reception.

Morricone and Alex North are the only composers to receive the honorary Oscar since the award's introduction in 1928. North was nominated for fifteen Oscars, but like Morricone, he never won competitively.

List of prizes and awards

1965 — Nastro d'Argento for ''A Fistful of Dollars''

1967 — Diapason d'Or

1969 — Premio Spoleto Cinema

1970 — Nastro d'argento for ''Metti una sera a cena''

1971 — Nastro d'argento for ''Sacco e Vanzetti''

1972 — Cork Film International for ''La califfa''

1979 — Academy Awards nomination for ''Days of Heaven''

1979 — Premio Vittorio de Sica

1981 — Premio della critica discografica for ''Il prato''

1984 — Premio Zurlini

1985 — Nastro d'argento and BAFTA for ''Once Upon A Time In America''

1986 — Academy Awards Nomination, BAFTA and Golden Globe Awards for ''The Mission''

1986 — ''Premio Vittorio de Sica''

1988 — Academy Awards nomination, Nastro d'argento, BAFTA and Grammy Awards for ''The Untouchables''

1988 — David di Donatello for ''Gli occhiali d'oro''

1989 — David di Donatello for ''Nuovo Cinema Paradiso''

1989 — Ninth Annual Ace Winner for ''Il Giorno prima''

1989 — Pardo d'Oro alla carriera Locarno Film Festival

1990 — BAFTA, Prix Fondation Sacem del XLIII Cannes Film Festival and David di Donatello for ''Nuovo Cinema Paradiso''

1991 — David di Donatello for ''Stanno tutti bene''

1992 — Academy Award nomination for ''Bugsy''

1992 — Pentagramma d'oro

1992 — Premio Michelangelo

1992 — Grolla d'oro alla carriera (Saint Vincent)

1993 — David di Donatello and Efebo d'Argento for ''Jonas che visse nella balena''

1993 — Globo d'oro Stampa estera in Italia

1993 — Gran Premio SACEM audiovisivi

1994 — ASCAP ''Golden Soundtrack Award'' (Los Angeles)

1995 — Premio Rota

1995 — Golden Lion Honorary Award by the Venice Film Festival

1996 — ''Premio citta' di Roma''

1996 — ''Premio Cappelli''

1996 — Premio Accademia di Santa Cecilia

1997 — Premio Flaiano

1998 — Columbus Prize

1999 — Erich Wolfgang Korngold Internationaler Preis für Film

1999 — Exsquibbidles Film Academy lifetime achievement award

2000 — Golden Globe for ''The Legend of 1900'' (1998)

2000 — David di Donatello and Nastro d'argento for ''Canone Inverso''

2000 — Academy Awards nomination for ''Malèna''

2000 — Nastro d'argento for ''Malèna''

2001 — Mikeldi de Honor at "Zinebi - International Festival of Documentary and Short Films" of Bilbao

2002 — Honorary Degree by the "Seconda Università" of Rome

2003 — Golden Eagle Award by the Russian National Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences of Russia for ''72 Meters (film)''

2003 — Honorary Senator of the Filmscoring Class of the Hochschule für Musik und Theater München

2006 — Grand Officer OMRI, nominated by Carlo Azeglio Ciampi

2007 — Honorary Academy Award for career achievement

2007 — The Film & TV Music Award for Lifetime Achievement

2007 — David di Donatello and Nastro d'argento for ''La sconosciuta''

2008 — Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental, performed by Bruce Springsteen

2008 — Knight of the Legion of Honour

2009 — Medal of Merits for Macedonia

2009 — America Award of the Italy-USA Foundation

2010 — Polar Music Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of the Arts

Sources

Horace, B. ''Music from the Movies'', film music journal double issue 45/46, 2005: ISSN 0967-8131

Miceli, Sergio. ''Morricone, la musica, il cinema''. Milan: Mucchi/Ricordi, 1994: ISBN 88-7592-398-1

Miceli, Sergio. "Morricone, Ennio". ''The Nesw Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 3. Dal 1960 al 1969''. Gremese, 1993: ISBN 88-7605-593-2

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979* A/L''. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-935-0

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979** M/Z''. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-969-5

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989* A/L''. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-423-0

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989** M/Z''. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-429-X

References

Further reading

Lhassa, Anne, and Jean Lhassa: ''Ennio Morricone: biographie''. Les Planches. Lausanne: Favre; [Paris]: [diff. Inter-forum], 1989. ISBN 2-8289-0418-0,

Wagner, Thorsten. "Improvisation als 'weiteste Ausdehnung des Begriffs der aleatorischen Musik': Franco Evangelisti und die Improvisationsgruppe Nuova Consonanza". In ''...hin zu einer neuen Welt: Notate zu Franco Evangelisti'', edited by Harald Muenz,.48-60, 2002. Saarbrücken: Pfau-Verlag. ISBN 3-89727-177-X.

Webb, Michael D. ''Italian 20th Century Music: The Quest for Modernity''. London: Kahn & Averill. ISBN 978-1-871082-89-0

External links

Ennio Morricone Myspace

The Ennio Morricone Online Community

Streaming audio of Morricone's "The Man with the Harmonica," from his soundtrack to ''Once upon a Time in the West''

TÊTE-À-TÊTE: Ennio Morricone by Nic Harcourt at Los Angeles Times Magazine

Category:1928 births Category:20th-century classical composers Category:Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia alumni Category:Academy Honorary Award recipients Category:BAFTA winners (people) Category:European Film Awards winners (people) Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Italian composers Category:Italian film score composers Category:Living people Category:Virgin Records artists Category:People from Rome (city) Category:Spaghetti Western composers

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name	Yo-Yo Ma馬友友
background	non_vocal_instrumentalist
birth date	October 07, 1955
birth place	Paris, France
instrument	Cello, piano, viola, violin
genre	Classical
occupation	Cellist, composer, pedagogue
years active	''fl. ca.'' 1961–''present''
label	CBS, RCA, Sony Classical
associated acts	Silk Road Ensemble
website	yo-yoma.com
notable instruments	Violoncello''Davydov 1712'' StradivariusDomenico Montagnana 1733Luis and Clark }}

)}}

Yo-Yo Ma (born October 7, 1955) is a French-born Chinese American cellist, virtuoso, and orchestral composer. He has received multiple Grammy Awards, the National Medal of Arts in 2001 and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011. Ma is regarded by some as the most famous cellist of the modern age.

Early life

Yo-Yo Ma was born in Paris on October 7, 1955, to Chinese parents and had a musical upbringing. His mother, Marina Lu, was a singer, and his father, Hiao-Tsiun Ma, was a violinist and professor of music at Nanjing National Central University. His family moved to New York when he was five years old.

At a very young age, Ma began studying violin, and later viola, before settling on the cello in 1960 at age four. According to Ma, his first choice was the double bass due to its large size, but he compromised and took up cello instead. The child prodigy began performing before audiences at age five, and performed for Presidents John F. Kennedy and Dwight D. Eisenhower when he was seven. At age eight, he appeared on American television with his sister, Yeou-Cheng Ma, in a concert conducted by Leonard Bernstein. By fifteen years of age, Ma had graduated from Trinity School in New York and appeared as a soloist with the Harvard Radcliffe Orchestra in a performance of the Tchaikovsky ''Rococo Variations''.

Ma studied at the Juilliard School at age nine with Leonard Rose and briefly attended Columbia University before ultimately enrolling at Harvard University later on. Prior to entering Harvard, Ma played in the Marlboro Festival Orchestra under the direction of nonagenarian cellist and conductor Pablo Casals. Ma would ultimately spend four summers at the Marlboro Music Festival after meeting and falling in love with Mount Holyoke College sophomore and festival administrator Jill Hornor his first summer there in 1972.

However, even before that time, Ma had steadily gained fame and had performed with most of the world's major orchestras. His recordings and performances of Johann Sebastian Bach's Cello Suites recorded in 1983 and again in 1994–1997 are particularly acclaimed. He has also played a good deal of chamber music, often with the pianist Emanuel Ax, with whom he has a close friendship back from their days together at the Juilliard School of Music in New York.

Ma received his bachelor's degree from Harvard in 1976. In 1991, he received an honorary doctorate from Harvard.

Career

Ma currently plays with his own Silk Road Ensemble, which has the goal of bringing together musicians from diverse countries all of which are historically linked via the Silk Road, and records on the Sony Classical label. Ma's primary performance instrument is the cello nicknamed ''Petunia'', built by Domenico Montagnana in 1733. It was named this by a female student that approached him after one of his classes in Salt Lake City asking if he had a nickname for his cello. He said, "No, but if I play for you, will you name it?" She chose Petunia, and it stuck. This cello, more than 270 years old and valued at US$2.5 million, was lost in the fall of 1999 when Ma accidentally left the instrument in a taxicab in New York City. It was later recovered undamaged. Another of Ma's cellos, the ''Davidov Stradivarius'', was previously owned by Jacqueline du Pré who passed it to him upon her death, and owned by the Vuitton Foundation. Though Du Pré previously voiced her frustration with the "unpredictability" of this cello, Ma attributed the comment to du Pré's impassioned style of playing, adding that the Stradivarius cello must be "coaxed" by the player. It was until recently set up in a Baroque manner, since Ma exclusively played Baroque music on it. He also owns a modern cello made by Peter and Wendela Moes of Peissenberg, Germany, and one of carbon fiber by the Luis and Clark company of Boston.

In 1997 he was featured on John Williams' soundtrack to the Hollywood film, ''Seven Years in Tibet''. In 2000, he was heard on the soundtrack of ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'', and in 2003 on that of ''Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World''. He collaborated with Williams again on the original score for the 2005 film ''Memoirs of a Geisha''. Yo-Yo Ma has also worked with world-renowned Italian composer Ennio Morricone and has recorded Morricone's compositions of the Dollars Trilogy including ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly''. He also has over 75 albums, 15 of which are Grammy Award winners. Ma is a recipient of the International Center in New York's Award of Excellence.

Ma was named Peace Ambassador by UN then Secretary-General Kofi Annan in January 2006.

On November 3, 2009, President Obama appointed Ma to serve on the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. His music was featured in the 2010 documentary ''Jews and Baseball: An American Love Story'', narrated by Academy Award winner Dustin Hoffman.

Playing style

thumb|right|Ma with Condoleezza Rice after performing a duet at the presentation of the 2001 National Medal of Arts and National Humanities Medal Awards.Ma has been referred to as "omnivorous" by critics, and possesses a more eclectic repertoire than is typical for classical musicians. A sampling of his versatility in addition to numerous recordings of the standard classical repertoire would include his recordings of Baroque pieces using period instruments; American bluegrass music; traditional Chinese melodies including the soundtrack to the film ''Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon''; the tangos of Argentinian composer Ástor Piazzolla; an eclectic and unusual collaboration with Bobby McFerrin (where Ma admitted to being terrified of the improvisation McFerrin pushed him toward); as well as the music of modern minimalist Philip Glass in such works as the 2002 piece ''Naqoyqatsi''. He is known for his smooth, rich tone as well as his considerable virtuosity, including a cello recording of Niccolò Paganini's 24th Caprice for solo violin, Zoltán Kodály's cello sonata, and other demanding works.

Notable live performances

Ma performed a duet with Condoleezza Rice at the presentation of the 2001 National Medal of Arts and National Humanities Medal Awards. Ma was the first performer on September 11, 2002, at the site of the World Trade Center, while the first of the names of the dead were read in remembrance on the first anniversary of the attack on the WTC. He played the Sarabande from Bach's ''Suite in C minor (#5)''. He performed a special arrangement of Sting's "Fragile" with Sting and the Mormon Tabernacle Choir during the opening ceremonies of the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah. Ma has also appeared as a ''Pennington Great Performers'' series artist with the Baton Rouge Symphony Orchestra in 2005.

He performed John Williams' "Air and Simple Gifts" at the inauguration ceremony for Barack Obama on January 20, 2009, along with Itzhak Perlman (violin), Gabriela Montero (piano) and Anthony McGill (clarinet). While the quartet did play live, the music played simultaneously over speakers and on television was a recording made two days prior due to concerns over the cold weather damaging the instruments. Ma was quoted as saying "A broken string was not an option. It was wicked cold."

On May 3, 2009, Ma performed the world premiere of Bruce Adolphe's "Self Comes to Mind" for solo cello and two percussionists with John Ferrari and Ayano Kataoka at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. The work is based on a poetic description written for the composer of the evolution of brain into mind by neuroscientist Antonio Damasio, and featured, at the premiere, a film of brain scans provided by Hanna Damasio plus other images, coordinated with the music during the performance.

On August 29, 2009, Ma performed at the funeral mass for Senator Edward M. Kennedy. Pieces he performed included the Sarabande movement from Bach's ''Cello Suite No. 6'', and Franck's ''Panis Angelicus'' with Placido Domingo.

On October 3, 2009, Ma appeared alongside Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper at the National Arts Centre gala in Ottawa. Harper, a noted fan of The Beatles, played the piano and sang a rendition of "With A Little Help From My Friends" while Ma accompanied him on his cello.

On October 16, 2011, Ma performed at the memorial for Steve Jobs held in Stanford University's Memorial Church.

In 2011, Ma performed with American dancer Charles "Lil Buck" Riley in the United States and in China at the U.S.-China Forum on the Arts and Culture.

Media appearances

Ma has appeared in an episode of the animated children's television series, ''Arthur'', as well as on ''The West Wing'' (episode "Noël", in which he performed the prelude to the Bach Cello Suite No.1 at a Christmas dinner at the White House), ''Sesame Street'' and ''Mister Rogers' Neighborhood''. In ''The Simpsons'' episode "Missionary: Impossible", Ma, (voiced by Hank Azaria) runs after Homer Simpson along with many other frequent guests of PBS.

He also starred in the visual accompaniment to his recordings of Bach's ''Six Suites for Unaccompanied Cello''.

Ma was also seen with former Apple Inc. and Pixar CEO Steve Jobs. Ma was often invited to press events for Jobs's companies, and has performed on stage during event keynote presentations, as well as appearing in a commercial for the Macintosh computer.

Ma was a guest on the Not My Job segment of ''Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!'' on April 7, 2007, where he won for listener Thad Moore.

On October 27, 2008, Ma appeared as a guest and performer on ''The Colbert Report''. He was also a show's guest on November 1, 2011, where he performed songs from The Goat Rodeo Sessions with fellow musicians Stuart Duncan, Edgar Meyer and Chris Thile.

According to research done by Professor Henry Louis Gates, Jr., of Harvard University, in 2010 for the PBS series ''Faces of America'', in which Ma made an appearance, a relative had hidden the Ma family genealogy in his home in China to save it from destruction during the Cultural Revolution. Ma's paternal ancestry can be traced back eighteen generations to the year 1217. This genealogy had been compiled in the 18th century by an ancestor, tracing everyone with the surname Ma, through the paternal line, back to one common ancestor in the 3rd century BC. Ma's generation name, "Yo", had been decided by his fourth great grand-uncle, Ma Ji Cang, in 1755.

Personal life

Ma married his long-time girlfriend Jill Hornor, a German language professor, in 1977. He proposed outside her apartment. They have two children, Nicholas and Emily, and reside in Winchester, Massachusetts. Ma's elder sister, Yeou-Cheng Ma, who was also born in Paris, is a violinist married to Michael Dadap, a New York–based guitarist from the Philippines.

Discography

Awards and recognitions

Avery Fisher Prize

1978

Award of Distinction (International Cello Festival)

2007

Dan David Prize

2006

Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.) (''honoris causa'')

2005 Princeton University

Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance:

1996 ''Brahms/Beethoven/Mozart: Clarinet Trios'' (Sony 57499)

1993 ''Brahms: Sonatas for Cello & Piano'' (Sony 48191)

1992 ''Brahms: Piano Quartets Op. 25, Op. 26'' (Sony 45846)

1987 ''Beethoven: Cello and Piano Sonata No. 4 in C & Variations'' (CBS 42121)

1986 ''Brahms: Cello and Piano Sonatas in E Minor Op. 38, and F Op. 99'' (RCA 17022)

Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance:

1998 ''Yo-Yo Ma Premieres – Danielpour, Kirchner, Rouse'' (Sony Classical 66299)

1995 ''The New York Album – Works of Albert, Bartók & Bloch'' (Sony 57961)

1993 ''Prokofiev: Sinfonia Concertante/Tchaikovsky: Variations on a Rococo Theme'' (Sony 48382)

1990 ''Barber: Cello Concerto, Op. 22/Britten: Symphony for Cello and Orchestra, Op. 68'' (CBS 44900)

Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance:

1985 ''Bach: The Unaccompanied Cello Suites'' (CBS 37867)

Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition:

1995 ''The New York Album'', ''Stephen Albert: Cello Concerto'' (Sony 57961)

Grammy Award for Best Classical Album:

1998 ''Yo-Yo Ma Premieres – Danielpour, Kirchner, Rouse'' (Sony Classical 66299)

Grammy Award for Best Classical Crossover Album:

2010 ''Songs of Joy & Peace'' (Sony Classical B001BN1V8U)

2004 ''Obrigado Brazil'' (Sony 89935)

2001 ''Appalachian Journey'' (Sony 66782)

1999 ''Soul of the Tango – The Music of Ástor Piazzolla'' (Sony Classical 63122)

Glenn Gould Prize

1999

Kennedy Center Honor

2011

Latin Grammy for Best Instrumental Album

2004 ''Obrigado Brazil'' (Sony 89935)

Léonie Sonning Music Prize

2006

National Medal of Arts 2001 Presidential Medal of Freedom Nominated: November 17, 2010 Awarded: February 15, 2011

References

External links

Official Website

''About Us'', The Children's Orchestra Society, ChildrensOrch.org, 2007

Yo-Yo Ma in Conversation from WGBH Radio Boston

Yo-Yo Ma Interview on Time.com, October 2008

Yo-Yo Ma Podcast Series produced by Sony BMG Masterworks

Yo-Yo Ma TV Interview with Ennio Morricone from C Music TV

2006 Dan David Prize laureate

Welcome to Baku: Yo-Yo Ma: Silk Road Ensemble with Alim Gasimov and Fargana," by Aida Huseinova in Azerbaijan International, Vol. 14:2 (Summer 2006), p. 14

Category:American classical cellists Category:American classical musicians of Chinese descent Category:Contemporary classical music performers Category:Child classical musicians Category:Columbia University alumni Category:United States National Medal of Arts recipients Category:Emmy Award winners Category:French emigrants to the United States Category:French people of Chinese descent Category:Gemini Award winners Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Harvard University alumni Category:Juilliard School alumni Category:Musicians from Massachusetts Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:People from Paris Category:Members of Committee of 100 Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music Category:1955 births Category:Living people Category:American people of Ningbo descent Category:United Nations Messengers of Peace Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Category:People from Belmont, Massachusetts

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name	`Uthman ibn `Affan
title	Thu Al-Nurayn
reign	11 November 644 – 17 July 656
predecessor	Umar
successor	Ali
birth date	c. 579
birth place	Taif, Arabia
death date	17 July 656 (aged 76-77)
death place	Medina, Arabia
buried	Jannat al-Baqi, Madinah
spouse 1	Ramla bint Shuibat
spouse 2	Ruqayyah bint Muhammad
spouse 3	Naila
spouse 4	Fatima bint Al-Walid
spouse 5	Fakhtah bint Ghazwan
spouse 6	Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad
spouse 7	Umm Al-Banin bint Unaib
spouse 8	Umm Amr bint Jundub }}

`Uthman ibn `Affan () (c. 579 – 17 July 656) was one of the companions of Islamic prophet, Muhammad. He played a major role in early Islamic history as the third Sunni ''Rashidun'' or Rightly Guided Caliph.

`Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca, a powerful family of the Quraish tribe. He was a companion of Muhammad who assumed the role of leader (caliph) of the Muslim Empire at the age of 70 following Umar ibn al-Khattab. Under his leadership, the empire expanded into Fars in 650 (present-day Iran), some areas of Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan) in 651 and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s. Some of Uthman's notable achievements were the economic reforms he introduced, and the compilation of the Qur'an into the unified, authoritative text that is known today.

Early life

`Uthman was born in Ta’if, which is situated on a hill, and the presumption is that he was born during the summer months, since wealthy Meccans usually spent the hot summers in the cooler climate of Ta’if. He was born into the wealthy Umayyad (Banu Umayya) clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, seven years after Muhammad. `Uthman's father, Affan, died young while travelling abroad but left a large inheritance to `Uthman. `Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him one of the richest men among the Qurayshi tribe.

Conversion to Islam

`Uthman was an early convert to Islam and is said to have spent a great amount of his wealth on charity. On returning from a business trip to Syria in 611, `Uthman found out that Muhammad had declared his mission. After a discussion with his friend Abu Bakr `Uthman decided to convert to Islam, and Abu Bakr took him to Muhammad to whom he declared his faith. `Uthman thus became the fourth male to convert to Islam, after Ali, Zayd and Abu Bakr. His conversion to Islam angered his clan, the Banu Ummayyah, who strongly opposed Muhammad's teachings. The only two people who supported `Uthman's decision were Saadi, one of his maternal aunts, and Umm Kulthum, who was his stepsister and who had also converted to Islam. Because of his conversion to Islam, `Uthman's wives deserted him, and he subsequently divorced them. Muhammad then asked `Uthman to marry his daughter Ruqayyah bint Muhammad.

Migration to Abyssinia

`Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) in 614–615, along with 11 men and 11 women, all Muslims. As `Uthman already had some business contacts in Abyssinia, he continued to practise his profession as a trader. He worked hard and his business soon flourished. After two years the news had spread among the Muslims in Abyssinia that the Quraysh of Mecca had accepted Islam, and that persuaded`Uthman, Ruqayya and some other Muslims to return. However when they reached Mecca it transpired that the news about the Quraysh's acceptance of Islam was false. Some of the Muslims who had come from Abyssinia returned but `Uthman and Ruqayya decided to stay. In Mecca `Uthman had to start his business afresh, but the contacts that he had already established in Abyssinia worked in his favour and his business prospered once again.

Migration to Medina

In 622, `Uthman and his wife, Ruqayya, migrated to Medina. They were amongst the third batch of Muslims who migrated to Medina. On arrival in Medina, `Uthman stayed with Abu Talha ibn Thabit of the Banu Najjar. After a short while, `Uthman purchased a house of his own and moved there. Being one of the richest merchants of Mecca, and having amassed a considerable fortune, `Uthman did not need any financial help from his Ansari brothers, as he brought all his wealth with him to Medina. In Medina, the Muslims were generally farmers and were not very interested in trade, and thus most of the trading that took place in the town was handled by the Jews. Thus, there was considerable space for the Muslims in promoting trade and `Uthman took advantage of this position, soon establishing himself as a trader in Medina. He worked hard and honestly, and his business flourished, soon becoming one of the richest men in Medina.

Life in Medina

In 624 some Muslims from Medina departed to assist in the capture of a Quraysh caravan. At this time Uthman's wife, Ruqayya, suffered from malaria and then caught smallpox. Uthman stayed at Medina to look after the ailing Ruqayya and did not join those who left with Muhammad. Ruqayya died during the time the Battle of Badr was being fought, and the news of the victory of Badr reached Medina as she was being buried. Because of the battle Muhammad could not attend the funeral of his daughter.

After the Battle of Uhud Uthman married Muhammad's second daughter, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad. The next year Ruqayyah's son, Abd-Allah ibn Uthman, died. When the Battle of the Trench was fought in 627, Uthman was in charge of a sector of Medina. After the battle a campaign was undertaken against the Jews of Banu Qaynuqa, and when they were taken captive the question of the disposal of the slaves became a problem. Uthman solved the issue by purchasing all the slaves and depositing their price in the ''Bayt al-mal'' (Treasury). Any of these slaves who accepted Islam were set free by Uthman in the name of Allah.

Treaty of Hudaibiyah

In March of 628 (6 Hijri), Muhammad set out for Mecca to perform the ritual pilgrimage of Umra. The Quraysh denied the Muslims entry into the city and posted themselves outside Mecca, determined to show resistance, even though the Muslims had no intention or preparation for battle. Muhammad camped outside Mecca, at Hudaybiyyah, and sent Uthman as his envoy to meet with the leaders of Quraysh and negotiate Muslim entry into the city. The Quraysh made Uthman stay longer in Mecca than he originally planned and refused to inform the Muslims of his whereabouts. This caused the Muslims to believe that Uthman had been killed by the people of Quraysh. On this occasion, Muhammad gathered his nearly 1,400 soldiers and called them to pledge to fight until death and avenge the rumoured death of Uthman, which they did by placing a hand on top of Muhammad's. It is reported that Muhammad placed one of his hands on top of the other and pledged on behalf of Uthman as well. This pledge took place under a tree and was known as the Pledge of the Tree and was successful in demonstrating to the Quraysh the determination of the Muslims. They soon released Uthman and sent down an ambassador of their own, Suhail ibn Amr to negotiate terms of a treaty that later became known as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.

Muhammad's last years

In 629, Uthman fought in the Battle of Khaybar and later that year, he followed Muhammad to perform Umrah in Mecca. While in Mecca he visited his mother and found that his family was not as hostile to Islam as they used to be. In 630, the Quraysh broke the treaty of Hudaibiyah, and the Muslims attacked and conquered Mecca. General amnesty was granted to the people of the city, although an exception was made in the case of half a dozen people. Amongst those not granted amnesty was Abdullah ibn Saad, a foster brother of Uthman. Later, following an appeal by Abdullah's mother to Uthman, he was forgiven by Muhammad. Following the Conquest of Mecca Uthman's family converted to Islam and he rejoined his mother and siblings. Two weeks later, under the command of Muhammad, he participated in the Battle of Hunayn which was followed by the Siege of Ta'if.

To Uthman, the conquest of Mecca and Ta’if were of particular significance, as he had considerable property in both cities, and he could now profitably develop them. He was also able to set up sub-offices for his businesses at Mecca and Ta’if. Uthman's wife, and the daughter of Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, died soon after the conquest of Mecca.

In 630 Muhammad decided to lead an expedition to Tabuk on the Syrian border. In order to finance the expedition Muhammad invited contributions from his followers. Uthman made the largest contribution: 1,000 dinars in cash, 1,000 camels for transport, and horses for the cavalry, which Muhammad greatly appreciated. In 631, along with other Muslims, Uthman moved to Mecca to perform Hajj under Abu Bakr while Muhammad stayed in Medina. In Mecca Uthman married Umm Saeed Fatima bint Al Walid b Abd Shams, a Qurayshi lady, and returned to Medina with her.

In 632, along with Muhammad, Uthman participated in The Farewell Pilgrimage. In 632 Muhammad died, and, like other Muslims, Uthman was griefstricken.

Caliph Abu Bakr's era (632–634)

Uthman had a very close relationship with Abu Bakr, as it was due to him that Uthman had converted to Islam. When Abu Bakr was elected as the Caliph, Uthman was the first person after Umar to offer his allegiance. During the Ridda wars (Wars of Apostasy), Uthman remained at Medina, acting as Abu Bakr's adviser. On his death bed, Abu Bakr dictated his will to Uthman, saying that his successor was to be Umar.

Caliph Umar's era (634–644)

Uthman was the first person to offer his allegiance to Umar. During the reign of Umar, Uthman remained at Medina as his adviser, and a member of his advisory council. Umar did not allow the companions, including Uthman, to leave Medina. The reason for this was that Umar didn't wish for the companions, who were famous and respected among the Muslims, to spread and have their own followers, which would, it was felt, have resulted in unnecessary divisions in Islam.

During the reign of Umar, considerable wealth flowed into the public treasury. Uthman advised that some amount be reserved in the treasury for future needs, instead of giving all of it as stipends to the Muslims, and this was accepted by Umar. A controversy then arose about the land in conquered areas. The army was of the view that all lands in conquered territories should be distributed among the soldiers of the conquering army, but others thought that the lands should remain as the property of the original owners, and the lands without claimants should be declared as state property. Uthman supported the latter view and this view was ultimately accepted.

At the time of the conquest of Jerusalem the Christians asked that Umar come to Jerusalem to accept the surrender of the city. Uthman was of the view that it was not necessary for the Caliph of the Muslims to go to Jerusalem and that the enemy, when defeated, would surrender the city unconditionally. There was much force in Uthman's argument, but in order to win the good will of the Christians, Umar decided to go to Jerusalem to accept the surrender of the city. In the time of Umar, a severe famine broke out in the country and a large caravan belonging to Uthman that was carrying a large supply of food grains served the poor well.

Election of Uthman

Umar, on his death bed formed a committee of six people to choose the next Caliph from amongst themselves.

This committee was:

Ali

Uthman ibn Affan

Abdur Rahman bin Awf

Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas

Al-Zubayr

Talhah

Umar asked that, after his death, the committee reach a final decision within three days, and the next Caliph should take the oath of office on the fourth day. If Talhah joined the committee within this period, he was to take part in the deliberations, but if he did not return to Medina within this period, the other members of the committee could proceed with the decision. Abdur Rahman bin Awf withdrew his eligibility to be appointed as Caliph in order to act as a moderator and began his task by interviewing every member of the committee separately. He asked them for whom they would cast their vote. When Ali was asked, he didn't reply. When Uthman was asked, he voted for Ali , Zubayr said for ''Ali or Uthman''. and Saad said ''for Uthman''.

After Abdul Rahman consulted the other leaders of public opinion in Medina, who were in favour of Uthman, he arrived at the conclusion that the majority of the people favoured the election of Uthman. On the fourth day after the death of Umar, 11 November 644, 5 Muharram 24 Hijri, Uthman was elected as the third Caliph, with the ''title'' "Amir al-Mu'minin".

Reign as a Caliph (644–656)

On assuming office, Uthman issued a number of directives to the officials all over the dominions, ordering them to hold fast the laws made by his predecessor Umar. Uthman's realm extended in the west to Morocco, in the east to South east Pakistan, and in the north to Armenia and Azerbaijan. During his caliphate, the first Islamic naval force was established, administrative divisions of the state were revised, and many public projects were expanded and completed.

Uthman sent prominent sahabas ("companions of Muhammad") as his personal deputies to various provinces to scrutinize the conduct of officials and the condition of the people. In total, Uthman ruled for twelve years. The first six years were marked by internal peace and tranquillity, and he remained the most popular Caliph among the Rashidun; but during the second half of his caliphate a rebellion arose.

Uthman had the distinction of working for the expansion of Islam, and he sent the first official Muslim envoy to China in 650. The envoy, headed by Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, arrived in the Tang capital, Chang'an, in 651 via the overseas route. The Hui people generally consider this date to be the official founding of Islam in China. ''The Ancient Record of the Tang Dynasty'' recorded the historic meeting, in which the envoy greeted Emperor Gaozong of Tang and tried to convert him to Islam. Although the envoy failed to convince the Emperor to embrace Islam, the Emperor allowed him to proselytize in China and ordered the establishment of the first Chinese mosque in the capital to show his respect for the religion. Uthman also sent official Muslim envoys to Sri Lanka.

Reforms of Uthman's era

Economic reforms

Uthman was a shrewd businessman and a successful trader from his youth, which contributed greatly to the Rashidun Empire. Umar had fixed the allowance of the people and on assuming office, Uthman increased it by about 25%. Umar had placed a ban on the sale of lands and the purchase of agricultural lands in conquered territories. Uthman withdrew these restrictions, in view of the fact that the trade could not flourish. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury. Under Umar it had been laid down as a policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants, but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar and there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably. The army once again raised the demand for the distribution of the lands in conquered territories among the fighting soldiers but Uthman turned down the demand and it favoured the Dhimmis (non-Muslims in Islamic state). In 651, the first Islamic coins were struck during the caliphate of Uthman, these were the Persian dirhams that had an image of the Persian emperor Yazdgerd III with the addition of the Arabic sentence Bismillah (بسم الله) (''in the name of Allah''). However the first original minting of the Islamic dirham was done in 695 during Umayyad period.

Umar, the predecessor of Uthman was very strict in the use of money from the public treasury. Apart from the meagre allowance that had been sanctioned in his favour, Umar took no money from the treasury. He did not receive any gifts, nor did he allow any of his family members to accept any gift from any quarter. During the time of Uthman there was some relaxation in such strictness. Uthman did not draw any allowance from the treasury for his personal use, nor did he receive a salary, he was a wealthy man with sufficient resources of his own, but unlike Umar, Uthman accepted gifts and allowed his family members to accept gifts from certain quarters. Uthman honestly felt that he had the right to utilize the public funds according to his best judgment, and no one criticized him for that. The economic reforms introduced by Uthman had far reaching effects; Muslims as well as non-Muslims of the Rashidun Empire enjoyed an economically prosperous life during his reign.

Public works

Under Uthman the people became economically more prosperous, and they invested their money in the construction of buildings. Many new and larger buildings were constructed throughout the empire. During the caliphate of Uthman as many as five thousand new mosques were constructed. Uthman enlarged, extended, and embellished the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at Medina and the Kaaba as well. With the expansion of the army, the cantonments were extended and enlarged, more barracks were constructed for the soldiers and stables for the cavalry were extended. Uthman provided separate pastures for state camels.

During the caliphate of Uthman, guest houses were provided in main cities to provide comfort to the merchants coming from faraway places. More and more markets were constructed and Uthman appointed Market Officers to look after them. In Iraq, Egypt and Persia numerous canals were dug, which stimulated agricultural development. In the cities, particular attention was directed towards the provision of the water supply. In Medina, a number of wells were dug to provide drinking water for the people and in Mecca the water supply was also improved. Water was brought to Kufa and Basra by canals. Shuaibia was the port for Mecca but it was inconvenient, so Uthman selected Jeddah as the site of the new seaport, and a new port was built there. Uthman also reformed the police departments in cities.

Administration

In his testament, Umar had instructed his successor not to make any change in the administrative set up for one year after his death. For one year Uthman maintained the pattern of political administration as it stood under Umar, later making some amendments.

Under Umar, Egypt was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Egypt. Uthman made Egypt one province and created a new province for Efriqya. Under Umar, Syria was divided into two provinces but Uthman made it one province. During Uthman’s reign the empire was divided into twelve provinces. These were: # Medina # Mecca # Yemen # Kufa # Basra # Jazira # Faris # Azerbaijan # Khorasan # Syria # Egypt # Efriqya (lit. "Africa", signifying N. Africa)

The provinces were further divided into districts (more than 100 districts in the empire) and each district or main city had its own Governor, Chief judge and Amil (tax collector). The governors were appointed by Uthman and every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the governor was required to assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them. Uthman appointed his kinsmen as governors of four provinces: Egypt, Syria, Basra and Kufa. The kindest explanation for this reliance on his kin is that the Rashidun Empire had expanded so far, so fast, that it was becoming extremely difficult to govern, and that Uthman felt that he could trust his own kin not to revolt against him. However Shiah did not see this as prudence; they saw it as nepotism, and an attempt to rule like a king rather than as the first among equals.

Qur'an

Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which produced multiple copies of the text of the Qur'an as it exists today. The reason was that various Muslim centres, like Kufa and Damascus, had begun to develop their own traditions for reciting the Qur'an and writing it down with stylistic differences.

During the time of Uthman, by which time Islam had spread far and wide, differences in reading the Quran in different dialects of Arabic language became obvious. A group of companions, headed by Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman, who was then stationed in Iraq, came to Uthman and urged him to "save the Muslim ummah before they differ about the Quran". Uthman obtained the complete manuscript of the Qur'an from Hafsah, one of the wives of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who had been entrusted to keep the manuscript ever since the Qur'an was comprehensively compiled by the first Caliph, Abu Bakr. Uthman then again summoned the leading compiling authority, Zayd ibn Thabit, and some other companions to make copies of the manuscript. Zayd was put in charge of the task. The style of Arabic dialect used was that of the Quraysh tribe of which the Prophet Muhammad belonged. Hence this style was emphasized over all others.

Zayd and his assistants produced several copies of the manuscript of the Qur'an. One of each was sent to every Muslim province with the order that all other Quranic materials, whether fragmentary or complete copies, be destroyed. As such, when the standard copies were made widely available to the Muslim community everywhere, then all other material was burnt voluntarily by the Muslim community themselves. The annihilation of these extra-Qur'anic documents remained essential in order to eradicate scriptural incongruities, contradictions of consequence or differences in the dialect from the customary text of the Qur'an. Undeniably, it is said within the Hadith that a goat ate a verse of the Qur'an written on a leaf. Varying Islamic denominations differ with regard to the importance of the Hadith. The Caliph Uthman kept a copy for himself and returned the original manuscript to Hafsah.

While Shi'a and Sunni accept the same sacred text, the Qur'an, some claim that Shi'a dispute the current version, i.e. they add two additional surahs known as al-Nurayn and al-Wilaya. Nonetheless, Shi'as claim that they are falsely accused of this, as they believe, like Sunnis, that the Qur'an has never been changed and it is with reference from sunni hadeeth books that this inference is drawn not only by uninformed shias but sunnis too.

Military expansion

Islamic empire expanded at unprecedented rate under Caliph Umar, following the death of Caliph Umar, almost whole of the former Sassanid empire's territory rebelled from time to time until 650, when the last Sassanid emperor was assassinated. Caliph `Uthman thus directed several military expeditions to crush rebellion and re-capture the Persia and their vassal states. The main rebellion was in the Persian provinces of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Fars, Sistan, Tabaristan, Khorasan, and Makran. These provinces were across present days Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Turkmenistan and Armenia. In addition to these provinces several other territories were also subdued in the region. After the death of Caliph Umar, Byzantine emperor Constantine III launched an attack but was repulsed, due to which Uthman ordered annual raids in Anatolia to cut off the power of Byzantine. From 647 to 651 major offensives were launched in Cappadocia, Caesarea Mazaca, Cilicia and Isauria in 650–651 forced the Byzantine emperor Constans II to enter into negotiations The truce that followed made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of Armenia. A naval force was built and island of Cyprus was captured in 649 followed by the capture of Crete and Rhodes. After a naval victory against Byzantine fleet a part of Sicily was also captured. In 654–655 Uthman ordered for the preparation of an expedition to capture Constantinopole, it was about to be launched when Uthman was murdered. North Africa was invaded in 647 and Byzantine Exarchate of Africa which had declared its independence under its King Gregory the Patrician was annexed. Nubia was invaded in 652 and its capital Dongola was sacked. Though battle remained inconclusive and a peace offer from Nubian King was accepted according to which no party will any aggressive moves against each other. In 652–653 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded and its coastal areas were captured, before further expansion could be made Caliph was murdered and forces were pulled back from Iberia and north Africa during Muslim civil war.

Anti-Uthman sentiment

According to Muslim sources, unlike his predecessor, Umar, who maintained discipline with a stern hand, Uthman was less rigorous upon his people; he focused more on economic prosperity. Under Uthman, the people became economically more prosperous and on the political plane they came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. No institutions were devised to channel political activity, and, in the absence of such institutions, the pre-Islamic tribal jealousies and rivalries, which had been suppressed under earlier caliphs, erupted once again. In view of the lenient policies adopted by Uthman, the people took advantage of such liberties, which became a headache for the state, and it culminated in the assassination of Uthman.

Moreover, the foreign powers became nervous at the success of the Muslims under the leadership of Uthman, and now their only hope lay in aiding and abetting subversive movements within the territories of Uthman's caliphate. According to some viewpoints, under such circumstances, leaders like Abdullah Ibn Saba, felt that it was a good opportunity to accomplish their aims of rebellion by starting arguments over religion. However, the figure Abdullah Ibn Saba is believed by many Shia Muslims to be an imaginary one created by certain Sunni historians to stir up anti-Shia sentiment.

However, Wilferd Madelung discredits the alleged role of Abdullah ibn Saba in the rebellion against Uthman, Madelung observes that ‘’few if any modern historians would accept Sayf's legend of Ibn Saba’’

It is believed that the movement had its links with foreign countries. Due to the lack of any particular political department to deal with the growing political agitation in the Islamic state, the political leaders in various towns campaigned against Uthman. Initially, they started with arguments over Uthman's kinsmen, who were governors of Egypt, Bosra and Kufa and they were joined by the companions who supported Ali. The most prominent of these were Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who despite being an Umayyad like Uthman, was raised in Ali's house, and Ammar ibn Yasir, who supported the right of Ali to become caliph because of his close relationship with Muhammad. The campaign was also supported by some companions who had a personal grievance with Uthman, like ‘Amr ibn al-’As, also an Ummayad, who was stripped of the governorship of Egypt by Uthman, and Uthman's adopted son, Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa, who Uthman had refused to appoint as a governor of any province.

The actual reason for the anti-Uthman movement is disputed among the Shia and Sunni Muslims. Many anonymous letters were written to the leading companions of Muhammad, complaining about the alleged tyranny of Uthman's appointed governors. Moreover, letters were sent to the leaders of public opinion in different provinces concerning the reported mishandling of power by Uthman's family. This contributed to unrest in the empire and finally Uthman had to investigate the matter in an attempt to ascertain the authenticity of the rumours. The movement however exploited differences between the Hashemite (Ali's clan) and Umayyad (Uthman's clan) clans of Quraysh.

Sunni Muslims consider these claims about the governors of Uthman, who achieved much success during their reign, to be untrue, while Sunni Muslims believe this to be a tactic used by seditionists to overthrow the realm of Uthman, by making him lose control over the main provinces of Egypt, Syria, Kufa and Bosra, where Uthman had appointed his own kinsmen for loyalty's sake. On the other hand Shia Muslims suggest that these claims were correct, and Uthman's kinsmen, although they achieved success as governors, failed to lead the people according to the principles of Islam, giving references to various early narrations present in primary sources of Islamic history. Sunni Muslims reject these narrations, on the basis that their authenticity is disputed.

Uthman's emissaries to the provinces

The situation was becoming tense and so the Uthman administration had to investigate the origins and extent of anti-government propaganda and its aims. Some time around 654, Uthman called all the governors of his 12 provinces to Medina to discuss the problem. In this Council of Governors, Uthman directed the governors that they should adopt all the expedients they had suggested, according to local circumstances. Later, in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministry), it was suggested to Uthman that reliable agents should be sent to various provinces to investigate the matter and report about the sources of such rumours. Uthman accordingly sent his agents to the main provinces, Muhammad ibn Maslamah was sent to Kufa; Usama ibn Zayd was sent to Basra; Ammar ibn Yasir was sent to Egypt, while `Abd Allah ibn `Umar was sent to Syria. The emissaries who had been sent to Kufa, Basra, and Syria submitted their reports to Uthman, that all was well in Kufa, Basra and Syria. The people were satisfied with the administration, and they had no legitimate grievance against it. Some individuals in various locations had some personal grievances of minor character, with which the people at large were not concerned. Ammar ibn Yasir, the emissary to Egypt, however, did not return to Medina. The rebels had carried on with their propaganda in favour of the Caliphate of Ali. Ammar ibn Yasir had been affiliated with Ali; he left Uthman, and instead joined the opposition in Egypt. Abdullah ibn Saad, the governor of Egypt, reported about the activities of the opposition in Egypt. He wanted to take action against Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (''foster son of Ali''), Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa (''adopted son of Uthman'') and Ammar ibn Yasir. However, Uthman did not want Abdullah ibn Saad to be harsh against them because he held them in high regard. After the Egyptian emissary's failure, Uthman looked for further developments in Egypt.

Further measures

In 655, Uthman directed the people who had any grievance against the administration to assemble at Mecca for the Hajj. He promised them that all their legitimate grievances would be redressed. He directed the governors and the "Amils" throughout the empire to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj. In response to the call of Uthman, the opposition came in large delegations from various cities to present their grievances before the gathering.

Uthman addressed the people and gave a long explanation of the criticism about himself and his administration and then said: "I have had my say. Now I am prepared to listen to you. If any one of you has any legitimate grievance against me or my Government you are free to give expression to such grievance, and I assure you that, I will do my best to redress such grievance."

The rebels realized that the people in Mecca supported the defence offered by Uthman and were not in the mood to listen to them. That was a great psychological victory for Uthman. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim accounts, that before returning to Syria, the governor Muawiyah, Uthman’s cousin, suggested Uthman should come with him to Syria as the atmosphere there was peaceful. Uthman rejected his offer, saying that he didn't want to leave the city of Muhammad (referring to Medina). Muawiyah then suggested that he be allowed to send a strong force from Syria to Medina to guard Uthman against any possible attempt by rebels to harm him. Uthman rejected it too, saying that the Syrian forces in Medina would be an incitement to civil war, and he could not be party to such a move.

Agitation in Medina

After the Hajj of 655 things remained quiet for some time. With the dawn of the year 656, Medina, the capital city of Uthman, became a hotbed of intrigue and unrest. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr returned to Medina from Egypt, and assisted in leading a campaign against the Caliphate of Uthman.

When the crisis deepened in Medina, Uthman addressed the congregation in the Masjid-e-Nabawi and gave an explanation and rebuttal of all the claims against him. The general public was again satisfied with Uthman. He had hoped that after his speech in which he had explained his position, and offered full defence for his actions, the allegedly false propaganda against him would cease.

Armed revolt against Uthman

The politics of Egypt played the major role in the propaganda war against the caliphate, so Uthman summoned Abdullah ibn Saad, the governor of Egypt, to Medina to consult with him as to the course of action that should be adopted. Abdullah ibn Saad came to Medina, leaving the affairs of Egypt to his deputy, and in his absence, Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa staged a coup d'état and took power. On hearing of the revolt in Egypt, Abdullah hastened back but Uthman was not in a position to offer him any military assistance and, accordingly, Abdullah ibn Saad failed to recapture his power.

In middle of 656, Uthman’s governor of Kufa, Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari, was unable to control the province. In Basra the governor, Abdullah ibn Aamir, left for Hajj, and in his absence the affairs of the province fell into a state of confusion. The three main provinces of Egypt (which was already the center of the dissident movement), Kufa, and Basra became essentially independent from the Caliphate of Uthman, and became the center of revolt.

Rebels in Medina

From Egypt a contingent of about 1,000 people were sent to Medina, with instructions to assassinate Uthman and overthrow the government. Similar contingents marched from Kufa and Basra to Medina. They sent their representatives to Medina to contact the leaders of public opinion. The representatives of the contingent from Egypt waited on Ali, and offered him the Caliphate in succession to Uthman, which Ali turned down. The representatives of the contingent from Kufa waited on Al-Zubayr, while the representatives of the contingent from Basra waited on Talhah, and offered them their allegiance as the next Caliph, which were both turned down. In proposing alternatives to Uthman as Caliph, the rebels neutralized the bulk of public opinion in Medina and Uthman's faction could no longer offer a united front. Uthman had the active support of the Umayyads, and a few other people in Medina, but the rest of the people of Medina chose to be neutral and help neither side.

Siege of Uthman

The situation in Medina was a big gain for the rebels. When they felt satisfied that the people of Medina would not offer them any resistance, they entered the city of Medina and laid siege to the house of Uthman, essentially taking it over but not confining the Caliph. The rebels declared that no harm from them would come to any person who choose not to resist them. Uthman strongly instructed his supporters to refrain from violence but his various servants (about 40 of them) appealed for permission to fight against the rebels, along with a thousand other citizens of Medina. Uthman, who was a wealthy man even from the days before Islam, freed all 40 of his slaves and ordered them to stay away from the civil war between the Muslims.

The early stage of the siege of Uthman’s house was not severe, the rebels merely hovered around the house and did not place any restrictions on him. Uthman went to the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi as usual, and led the prayers. The rebels offered prayers under the leadership of Uthman. While Uthman addressed the people in the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi he was criticized by opponents. At this the supporters of Uthman took up cudgels on his behalf. Tempers flared up on both sides, hot words were exchanged between the parties, and that led to the pelting of stones at one another. One of the stones hit Uthman, he fell unconscious and was carried to his house, still unconscious.

The proceedings in the mosque showed that most of the people of Medina (or at least those in the mosque) preferred not to fight, but to watch developments. When the rebels felt that the people of Medina were not likely to offer active support to Uthman, they changed their strategy, and tightened the siege of the house of Uthman, thus confining Uthman to his home. Uthman was denied the freedom to move about and was not allowed to go to the mosque.

As the days passed, the rebels intensified their pressure against Uthman. They forbade the entry of any food or provisions, and later water as well, into his house, even turning down a few widows of Muhammad. Ramlah bint Abi-Sufyan, a widow of Muhammad, came to see Uthman and brought some water and provisions for him but she was not allowed to enter. Another widow of Muhammad, and the daughter of the late Caliph Abu Bakr, Aisha, made a similar attempt, and she was also prevailed upon by the rebels to go back.

With the departure of the pilgrims from Medina to Mecca, the hands of the rebels were further strengthened, and as a consequence the crisis deepened further. The rebels understood that after the Hajj, the Muslims gathered at Mecca from all parts of the Muslim world might march to Medina to relieve Uthman. They therefore decided to take action against Uthman before the pilgrimage was over. During the siege, Uthman was asked by his supporters, who outnumbered the rebels, to let them fight against the rebels and rout them. Uthman prevented them in an effort to avoid the bloodshed of Muslim by Muslim. Unfortunately for Uthman, violence occurred anyhow. The gates of the house of Uthman were shut and guarded by the renowned warrior, Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr. The sons of Ali, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, were also among the guards; while amongst those inciting the people to fight included Aisha, one of the wives of Muhammad. A skirmish erupted between the opponents and the supporters of Uthman at the gate, some anti-Uthman partisans were killed, and the rebels were finally pushed back. Among the supporters of Uthman, Hasan ibn Ali, Marwan and some other people were wounded.

When Uthman came to know of this action he said: No, I do not want to spill the blood of Muslims, to save my own neck.

Assassination

Finding the gate of Uthman's house strongly guarded by his supporters, the rebels climbed the back wall and sneaked inside, leaving the guards on the gate unaware of what was going on inside. The rebels entered his room and struck blows at his head. Naila, the wife of Uthman, threw herself on his body to protect him. Raising her hand to protect him she had her fingers chopped off and was pushed aside, and further blows were struck until he was dead. The supporters of Uthman then counterattacked the assassins and, in turn, killed them. There was further fighting between the rebels and the supporters of Uthman, with casualties on both sides, after which the rebels looted the house.

The rioters wanted to mutilate his body and were keen that he be denied burial. When some of the rioters came forward to mutilate the body of Uthman, his two widows, Nailah and Ramlah bint Sheibah, covered him, and raised loud cries which deterred the rioters. The rebels left the house and the supporters of Uthman at gate hearing it, entered, but it was too late.

Thereafter the rioters maintained a presence round the house in order to prevent the dead body from being carried to the graveyard.

Funeral

After the body of Uthman had been in the house for three days, Naila, Uthman's wife, approached some of his supporters to help in his burial, but only about a dozen people responded. These included Marwan, Zayd ibn Thabit, 'Huwatib bin Alfarah, Jabir bin Muta'am, Abu Jahm bin Hudaifa, Hakim bin Hazam and Niyar bin Mukarram. The body was lifted at dusk, and because of the blockade, no coffin could be procured. The body was not washed, as Islamic teaching states that martyrs' bodies are not supposed to be washed before burial. Thus Uthman was carried to the graveyard in the clothes that he was wearing at the time of his assassination.

Some people say that Ali attended the funeral, but there is, however, overwhelming evidence to the effect that Ali did not. Naila followed the funeral with a lamp, but in order to maintain secrecy the lamp had to be extinguished. Naila was accompanied by some women including Ayesha, Uthman's daughter.

Burial

The body was carried to Jannat al-Baqi, the Muslim graveyard.

It appears that some people gathered there, and they resisted the burial of Uthman in the graveyard of the Muslims. The supporters of Uthman insisted that the body should be buried in Jannat al-Baqi. They later buried him in the Jewish graveyard behind Jannat al-Baqi. Some decades later, the Omayyad rulers destroyed the wall of the Jewish cemetery and widened the Muslim graveyard to make his tomb inside.

The funeral prayers were led by Jabir bin Muta'am, and the dead body was lowered into the grave without much of a ceremony. After burial, Naila the widow of Uthman and Aisha the daughter of Uthman wanted to speak, but they were advised to remain quiet due to possible danger from the rioters.

Family of Uthman

Uthman belonged to the Umayyad branch of the Quraish tribe. He was the son of Affan ibn Abi al-'As and Urwa bint Kariz. Urwa bore only two children from Affan: Uthman and his sister Amna. After the death of Affan, Urwa married Uqbah ibn Abu Mu'ayt, to whom she bore three sons and a daughter: # Walid ibn Uqba # Khalid ibn Uqba # Amr ibn Uqba # Umm Kulthum bint Uqba

Pre-conversion

Umm'Amr bint Jandab

Fatimah bint Al Walid

He had following children from them,

From Umm'Amr bint Jandab

# Amr # Khalid # Aban # Umar # Maryam

From Fatimah bint al-Walid

# Walid # Said # Umm Said.

Amr, was the eldest son of Uthman, and during the pre-Islamic period, Uthman was known by the surname of ''Abu'Amr''.

Post-conversion

Uthman was nicknamed Thun-Nurayn (Zunnorain) (, literally: possessor of two lights), because of his marriage with two of Prophet Muhammad's daughters.

Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Muhammad's daughter. Ruqayyah and Uthman had a son, ''Abd-Allah ibn Uthman'', but he died early, because of him after Islam he was called by the surname ''Abu'Abdullah''.

When she died, Uthman was married to her sister,

Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, second daughter of Muhammad. Umm Kulthum bore no child.

From Fahida bint Ghazwan

# Abdullah bin Uthman al-asghar, he died in early age.

From Umm Al-Baneen bint Einiyah

# Abdulmalik bin Uthman, he too died in early age.

From Ramla bany Sheibah

# Ayesha bint Uthman # Umm Aban bint Uthman # Umm Amr bint Uthman

From Nailah bint Fraizah

# Maryum

Legacy

Islamic history, particularly Sunni history, remembers Uthman in positive terms, calling him handsome, generous, and plain rather than luxurious. It is said that Uthman was one of the most handsome and charming men of his time. Uthman was well known for his reported generosity. During Muhammad's time, while in Medina, he financed the project for the construction of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi and purchased the well ''Beer Rauma'', which he dedicated to the free use of all Muslims. Uthman’s generosity continued after he became caliph.

Uthman apparently led a simple life even after becoming the Caliph of the Rashidun Empire, though it would have been easy for a successful businessman such as him to lead a luxurious life. The caliphs were paid for their services from bait al-mal, the public treasury, but Uthman never took any salary for his service as a Caliph, as he was independently wealthy. Uthman also developed a custom to free slaves every Friday, look after the widows and orphans, and give unlimited charity. His patience and endurance were among the characteristics that made him a successful leader. He was a devoted Muslim, As a way of taking care of Muhammad’s wives, he doubled their allowances. Uthman wasn't completely plain and simple, however: Uthman built a Palace for himself in Medina, known as Al-Zawar, with a notable feature being doors of precious wood. Although Uthman paid for the palace with his own money, Shia Muslims consider it his first step towards ruling like a King. Uthman's sister Amna bint Affan was married to Abdur Rahman bin Awf, one of the closest companion of Muhammad.

Sunni view of Uthman

According to the Sunni account of Uthman, he was married to two of Muhammad’s daughters at separate times, earning him the name ''Zun-Nurayn (Dhun Nurayn)'' or the "Possessor of Two Lights.". In this he was supposed to outrank Ali, who had married only one of Muhammad's daughters.

Sunni Muslims also consider Uthman as one of the ten Sahaba (companions) for whom Muhammad had testified that they were destined for Paradise, and one of the many with whom Muhammad was pleased when he died. He was a wealthy and very noble man. When he became khalifa, he used the same method Umar did.

Uthman is regarded by Sunnis as a beacon of light who refused to participate in the civil conflict. The claims against his wealth do not detract from his personal sacrifice against the rebels.

Non-Muslims

Bernard Lewis, a 20th century scholar, says of Uthman:

According to Ronald Bodley, during Muhammad's lifetime Uthman was not an outstanding figure and was not assigned to any authority, and was not ever distinguished in any of Muhammad's campaigns. Bodley also believed that after Umar's assassination, Ali rejected the caliphate as he disagreed with governing according to regulations established by Abu Bakr and Umar, and that Uthman, being less honest than Ali, accepted those terms which he failed to administrate during his ten years Caliphate. He subjected most of the Islamic nation to his relatives, Bani Umayya, who were partially accursed during Muhamad's lifetime. Several important and notable companions, such as Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari and Ammar ibn Yasir suffered from his severe tortures. Uthman compiled the Qur'an, and burnt its other copies. Uthman's governing policies and nepotism led to openly rise of dissatisfaction and resistance throughout most of the empire, especially among noble Companions of Muhammad

See also

Rashidun Caliphate

* Abu Bakr

* Umar

* Ali

Sahaba

* List of Sahaba

* Sunni view of the Sahaba

References

Also:

Levi Della Vida, G. and R.G. Khoury. "‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān." ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''. Eds. P.J. Bearman et al. 12 Vols. Brill, 2004. 30 October 2005

Radhia Allahu Anaha (The third Caliph 644–656 C.E.)

External links

Views of various Islamic historians on Uthman:

Uthman in History

Views of the Arab Media on Uthman:

Ever Since the Murder of Uthman

Shi'a view of Uthman:

Uthman's election

The assassination of `Uthman Ibn `Affan

Uthman and Abdullah bin Massood

Category:580 births Category:656 deaths Category:656 crimes Category:Converts to Islam Category:Arab people Category:Rashidun Category:Sahaba Category:7th-century caliphs Category:Assassinated caliphs Category:Deaths by beating Category:Sahaba witnessed the Battle of the Trench

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Name	Elena Berezhnaya
Fullname	Elena Viktorovna Berezhnaya
Country
Formercountry
Birth date	October 11, 1977
Birth place	Nevinnomyssk
Height
Partner	Anton Sikharulidze
Formerpartner	Oleg Shliakhov (LAT)
Formercoach	Tamara Moskvina
Formerchoreographer	Tamara MoskvinaIgor BobrinAleksandr Matveev
Skating club	Yubileiny Sport Club
Retired	2002
Medaltemplates	}}

}} Elena Viktorovna Berezhnaya (, born 11 October 1977 in Nevinnomyssk, Russian SFSR) is a Russian pair skater. With partner Anton Sikharulidze, she is the 1998 and 1999 World champion, 1998 Olympic silver medalist and 2002 Olympic champion.

Berezhnaya first competed with Oleg Shliakhov for Latvia and won gold at the 1995 Trophée de France. While training together in January 1996, she suffered a serious injury, leaving her partly paralyzed and unable to speak. She recovered rapidly and began competing again in November 1996 with new partner, Anton Sikharulidze.

Within two years of the accident, Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze had established themselves as one of the best pair teams in the world. They were noted for their lyrical, flowing and elegant style, which they combined with strong athleticism, including outstanding speed, unison, and big elements. During their career together, they were coached by Tamara Moskvina at the Yubileyny Sports Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and the Ice House in Hackensack, New Jersey. Their Olympic gold medals are shared with Canadian pair Jamie Salé and David Pelletier.

Early life

Berezhnaya was born in the town of Nevinnomyssk in southern Russia. She has two brothers, Alexei and Ivan. Her parents divorced when she was five due to her father's alcoholism and her mother remarried. The family also included three cousins after their parents' deaths.

Berezhnaya began skating at the age of four in Nevinnomyssk. At the age of 8, she began to be coached by Nina Ruchkina, who had arrived from Moscow. When Berezhnaya was 13, Ruchkina decided that her son, Alexander Ruchkin, should be a pair skater despite his poor upper body strength, and she asked Berezhnaya, as the smallest girl, to be his partner. Berezhnaya was skeptical of the idea but Ruchkina convinced her mother that the pair would get a chance at CSKA Moscow's skating school. Berezhnaya moved to Moscow, 791 miles to the north, and lived in a dormitory as her mother could not move with her. Ruchkin continued to struggle to lift her and they made little progress.

Early career

After unsuccessful partnerships with Ruchkin and another skater, the 14-year-old Berezhnaya teamed with Latvian-born Oleg Shliakhov, who had been dumped by his seventh partner. The partnership went well at first, however, over time he started to become physically and verbally abusive, hitting Berezhnaya and dropping her from lifts. He decided to move to Riga, Latvia, saying they would have better and cheaper training conditions. Seeing no alternative partner, she went with him. Although not violent outside the rink, he became abusive again in training. Berezhnaya kept quiet and did not tell her mother, worrying it would worsen her poor health. She continued for her mother's sake, "I knew that she would watch me skate on TV and that it gave her strength. She was the only reason for me to continue." They trained on their own for a year as no coach wanted to take the pair but eventually found a coach unaware of Shliakhov's reputation. They had a strong showing at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway, finishing eighth. The next season they won a pair of silver medals at Skate Canada and Trophée Lalique and finished 7th at the 1995 World Championships. Having little success in keeping Shliakhov in line, their coach resigned at the end of the season.

The Latvian federation appealed to renowned coach Tamara Moskvina to take on the pair and she eventually invited them to train with her in May or June 1995. They spent a few months training in Colorado Springs, Colorado and then trained mostly at Yubileyny Sports Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russia, despite the deteriorating and crowded facilities at the time. Berezhnaya and Shliakhov won bronze at Skate America, gold at Trophée de France and bronze at Nations Cup. Shliakhov was well behaved for half a year, but then dropped her from a lift. Moskvina had professional psychologists work with him regularly, however, after brief periods of calm with apologies and professions of affection, he would start to slip back to his old behavior. Despite this, Berezhnaya thought he had improved slightly. However, Moskvina told her it was not enough and advised her to end the partnership. According to Oleg Vassiliev who later worked with him, Shliakhov was registered at a mental hospital in Riga.

Berezhnaya had begun to develop friendships with the other skaters at Yubileyny, becoming particularly close to Anton Sikharulidze, the 1994 and 1995 World Junior champion with Maria Petrova. Shliakhov began to perceive Sikharulidze as his rival. At the end of 1995 Shliakhov demanded they train in Riga for three weeks in preparation for the European Championships. Sikharulidze urged her to stay in Saint Petersburg but she thought it was only a few weeks.

In January 1996, Berezhnaya was seriously injured when Shliakhov's blade sliced into her skull while the pair were practicing a side-by-side camel spin in Riga. Two surgical operations operations were performed to remove bone fragments from her brain. The accident caused partial paralysis on her right side, and doctors were unsure if she would walk again. She also briefly lost the ability to speak.

During her hospitalization, Sikharulidze heard of the news, and traveled to Latvia to be with her, joining Moskvina. Berezhnaya was surprised and overjoyed to see him, but unable to speak or move. Shliakhov also arrived at the hospital with flowers but Berezhnaya did not wish to see him again. Sikharulidze took her back to Saint Petersburg, Russia where she could begin her rehabilitation. She stayed at his parents' small apartment, sharing a room with him and his sister, Marina. She was grateful for his support, saying she was "skinny, shaved, half-alive, almost a skeleton, and Anton so tenderly cared about me. Perhaps it was his belief in me that helped me recover so quickly.

Partnership with Anton Sikharulidze

Berezhnaya wished to return to the ice and doctors agreed that physical exercise would be therapeutic. On 15 March 1996, only two months after the accident, she began skating carefully with Sikharulidze's help and Moskvina observing. Berezhnaya said, "I didn't have any false dreams about the future. All I thought about was those first steps." However, Tamara Moskvina was immediately captivated by the pairing, "They're a natural pair. They've got it – something magical."

Sikharulidze had split from Petrova due to his desire to work with Moskvina while Petrova preferred to remain with their old coaches. With Berezhnaya's condition improving, the two began to consider the possibility of a competitive career together. She had made a nearly full recovery, although her speech remained slurred requiring speech therapy. A minor speech problem remained as of 2010. In November 1996, she made her return to competition, competing with Sikharulidze at Trophée Lalique where the pair immediately won their first medal, a bronze. In December, they placed fifth at Cup of Russia, and then captured the silver medal at the Russian Nationals, earning them a berth to the European Championships. In January 1997 in Paris, the pair made the podium at Europeans, a rare feat for a pair in their first season together, and even more stunning given her injury less than a year ago. At the 1997 World Figure Skating Championships in March, they had a strong short program which placed them provisionally in third, with two judges giving them first-place votes. However, the pair had a disastrous long program, placing 12th in the segment and dropping to 9th overall.

1998 Olympic season

The next season, they won the European Championship, defeating 1992 Olympic champion Artur Dmitriev with his new partner Oksana Kazakova, and the reigning World Champions Mandy Wötzel and Ingo Steuer. At only 20 and 21 years of age respectively, Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze had established themselves as gold-medal favorites going into the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. Observers were impressed at how rapidly they had become a force, with most teams requiring more years to become attuned as a pair. ''Time'' called her comeback "the miracle on ice". Their skating drew comparisons to the two-time Olympic Champions Ekaterina Gordeeva and Sergei Grinkov. Gordeeva selected Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze as her and Grinkov's skating doubles in a documentary on the legendary team after her husband's death.

In the short program, the pair had one fall but their other elements were of high quality. In the long, they put themselves back in contention for the gold medal with a strong performance, until five seconds from the end when they had a surprising fall as Sikharulidze set her down from a closing star lift. Although disappointed by suddenly giving away their chance at the gold so close to the end of the program, Sikharulidze recovered from his shock and joked, "It's a new finish. If you don't like it, we'll change it, no problem." The quality of the rest of their skating earned them the silver medal ahead of Wötzel & Steuer, while Kazakova & Dmitriev claimed the title. Former Japanese singles skater Yuko Kawaguchi became inspired to switch to pair skating after seeing Elena Berezhnaya at the Nagano Olympics.

Post-1998 Olympics

Following the Olympics, Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze competed at the 1998 World Championships where they won the gold medal. In autumn of that year, they won Skate America and Skate Canada. In January 1999, they had to withdraw from the European Championships after the short program due to Berezhnaya having the flu, but returned a few months later to win their second world title in March 1999.

The Yubileyny Sports Palace ice rink then closed for renovations, forcing them to relocate to Hackensack, New Jersey's Ice House where Moskvina agreed to coach the American pair of Kyoko Ina and John Zimmerman. The two teams were friendly rivals, and in 2009 Berezhnaya and Zimmerman would skate together at a Russian ice show. Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze struggled at Skate America in October 1999, placing third, but regained their form to win Skate Canada in November. Moskvina would later admit Sikharulidze had become distracted by life in a new country and was not as focused on training. In February 2000, the pair won gold at the 2000 Europeans but were stripped of their medals after Berezhnaya tested positive for pseudoephedrine, a substance whose ban was lifted between 2004 and 2010. This resulted in a three-month disqualification from the date of the test, and the medal being stripped. She had taken only a simple cold medication approved by a doctor but had failed to inform the ISU as required. Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze missed the World Championships that year as a result of the disqualification.

During the 2001-2002 season, Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze developed a rivalry with Canadians Jamie Salé and David Pelletier. Throughout the season, both pairs had traded first and second place at most of the major competitions, and they were considered the main contenders for the Olympic gold medal. At the Grand Prix Final they debuted their new long program to Meditation de Thais and decided to persevere with it at the Olympics, while their rivals abandoned their new long program with which they had been struggling and decided to reuse their old ''Love Story'' program. ''The New York Times'' speculated that the judging might be influenced by the crowd response, with the familiar music of Love Story having more potential to draw louder applause in North America and the judges not being immune to human reactions.

2002 Olympics

At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, both pairs skated strong short programs, after which Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze were in 1st and Sale and Pelletier, who had a fall at the end of their program, 2nd. In the long program, Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze skated a good program although Sikharulidze had a stumble on a jump element before quickly regaining unison with his partner. Sale and Pelletier, meanwhile, had no obvious mistakes. Four judges placed the Canadians first, while five had Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze as the winners. Sale and Pelletier received higher technical scores, but Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze had superior artistic marks. Some observers pointed out that Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze had performed a more challenging program with greater speed, more interweaving moves and transitions, and less distance between the partners. At the end of the night, they were awarded the gold and the Canadians the silver.

The result sparked a controversy although the commentators were criticized for failing to mention Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze's strengths. The president of the International Skating Union, Ottavio Cinquanta, under extreme pressure from the International Olympic Committee, immediately launched an investigation into a possible judging scandal. The focus immediately turned to French judge Marie-Reine Le Gougne, the only Western judge in favor of the Russian pair. Under intense pressure, she stated that she had been intimidated into voting for the Russian pair in exchange for an advantage for the French couple in the ice dancing competition, which was to follow a few days later. The scandal resulted in a second gold medal being awarded to the Canadian pair, and the IOC and ISU decided to declare both pairs as Olympic co-champions. When the media furore faded, Le Gougne rescinded her earlier statement and declared she had voted according to her honest assessment of the performances but had been pressured to say otherwise. Leading up to the pairs final, NBC had heavily promoted the chances of the Canadian pair possibly breaking the decades-long Russian/Soviet dominance of the pairs event. Although Sikharulidze's stepout on a jump was regularly highlighted by the media, judges may award gold to skaters with obvious mistakes if the rest of the performance is judged to be of higher quality and degree of difficulty. Canadian Patrick Chan won gold at the 2010 Skate Canada with four falls.

Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze had an on-and-off romantic relationship between 1996 and 2002; they remain close friends.

Post-competitive career

In May 2003, Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze confirmed they had retired from competitive skating. From 2002-2006, they toured with Stars on Ice, then returned to Russia. From 2007, Sikharulidze became increasingly involved in politics, and ultimately decided to retire from skating. In 2008, Berezhnaya confirmed they would no longer skate together.

Although taking time off to have two children, Berezhnaya makes occasional appearances in Russian ice productions. In 2006, Berezhnaya teamed with the actor Aleksandr Nosik for the Channel One (Russia) ice show ''Stars on Ice'' (Russian: Звёзды на льду). In 2008, she was paired with the pop star Dima Bilan for the Russia 1 series ''Star Ice'' (Звёздный лёд). In 2009, she skated with the comedian Mikhail Galustian in the Channel One series ''Ice Age 3'' (Russian: Ледниковый период-3). She also skated with former training mate John Zimmerman in the ''Kings on Ice'' (Короли льда) show in 2009, and with Jérôme Blanchard in ''Ice Heart'' (Ледяное сердце). In 2010, she joined another edition of ''Ice Age'', teaming up with Igor Ugolnikov.

Berezhnaya and Sikharulidze skated together at a ''City Lights''-themed ice show in Moscow from 14–17 October 2010. In late 2010 and early 2011, Berezhnaya will play the White Queen in an ''Alice in Wonderland'' ice show in St. Petersburg and Moscow, alongside Alexei Yagudin, Tatiana Totmianina and Maxim Marinin.

Personal life

In 2005, during the Stars on Ice tour, Berezhnaya began a friendship with Steven Cousins and they later became a couple after they left the tour. Berezhnaya gave birth to their son Tristan on 6 October 2007 in London, England. Their daughter, Sofia Diana (diminutive: Sonia), was born on 21 June 2009 in Saint Petersburg, Russia. In 2010, she settled in her husband's hometown of Chester, England but also spends time in Russia. In August 2010, Berezhnaya and Cousins had their two children baptized in an Orthodox church in Saint Petersburg. Anton Sikharulidze is her son's godfather.

Programs

Eligible career

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! Season ! Short program ! Long program ! Exhibition |- ! 2001–2002 | Lady Caliph: Nocturne from La califfa by Ennio Morricone | Meditation from Thaïs by Jules Massenet performed by Nigel Kennedy and Orchestra | The Kid:

various Charlie Chaplin film soundtracks

|- ! 2000–2001 | Meadowland arranged by Stanley Black performed by the London Festival Orchestra | City Lights: Charlie Chaplin medley performed by Catherine Wilson and Friends from the album ''Classical Potpourri'' Terry's Theme performed by the London Pops Orchestra from the album ''Award Winning Movie Themes: The 50's'' | Smooth: El Farol by Santana Smooth by Santana and Rob Thomas |- ! 1999–2000 | Radetzky March by Johann Strauss I | Valse Sentimentale (Sentimental Waltz) Six Morceaux for piano, Op. 51, No. 6 (1882) by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky

---

The Umbrellas of Cherbourg: I Will Wait for You by Michel Legrand | You're the Boss sung by Brian Setzer and Gwen Stefani

---

Te Vas sung by Carlos Ponce

---

Let Me Be Your Wingsby Barry Manilow |- ! 1998–1999 | Happy Valley performed by Vanessa-Mae | Concerto for Coloratura: Concert for the Voice – Andante from the Concerto for Coloratura Soprano and Orchestra, opus 82 written by Reinhold Glière performed by the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra and Evgenia Miroshnichenko | The Impossible Dream performed by Luther Vandross |- ! 1997–1998 | Swan Lake Opus 20, Scène by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Dark Eyesperformed by the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra | Barcelona (Live at Red Rocks) by John Tesh |- ! 1996–1997 | Be Embraced, You Millions! by Johann Strauss II | Dark Eyes performed by the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra | Elegie in E-flat minor from Cinq Morceaux de fantasie, op. 3 by Sergei Rachmaninoff performed by the Bekova Sisters |}

Professional career

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! Season ! Programs |- ! 2005–2006 | You Are So Beautiful by Joe Cocker

---

Chaplin 3.0 various |- ! 2004–2005 | If I Could by Ray Charles

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Dance Mix various |- ! 2003–2004 | Let Me Fall by Josh Groban

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Kalinka by Ivan Larionov

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Meadowland arranged by Stanley Black performed by the London Festival Orchestra |- ! 2002–2003 | After Hours at Madame Tussaud's Wax Museum (Elvis & Marilyn): Jailhouse Rock by Elvis Presley I Wanna Be Loved By You by Marilyn Monroe Can't Help Falling In Love by Elvis Presley |}

Other

With Oleg Shliakhov {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! Season ! Short program ! Long program ! Exhibition |- ! 1995–1996 |

Orange Blossom Special

|

Where Have All the Flowers Gone?

Music by John Miles

| Endless Love by Diana Ross and Lionel Richie |- ! 1994–1995 |

Smooth Criminal

|

Where Have All the Flowers Gone?

Music by John Miles

|

Smooth Criminal

|- ! 1993–1994 |

In The Mood

| Jesus Christ Superstar by Andrew Lloyd Webber | |}

Competitive highlights

With Sikharulidze

align="center" bgcolor="silver">2nd align="center" align="center" bgcolor=cc9966 align="center" bgcolor="silver" align="center" bgcolor=cc9966 align="center"

Event			! 1997–98	! 1998–99	! 1999–00	! 2000–01	! 2001–02
Winter Olympic Games		|				1st
World Figure Skating Championships	World Championships	9th ||	1st	1st		2nd
European Figure Skating Championships	European Championships	3rd ||	1st	WD	DQ*	1st
Russian Figure Skating Championships	Russian Championships	2nd ||	2nd	1st	1st	1st	1st
Grand Prix Final	|	1st	2nd	3rd	2nd	2nd
Skate America	|		1st	3rd
Skate Canada International	Skate Canada	|			1st	2nd
Bofrost Cup on Ice	Nations Cup	|	2nd
Trophée Lalique	3rd ||	1st			1st	1st
Cup of Russia	5th ||		1st		1st	1st
NHK Trophy	|		1st

^{*Won the gold but disqualified due to Berezhnaya testing positive for pseudoephedrine}

With Shliakhov

align="center">8th align="center" align="center"

Event			! 1993–94	! 1994–95	! 1995–96
Winter Olympic Games		|
World Figure Skating Championships	World Championships	14th ||	7th	7th
European Figure Skating Championships	European Championships	8th ||	8th	5th
Skate America	|		4th	3rd
Skate Canada International	|	4th	2nd
Bofrost Cup on Ice	Nations Cup	|			3rd
Trophée Lalique	|		2nd	1st
NHK Trophy	|		4th
Nebelhorn Trophy	|	2nd
Piruetten	|	4th
Skate Israel	|			2nd
Goodwill Games	|	4th

References

External links

Elena Berezhnaya Official Website

Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze at pairsonice.net

Elena Berezhnaya and Oleg Shliakhov profile at pairsonice.net

Category:Article Feedback Pilot Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:People from Nevinnomyssk Category:Russian pair skaters Category:Latvian pair skaters Category:Olympic figure skaters of Russia Category:Figure skaters at the 2002 Winter Olympics Category:Figure skaters at the 1998 Winter Olympics Category:Figure skaters at the 1994 Winter Olympics Category:Olympic gold medalists for Russia Category:Olympic silver medalists for Russia Category:Olympic figure skaters of Latvia Category:Doping cases in figure skating Category:Olympic medalists in figure skating Category:Battle of the Blades participants

de:Jelena Wiktorowna Bereschnaja fr:Elena Berejnaïa ja:エレーナ・ベレズナヤ no:Jelena Berezjnaja pt:Elena Berezhnaya ru:Бережная, Елена Викторовна tr:Elena Berezhnaya