Pindar (, ''Pindaros'', ; ) (ca. 522–443 BC), was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, Pindar is the one whose work is best preserved. Quintilian described him as "by far the greatest of the nine lyric poets, in virtue of his inspired magnificence, the beauty of his thoughts and figures, the rich exuberance of his language and matter, and his rolling flood of eloquence". The Athenian comic playwright Eupolis is said to have remarked that the poems of Pindar ''"are already reduced to silence by the disinclination of the multitude for elegant learning"''. Pindar's 'elegant learning' has often discouraged modern interest as well, particularly up until the end of the 19th century. The discovery in 1896 of some poems by his rival Bacchylides then allowed for useful comparisons and it was found that some idiosyncrasies, evident in Pindar's Victory Odes, were typical of the genre rather than of the poet himself. From then on, the brilliance of Pindar's poetry began to be more widely appreciated by modern scholars and yet there are still peculiarities in his style that challenge the casual reader and he continues to be a largely unread, even if much admired poet.

Pindar is the first Greek poet whose works reflect extensively on the nature of poetry and on the poet's role. Like other poets of the Archaic Age, he reveals a deep sense of the vicissitudes of life and yet, unlike them, he also articulates a passionate faith in what men can achieve by the grace of the gods, most famously expressed in his conclusion to one of his Victory Odes:

:::Creatures of a day! What is a man? :::What is he not? A dream of a shadow ::Is our mortal being. But when there comes to men :::A gleam of splendour given of heaven, :::Then rests on them a light of glory ::::And blessed are their days. (''Pythian 8'') Pindar's poetry illustrates the beliefs and values of Archaic Greece at the dawn of the classical period.

Biography

Sources

Five ancient sources contain all the recorded details of Pindar's life. One of them is a short biography that was discovered in 1961 on an Egyptian papyrus dating from at least 200 AD (P.Oxy.2438). The other four are historic collections that weren't finalized until some 1600 years after Pindar's death:

''Commentaries on Pindar'' by Eustathius of Thessalonica;

''Vita Vratislavensis'', found in a manuscript at Breslau, author unknown;

a text by Thomas Magister;

some meagre writings attributed to the lexicographer Suidas.

Although these sources are based on a much older literary tradition, going as far back as Chamaeleon of Heraclea in the 4th century BC, they are widely viewed with scepticism today: much of the ancient material is clearly fanciful. Scholars both ancient and modern have turned to Pindar's own work – his victory odes in particular – as a source of biographical information: many of the poems can be dated accurately and they often touch on historic events. However even the poems began to seem unreliable sources after the 1962 publication of Elroy Bundy's ground-breaking work ''Pindarica''. For Bundy, and for a generation of scholars influenced by him, the odes do not commemorate Pindar's personal thoughts and feelings but are public statements "dedicated to the single purpose of eulogizing men and communities."biographical interpretations of the poems up to then had arisen from a "fatal conjunction" of historicism and Romanticism. The pendulum of intellectual fashion however has now swung back at least some of the way, such that a limited and cautious use of the poems for biographical purposes is considered acceptable again.

The biography in this article is an amalgam of old and new approaches – it is naive in its reliance on the odes as biographical sources and it even includes a few clearly fanciful elements from ancient accounts. Some of the problematic aspects of this traditional approach are then illustrated in notes at the end of relevant paragraphs. Moreover, the biography progresses backwards in time as an example of Pindar's unique literary methods – he often demonstrated particular themes by narrating episodes from traditional myths, sometimes in reverse chronological order.

Post mortem

Greeks long cherished the memory of Pindar. His house in Thebes became one of the city's landmarks, especially after Alexander The Great demolished every other house there he left the poet's house spectacularly intact out of gratitude for some verses praising his ancestor, king Alexander I of Macedon. Some of Pindar's verses became a scenic attraction in Lindos, Rhodes, where they were inscribed in letters of gold on a temple wall. At Delphi, the priests of Apollo exhibited an iron chair on which the poet used to sit during the festival of the Theoxenia. "''Let Pindar the poet go unto the supper of the gods!''" they intoned every night while closing the temple doors (he had once been elected to the priesthood there). One of his female relatives claimed that he had dictated to her some verses in honour of Persephone after he had been dead for several days!

Death and old age

Pindar lived to about eighty years of age and died sometime around 440 BC while attending a festival at Argos. His ashes were taken back home to Thebes by his musically-gifted daughters, Eumetis and Protomache. Nothing is recorded about his wife and son except their names, Megacleia and Daiphantus. In one of his last odes (''Pythian 8''), celebrating a victory by an athlete from Aegina, Pindar reveals that he lived near a shrine to the oracle Alcmaeon and that he stored some of his wealth there. He says in the same ode that he had recently received a prophecy from Alcmaeon during a journey to Delphi "...he met me and proved the skills of prophecy that all his race inherit" but he doesn't reveal what the long-dead prophet said to him nor in what form he appeared. :Note: Pindar doesn't necessarily refer to himself when he uses the first person singular. A large proportion of his 'I' statements seem to be generic, indicating somebody engaged in the role of a singer i.e. a 'bardic' I. Other 'I' statements articulate values typical of the audience and some are spoken on behalf of the subject celebrated in the poem. The 'I' that received the prophecy in ''Pythian 8'' might thus have been the athlete from Aegina, not Pindar. In that case, the prophecy probably concerned his victory in the Pythian Games and the property stored at the shrine was just a votive offering.

Fame as a poet involved Pindar in the world of Greek politics, drawing him into conflicting loyalties. Athens, for example, was the dominant force in Greece throughout his poetic career and it happened to be a long-term rival both of his home city, Thebes, and of the island state Aegina, whose leading citizens commissioned about a quarter of his Victory Odes. There is no open condemnation of the Athenians in any of Pindar's poems but sometimes he smuggles in some criticism. For example, the victory ode mentioned above (''Pythian 8'') covertly celebrates a recent defeat of Athens by Thebes at the Battle of Coronea (447 BC), represented imaginatively as the downfall of the giants Porphyrion and Typhon and the poem ends with a prayer for Aegina's freedom (long threatened by Athenian ambitions). :Note: Covert criticism of Athens (traditionally located in odes such as ''Pythian'' 8, ''Nemean'' 8 and ''Isthmian'' 7) are now considered highly unlikely even by scholars who allow for some biographical and historical interpretations of the poems.

Middle age

Pindar seems to have used his odes to advance his personal interests and those of his friends. In 462 BC he composed two odes in honour of Arcesilas, king of Cyrene, (''Pythians 4 and 5''), pleading for the return from exile of a friend, Demophilus. In the latter ode Pindar proudly mentions his own ancestry, which he shared with the king, as an Aegeid or descendent of Aegeus, the legendary king of Athens. The clan was influential in many parts of the Greek world, having intermarried with ruling families in Thebes, in Lacedaemonia and in cities that claimed Lacedaemonian descent, such as Cyrene and Thera. The historian Herodotus considered the clan important enough to deserve mention (''Histories'' IV.147). Membership in the clan contributed to Pindar's success as the poet of an international elite and it informed his political views, marked by a conservative preference for oligarchic governments of the Doric kind. :Note: Pindar's claim to be an Aegeid may be doubted on the grounds that 'I' statements do not necessarily refer to the poet. On the other hand, the Aegeid clan did have a branch in Thebes and it is possible that Pindar's reference to "my ancestors" in Pythian 5 could have been spoken on behalf of both Arcesilas and Pindar – the poet might have used this kind of ambivalence to establish a personal link with his patrons.

He was possibly the Theban proxenos or consul for Aegina and/or Molossia, as indicated in another of his odes, Nemean 7, in which he glorifies Neoptolemus, a national hero of both Aegina and Molossia. According to tradition, Neoptolemus died in a disgraceful fight with priests at the temple in Delphi over their share of some sacrificial meat. Pindar diplomatically glosses over this. The ode ends mysteriously with an earnest protestation of innocence – "But shall my heart never admit that I with words none can redeem dishonoured Neoptolemus" – and possibly this was said in response to anger among Aeginetans and/or Molossians over his portrayal of Neoptolemus in an earlier poem, ''Paean 6'', which had been commissioned by the priests at Delphi and which depicted the hero's death in traditional terms, as divine retribution for his past crimes. :Note: This biographical interpretation of ''Nemean 7'' is doubted on a variety of grounds: it is largely based on some marginal comments by scholiasts yet Pindaric scholiasts are generally unreliable; it has no relevance to the poem as a song of praise for the victor of an athletic contest; the fact that Pindar gave different versions of the one myth simply reflects the needs of different genres and does not necessarily indicate a personal dilemma. ''Nemean 7'' in fact is the most controversial and obscure of Pindar's victory odes and scholars ancient and modern have exercised ingenuity and imagination in their attempts to explain it, so far without agreed success.

In his first Pythian ode, composed in 470 BC in honour of the Sicilian tyrant Hieron, Pindar celebrated a series of stunning victories by Greeks against foreign invaders: Athenian and Spartan-led victories against Persia at Salamis and Plataea, and victories by the western Greeks led by Theron of Acragas and by Hieron against the Carthaginians and Etruscans at the battles of Himera and Cumae. Such celebrations were not appreciated by his fellow Thebans: they had sided with the Persians and they had incurred many losses and privations as a result of their defeat. His praise of Athens with such epithets as ''bulwark of Hellas'' (''fragment 76'') and ''city of noble name and sunlit splendour'' (Nemean 5) once induced the authorities in Thebes to fine him 5000 drachmae, to which the astute Athenians are said to have responded with a gift of 10000 drachmae. According to another account, the Athenians even made him their proxenus or consul in Thebes, though this claim is now largely discredited. His association with the fabulously rich Hieron was another source of annoyance at home. It was probably in response to Theban sensitivities over this issue that he denounced the rule of tyrants (i.e. rulers like Hieron) in an ode composed shortly after a visit to Hieron's sumptuous court in 476–75 BC (''Pythian 11''). :Note: Pindar's actual phrasing in ''Pythian 11'' was "I deplore the lot of tyrants" and though this was traditionally interpreted as an apology for his dealings with Sicilian tyrants like Hieron, an alternative date for the ode led some scholars to conclude that it was in fact a covert reference to the tyrannical behaviour of the Athenians, and yet this interpretation too is ruled out if we accept the earlier note about covert references. According to yet another interpretation, Pindar is simply delivering a formulaic warning to the successful athlete to avoid hubris.

Lyric verse was conventionally accompanied by music and dance and Pindar himself wrote the music and choreographed the dances for his victory odes. Sometimes he trained the performers at his home in Thebes and sometimes he trained them at the venue where they performed. Commissions took him to all parts of the Greek world – to the Panhellenic festivals in mainland Greece (Olympia, Delphi, Corinth and Nemea), westwards to Sicily, eastwards to the seaboard of Asia Minor, north to Macedonia and Abdera (''Paean 2'') and south to Cyrene on the African coast. Other poets attended the same venues and vied with him for the favours of patrons. His poetry sometimes reflects this rivalry. Thus for example ''Olympian 2'' and ''Pythian 2'', composed in honour of the Sicilian tyrants Theron and Hieron following his visit to their courts in 476–75 BC, refer respectively to ''ravens'' and an ''ape'', apparently signifying rivals engaged in a campaign of smears against him – possibly even the celebrated poets Simonides and his nephew Bacchylides. Pindar's original treatment of narrative myth, often relating events in reverse chronological order, is said to have been a favourite target for criticism. Simonides was known to charge high fees for his work and Pindar is said to have alluded to this in ''Isthmian 2'', where he refers to the Muse as "a hireling journeyman". :Note: It was assumed by ancient sources that Pindar's odes were performed by a chorus – this has been challenged by some modern scholars who argue that the odes were in fact performed solo. It is not known how commissions were arranged, nor if the poet travelled widely: even when poems include statements like "I have come", it is not certain that this was meant literally. Uncomplimentary references to Bacchylides and Simonides were found by scholiasts but there is no reason to accept their interpretation of the odes. In fact some scholars have interpreted the allusions to fees in ''Isthmian 2'' as a request by Pindar for payment of fees owed to himself.

Adulthood to infancy

The early to middle years of Pindar's career coincided with the Persian invasions of Greece in the reigns of Darius and Xerxes. During the invasion in 480/79 BC, when Pindar was almost forty years old, Thebes was occupied by Xerxes' general, Mardonius, with whom many Theban aristocrats subsequently perished at the Battle of Plataea. It is possible that Pindar spent much of this time at Aegina. His choice of residence during the earlier invasion in 490 BC is not known but he was able to attend the Pythian Games for that year, where he first met the Sicilian prince, Thrasybulus, nephew of Theron of Acragas. Thrasybulus had driven the winning chariot and he and Pindar were to form a lasting friendship, paving the way for his subsequent visit to Sicily.

Pindar was about twenty years old in 498 BC when he was commissioned by the ruling family in Thessaly to compose his first victory ode (''Pythian 10''). He studied the art of lyric poetry in Athens, where his tutor was Lasos of Hermione, and he is also said to have received some helpful criticism from Corinna. It is reported moreover that he was stung on the mouth by a bee in his youth and this was the reason he became a poet of honey-like verses (an identical fate has been ascribed to other poets of the archaic period). He was probably born in 522 BC or 518 BC (the 65th Olympiad) in Cynoscephalae, a village in Boeotia, not far from Thebes. His father's name is variously given as Daiphantus, Pagondas or Scopelinus and his mother's name was Cleodice. :Note: Corinna's dates are disputed and the extant poetry attributed to her actually belongs to the 3rd century BC.

Works

Pindar's original and strongly individual genius is apparent in all his extant compositions but, unlike Simonides and Stesichorus for example, he created no new lyrical genres. He was however innovative in his employment of the genres he inherited – for example, in one of his victory odes (''Olympian'' 3), he announces his invention of a new type of musical accompaniment, combining lyre, flute and human voice (though our knowledge of Greek music is too sketchy to allow us to understand the full nature of this innovation). He probably spoke Boeotian Greek but he composed in a literary language fairly typical of archaic Greek poetry, relying on Doric dialect more consistently than his rival Bacchylides, for example, but less insistently than Alcman. There is an admixture of other dialects, especially Aeolic and epic forms, and there is an occasional use of some Boeotian words. He composed 'choral' songs yet it is by no means certain that they were all sung by choirsthe use of choirs is testified only by generally unreliable scholiasts. Scholars at the Library of Alexandria collected his compositions in seventeen books organized according to genre:

1 book of humnoi – ''"hymns"''

1 book of paianes – ''"paeans"''

2 books of dithuramboi – ''"dithyrhambs"''

2 books of prosodia – ''"processionals"''

3 books of parthenia – ''"songs for maidens"''

2 books of huporchemata – ''"songs for light dances"''

1 book of enkomia – ''"songs of praise"''

1 book of threnoi – ''"laments"''

4 books of epinikia – ''"victory odes"''

Of this vast and varied corpus, only the ''epinikia'' — odes written to commemorate athletic victories — survive in complete form; the rest survive only by quotations in other ancient authors or from papyrus scraps unearthed in Egypt. Even in fragmentary form, however, the various genres reveal the same complexity of thought and language that are found in the victory odes.

Victory odes

Almost all Pindar's victory odes are celebrations of triumphs gained by competitors in Panhellenic festivals such as the Olympian Games. The establishment of these athletic and musical festivals was among the greatest achievements of the Greek aristocracies. Even in the 5th century, when there was an increased tendency towards professionalism, they were predominantly aristocratic assemblies, reflecting the expense and the leisure needed to attend such events either as a competitor or spectator. Attendance was an opportunity for display and self-promotion, and the prestige of victory, requiring commitment in time and/or wealth, went far beyond anything that accrues to athletic victories today, even in spite of the modern preoccupation with sport. Pindar's odes capture something of the prestige and the aristocratic grandeur of the moment of victory, as in this stanza from one of his Isthmian Odes, here translated by Geoffrey S. Conway:

:::::If ever a man strives :::With all his soul's endeavour, sparing himself :::Neither expense nor labour to attain :::True excellence, then must we give to those :::Who have achieved the goal, a proud tribute :::::Of lordly praise, and shun ::::All thoughts of envious jealousy. :::To a poet's mind the gift is slight, to speak :::A kind word for unnumbered toils, and build :::For all to share a monument of beauty. (''Isthmian'' I, antistrophe 3)

His victory odes are grouped into four books named after the Olympian, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games – Panhellenic festivals held respectively at Olympia, Delphi, Corinth and Nemea. This reflects the fact that most of the odes were composed in honour of boys, youths and men who had recently enjoyed victories in athletic (and sometimes musical) contests at those festivals. In a few odes, however, much older victories and even victories in lesser games are sometimes celebrated, often being used as a pretext for addressing other issues or achievements. For example, ''Pythian 3'', composed in honour of Hieron of Syracuse, briefly mentions an old victory he had once enjoyed at the Pythian Games, but it is actually intended to console him for his chronic illness. ''Nemean 9'' and ''Nemean 10'' celebrate victories in games at Sicyon and Argos, and ''Nemean 11'' celebrates a victory in a municipal election on Tenedos (though it includes mention of some obscure athletic victories). These three odes are the final odes in the ''Nemean'' book of odes and there is a reason for their inclusion there. In the original manuscripts, the four books of odes were arranged in the order of importance assigned to the festivals, with the Nemean festival, considered least important, coming last. Any victory odes that lacked the aura of a Panhellenic subject were then bundled together at the end of the book of ''Nemean'' odes.

Style

As mentioned in the introduction, Pindar's poetic style is unique and highly individualised even when the peculiarities of the genre are set aside. The odes typically feature a grand and arresting opening, often with architectural metaphor or a resounding invocation to a place or goddess. He makes rich use of decorative language and florid compound adjectives. Sentences are compressed to the point of obscurity, unusual words and periphrases give the language an esoteric quality, transitions in meaning often seem erratic, and images seem to burst out – it's a style that baffles reason and which makes his poetry vivid and unforgettable. }}

Such qualities can be found, for example, in this stanza from ''Pythian 2'', composed in honour of Hieron:

:::God achieves all his purpose and fulfills :::His every hope, god who can overtake :::The winged eagle, or upon the sea ::::Outstrip the dolphin; and he bends :::::The arrogant heart ::::Of many a man, but gives to others :::Eternal glory that will never fade. :::Now for me is it needful that I shun :::::The fierce and biting tooth :::Of slanderous words. For from old have I seen :::Sharp-tongued Archilochus in want and struggling, :::::Grown fat on the harsh words ::::Of hate. The best that fate can bring :::Is wealth joined with the happy gift of wisdom.

The stanza begins with a universalizing movement, taking in the sky, sea, god and the human struggle for justice, then abruptly shifts to a darker, more allusive train of thought, featuring a highly individual, even eccentric condemnation of a renowned poet, Archilochus with curious phrasing such as ''Grown fat on the harsh words of hate''. Archilochus took a sardonic and often humorous view of his own and other people's faults – a regrettable tendency from the viewpoint of Pindar, whose own persona is intensely earnest, preaching to high achievers like Hieron the need for moderation (wealth with wisdom) and submission to the divine will. The reference to the embittered poet appears to be Pindar's meditative response to some intrigues at Hieron's court, possibly by his personal rivals, condemned elsewhere as ''a pair of ravens'' (''Olympian 2''). The intensity of the stanza suggests that it is the culmination and climax of the poem. In fact, the stanza occupies the middle of ''Pythian 2'' and the intensity is sustained throughout the poem from beginning to end. It is the sustained intensity of his poetry that Quintilian refers to above as a ''rolling flood of eloquence'' and Horace below refers to as the ''uncontrollable momentum'' of a river that has burst its banks. Longinus likens him to ''a vast fire'' and Athenaeus refers to him as ''the great-voiced Pindar''.

Pindar's treatment of myth is another unique aspect of his style, often involving variations on the traditional stories. Myths enabled him to develop the kind of themes and lessons that pre-occupied him – in particular mankind's exulted relation with the gods via heroic ancestors and, in contrast, the limitations and uncertainties of human existence – but sometimes the traditional stories were an embarrassment and they needed to be carefully edited, as for example: "Be still my tongue: here profits not / to tell the whole truth with clear face unveiled," (''Nemean 5'', epode 1); "Away, away this story! / Let no such tale fall from my lips! / For to insult the gods is a fool's wisdom," (''Olympian 9'', strophe 2); "Senseless, I hold it, for a man to say / the gods eat mortal flesh. / I spurn the thought," (''Olympian 1'', epode 2). His mythical accounts are also edited for dramatic and graphic effects, usually unfolding through a few grand gestures against a background of large, often symbolic elements such as sea, sky, darkness, fire or mountain.

Structure

Pindar's odes typically begin with an invocation to a god or the Muses, followed by praise of the victor and often of his family, ancestors and home-town. Then follows a narrated myth, usually occupying the central and longest section of the poem, exemplify a moral while also aligning the world of the poet and his audience with the world of gods and heroes. The ode usually ends in more eulogies, as for example of trainers (if the victor is a boy), and of relatives who have won past events, as well as with prayers or expressions of hope for future success. The event where the victory was gained is never described in detail but there is often some brief mention of the hard work needed to bring the victory about.

A lot of modern criticism is concerned with finding hidden structure or some unifying principle within the odes. 19th century criticism favoured 'gnomic unity' i.e. each ode is bound together by the kind of moralizing or philosophic vision typical of archaic Gnomic poetry. Later critics sought for unity in the way certain words or images are repeated and developed within any particular ode. For others, the odes really are just celebrations of men and their communities, in which the elements such as myths, piety and ethics are stock themes that the poet introduces without much real thought. Some have concluded that the requirement for unity is too modern to have informed Pindar's ancient approach to a traditional craft.

The great majority of the odes are triadic in structure – i.e. stanzas are grouped together in threes as a lyrical unit. Each triad comprises two stanzas identical in length and meter (called 'strophe' and 'antistrophe') and a third stanza (called an 'epode'), differing in length and meter but rounding off the lyrical movement in some way. The shortest odes comprise a single triad, the largest (''Pythian 4'') comprises thirteen triads. Seven of the odes however are monostrophic (i.e. each stanza in the ode is identical in length and meter). The monostrophic odes seem to have been composed for victory marches or processions, whereas the triadic odes appear suited to choral dances. Pindar's metrical rhythms are nothing like the simple, repetitive rhythms familiar to readers of English verse – typically the rhythm of any given line recurs infrequently (for example, only once every ten, fifteen or twenty lines). This adds to the aura of complexity that surrounds Pindar's work. In terms of meter, the odes fall roughly into two categories – about half are in dactylo-epitrites (a meter found for example in the works of Stesichorus, Simonides and Bacchylides) and the other half are in Aeolic metres based on iambs and choriambs.

Chronological order

Modern editors (e.g. Snell and Maehler in their Teubner edition), have assigned dates, securely or tentatively, to Pindar's victory odes, based on ancient sources and other grounds. The date of an athletic victory is not always the date of composition but often serves merely as a ''terminus post quem''. Many dates are based on comments by ancient sources who had access to published lists of victors, such as the Olympic list compiled by Hippias of Elis, and lists of Pythian victors made by Aristotle and Callisthenes. There were however no such lists for the Isthmian and Nemean Games – Pausanias (6.13.8) complained that the Corinthians and Argives never kept proper records. The resulting uncertainty is reflected in the chronology below, with question marks clustered around Nemean and Isthmian entries, and yet it still represents a fairly clear general timeline of Pindar's career as an epinician poet. The code M denotes monostrophic odes (odes in which all stanzas are metrically identical) and the rest are triadic (i.e. featuring strophes, antistrophes, epodes):

+Estimated chronological order	! Date BC	! Ode	! Victor	! Event	! Focusing Myth
	Pythian 10	Hippocles of Thessaly		Perseus, Hyperboreans
	Pythian 6 (M)		Chariot-Race
	Pythian 12 (M)			Perseus, Medusa
	Olympian 14 (M)	Asopichus of Orchomenos	Boys' Foot-Race	None
	Pythian 7	Megacles of Athens	Chariot-Race	None
	Nemean 2 (M)	Timodemus of Acharnae	Pancration	None
	Nemean 7	Sogenes of Aegina	Boys' Pentathlon	Neoptolemus
	Nemean 5	Pythias of Aegina	Youth's Pancration	Peleus, Hippolyta, Thetis
	Isthmian 6	Phylacides of Aegina	Pancration	Heracles, Telamon
	Isthmian 5	Phylacides of Aegina	Pancration
	Isthmian 8 (M)	Cleandrus of Aegina	Pancration	Zeus, Poseidon, Thetis
	Olympian 1	Hieron of Syracuse	Horse-Race	Pelops
	Olympians 2 & 3	Theron of Acragas	Chariot-Race	2.Isles of the Blessed 3.Heracles, Hyperboreans
	Olympian 11	Agesidamus of Epizephyrian Locris	Boys' Boxing Match	Heracles, founding of Olympian Games
	Nemean 1		Chariot-Race	Infant Heracles
	Pythian 2	Hieron of Syracuse	Chariot-Race	Ixion
	Nemean 3	Aristocleides of Aegina	Pancration
	Olympian 10		Boys' Boxing Match	None
	Pythian 3	Hieron of Syracuse	Horse-Race	Asclepius
	Pythian 9		Foot-Race in Armour
	Pythian 11		Boys' Short Foot-Race	Orestes, Clytemnestra
	Nemean 9 (M)	Chromius of Aetna	Chariot-Race	Seven Against Thebes
	Isthmian 3 & 4	Melissus of Thebes	Chariot Race & Pancration	3.None 4.Heracles, Antaeus
	Nemean 4 (M)	Timisarchus of Aegina	Boys' Wrestling Match
	Pythian 1		Chariot-Race	Typhon
	Isthmian 2	Xenocrates of Acragas	Chariot-Race	None
	Olympian 6		Chariot-Race with Mules	Iamus
	Olympian 9	Epharmus of Opous	Wrestling-Match	Deucalion, Pyrrha
	Olympian 12	Ergoteles of Himera
	Nemean 6	Alcimidas of Aegina	Boys' Wrestling Match	Aeacides, Achilles, Memnon
	Olympian 7	Diagoras of Rhodes	Boxing-Match	Tlepolemus
	Olympian 13	Xenophon of Corinth	Short Foot-Race & Pentathlon	Bellerophon, Pegasus
	Pythian 4 & 5		Chariot-Race	4.Argonauts 5.Battus
	Olympian 8	Alcimidas of Aegina	Boys' Wrestling-Match	Aeacus, Troy
	Nemean 8	Deinis of Aegina	Foot-Race
	Isthmian 1	Herodotus of Thebes	Chariot-Race	Castor, Iolaus
460 BC	Olympian 4 & 5		Chariot-Race with Mules	4.[[Erginus 5.None
	Isthmian 7	Strepsiades of Thebes	Pancration	None
	Pythian 8	Aristomenes of Aegina	Wrestling-Match	Amphiaraus
	Nemean 11	Aristagoras of Tenedos	Inauguration as Prytanis	None
	Nemean 10	Theaius of Argos	Wrestling-Match	Castor, Pollux

Horace's tribute

The great Latin poet, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, was an eloquent admirer of Pindar's style. He described it in these terms in one of his Sapphic poems, addressed to a friend, Julus Antonius:

::::''Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari,'' ::::''Iule, ceratis ope Daedalea'' ::::''nititur pennis vitreo daturus'' :::::''nomina ponto.''

::::''monte decurrens velut amnis, imbres'' ::::''quem super notas aluere ripas,'' ::::''fervet immensusque ruit profundo'' :::::''Pindarus ore...'' (C.IV.II)

Translated by James Michie:

::::Julus, whoever tries to rival Pindar, ::::Flutters on wings of wax, a rude contriver ::::Doomed like the son of Daedalus to christen :::::Somewhere a shining sea.

::::A river bursts its banks and rushes down a ::::Mountain with uncontrollable momentum, ::::Rain-saturated, churning, chanting thunder – :::::There you have Pindar's style...

Manuscripts, shreds and quotes

Pindar's verses have come down to the modern age in a variety of ways. Some are preserved only as fragments via quotes by ancient sources and papyri unearthed by archeologists, as at Oxyrhynchus – in fact the extant works of the other canonic lyric poets have survived only in this tattered form. Pindar's extant verses are unique in that the bulk of them – the victory odes – have been preserved through a manuscript tradition i.e. generations of scribes copying from earlier copies, possibly originating in a single archetypal copy and sometimes graphically demonstrated by modern scholars in the form of a stemma codicum, resembling a 'family tree'. Pindar's victory odes are preserved as a single corpus in just two manuscripts but various incomplete collections are located in many others, all dating from the mediaeval period. Some scholars have traced a stemma through these manuscripts, as for example Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, who inferred from them the existence of a common source or archetype dated no earlier than the 2nd century AD, while others, such as C.M. Bowra, have argued that there are too many discrepancies between manuscripts to identify a specific lineage, even while accepting the existence of an archetype somewhere. Otto Schroeder identified two families of manuscripts but, following on the work of Polish-born classicist, Alexander Turyn, Bowra rejected this also. Different scholars have interpreted the extant manuscripts differently. Thus Bowra for example singled out seven manuscripts as his primary sources (see below), all more or less featuring errors and/or gaps due to loss of folios and careless copying, and one arguably characterized by the dubious interpolations of Byzantine scholars. These he cross-referenced then supplemented or verified by reference to other, still more doubtful manuscripts and even to some papyral fragments – a combination of sources on which he based his own edition of the odes and fragments. His general method of selection he defined as follows: ::::Selected manuscripts – a sample of preferred sources (Bowra's choice, 1947)

Code	! Source	! Format	! Date	! Comments
A	codex Ambrosianus C 222inf.	paper 35x25.5 cm	13–14th century	Comprises Olympian Odes 1–12, with some unique readings that Bowra considered reliable, and including scholia.
B	codex Vaticanus graeca 1312	silk 24.3x18.4 cm	13th century
C	codex Parasinus graecus 2774	silk 23x15 cm	14th century	Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Pythian 5, including some unique readings but also with many Byzantine interpolations/conjectures (Turyn rejected this codex accordingly), and written in a careless hand.
D	codex Laurentianus 32, 52	silk 27x19 cm	14th century	Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Isthmian 8 (entire corpus), including a fragment (Frag. 1) and scholia, written in a careless hand.
E	codex Laurentianus 32, 37	silk 24x17cm	14th century	Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Pythian 12, largely in agreement with B, including scholia but with last page removed and replaced with paper in a later hand.
G	codex Gottingensis philologus 29	silk 25x17 cm	13th century	Comprises odes Olympian 2 to Pythian 12, largely in agreement with B (thus useful for comparisons), including Olympian 1 added in 16th century.
V	codex Parasinus graecus 2403	silk 25x17 cm	14th century	Comprises odes Olympian 1 to Nemean 4, including some verses from Nemean 6; like G, useful for supporting and verifying B.

Influence and Legacy

The influential Alexandrian poet Callimachus was fascinated by Pindar's individualism and linguistic originality. His masterpiece ''Aetia'' included an elegy in honour of Queen Berenice, celebrating a chariot victory at the Nemean Games, composed in a style and presented in a manner that recall Pindar.

Pindar was much read, quoted and copied during the Byzantine Era. For example, Christophoros Mytilenaios of the 11th century parodied a chariot race in his sixth poem employing explicit allusions to Pindar.

See also

Pindarics

John Wolcot

References

Further reading

Nisetich, Frank J., Pindar's Victory Songs. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980: translations and extensive introduction, background and critical apparatus.

Revard, Stella P., ''Politics, Poetics, and the Pindaric Ode 1450–1700'', Turnhout, Brepols Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-2-503-52896-0

Race, W. H. Pindar. 2 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997.

Barrett, W. S., ''Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism: Collected Papers'', edited M. L. West (Oxford & New York, 2007): papers dealing with Pindar, Stesichorus, Bacchylides and Euripides

Kiichiro Itsumi, ''Pindaric Metre: 'The Other Half''' (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).

External links

Selected odes, marked up to show selected rhetorical and poetic devices

Olympian 1, read aloud in Greek, with text and English translation provided

Pythian 3, translated by Frank J. Nisetich

Pythian 8, 'Approaching Pindar' by William Harris (text, translation, analysis)

Pindar by Gregory Crane, in the Perseus Encyclopedia

Pindar's Life by Basil L. Gildersleeve, in ''Pindar: The Olympian and Pythian Odes''

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Pindar, Olympian Odes, I, 1–64; read by William Mullen

Perseus Digital Library Lexicon to Pindar, William J. Slater, De Gruyter 1969: scholarly dictionary for research into Pindar

Historic editions

The Odes of Pindar translated into English with notes, D.W.Turner, A Moore, Bohm Classical Library (1852), digitalized by Google

Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed. 1911 Vol.21 'Pindar'

Pindar – translations and notes by Reverend C.A.Wheelwright, printed by A.J.Valpy, M.A., London (1830): digitalized by Google

Category:522 BC births Category:443 BC deaths Category:Ancient Boeotian poets Category:Ancient Thebans Category:5th-century BC Greek people Category:5th-century BC poets Category:Nine lyric poets Category:Proxenoi Category:Doric Greek poets

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Coordinates	40°37′29″N73°57′8″N
name	Prince William
title	Duke of Cambridge (more)
imagw	245
spouse	Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge
house	House of Windsor
full name	William Arthur Philip Louis The middle name Louis is pronounced .|groupfn |namesur}}

| titles = ''HRH'' Prince William, Duke of Cambridge | father = Charles, Prince of Wales | mother = Diana, Princess of Wales | birth_date = June 21, 1982 | birth_place = St Mary's Hospital, London | date of christening = 4 August 1982 | place of christening = Buckingham Palace, London | religion = Anglican (Church of England) }} Prince William, Duke of Cambridge (William Arthur Philip Louis; born 21 June 1982) is the elder son of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Diana, Princess of Wales, and third eldest grandchild of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He is second in the line of succession, behind his father, to the thrones of sixteen independent sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis. Consequently, he is also second in line, again behind his father, to the position of Head of the Commonwealth (figurehead of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations) and, in England only, Supreme Governor of the Church of England.

He was educated at four schools in the United Kingdom and obtained a degree from the University of St Andrews. He spent parts of a gap year in Chile, Belize, and countries in Africa, most notably Kenya where he has lived and holidayed several times. Besides his engagement to Kate whilst living in Kenya, Prince William has also taken Kiswahili studies at universities in Kenya and Tanzania. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Blues and Royals regiment of the Household Cavalry—serving with his brother Prince Harry—and, two years later, earned his wings by completing pilot training at Royal Air Force College Cranwell. In 2009, the Prince transferred to the Royal Air Force, was promoted to flight lieutenant and underwent helicopter flying training in order to become a full time pilot with the Search and Rescue Force. In Autumn 2010, he completed his general and special-to-type helicopter training and he is now at RAF Valley on No. 22 Squadron performing co-pilot duties on board a Sea King search and rescue helicopter. Prince William married his longtime girlfriend, the then Catherine Middleton, on 29 April 2011 at Westminster Abbey. Hours prior to his wedding, Prince William was created Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Strathearn and Baron Carrickfergus.

Early life

Prince William was born at St Mary's Hospital, London on 21 June 1982. He was baptised in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace on 4 August 1982 (the 82nd birthday of his paternal great-grandmother, Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother) by the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie. William's godparents are: former King Constantine II of Greece (his paternal cousin); Princess Alexandra, The Hon Mrs Angus Ogilvy (his paternal cousin); the Duchess of Westminster; the Lady Susan Hussey; Lord Romsey (his paternal cousin); and Sir Laurens van der Post.

As a male-line grandchild of the sovereign and son of the Prince of Wales, William was styled 'His Royal Highness' 'Prince William of Wales', though he was affectionately called 'Wombat' by his parents or 'Wills' (the latter a name coined by the press by which he is still known by the general public). It was reported that, at age seven, the Prince said to his mother that he desired to be a police officer when he was older, so that he might be able to protect her; a statement to which his brother responded: "Oh, no you can't. You've got to be King." William's first public appearance was on 1 March 1991 (Saint David's Day), during an official visit of his parents to Cardiff, Wales. After arriving by aeroplane, the Prince was taken to Llandaff Cathedral, where he signed the visitors' book, thereby demonstrating that he was left-handed. On 3 June 1991, William was admitted to Royal Berkshire Hospital after having been hit on the side of the forehead by a fellow student wielding a golf club. The Prince did not lose consciousness, but did suffer a depressed fracture of the skull and was operated on at the Great Ormond Street Hospital, resulting in a permanent scar.

William's mother desired her two sons should have wider experiences than are usual for royal children. Diana took William and his brother to Walt Disney World and McDonald's; in addition they visited AIDS clinics and shelters for the homeless. She also bought them things typical teenagers used, such as video games. Diana, Princess of Wales, who was by then divorced from the Prince of Wales, died in a car accident in 1997. William, along with his brother and father, was staying at Balmoral Castle at the time, and the Prince of Wales waited until early the following morning to tell his sons about their mother's death. At his mother's funeral, William accompanied his father, brother, paternal grandfather, and maternal uncle in walking behind the funeral cortège from Buckingham Palace to Westminster Abbey.

Education

William was educated at independent schools, starting at Jane Mynors' nursery school and the pre-preparatory Wetherby School, both in London. Following this, he attended Ludgrove School and was privately tutored during summers by Rory Stewart. At Ludgrove he also participated in football—along with swimming, basketball, clay pigeon shooting, and cross-country running. William sat for the entrance exam to Eton College and was admitted. There he studied geography, biology and history of art at A-Level, obtaining an A in geography, a C in biology and a B in history of art. At Eton he continued to play football, captaining his house team, and took up water polo. The decision to place William in Eton went against the family tradition of sending royal children to Gordonstoun (William's grandfather, father, two uncles, and two cousins all attended); it did, however, make the Prince follow in the Spencer family footsteps, as both Diana's father and brother had attended Eton. It was also agreed between the Royal Family and the tabloid press that William would be allowed to study free of paparazzi intrusion in exchange for regular updates of the Prince's life. Then chairman of the Press Complaints Commission, John Wakeham, said of the arrangement: "Prince William is not an institution; nor a soap star; nor a football hero. He is a boy: in the next few years, perhaps the most important and sometimes painful part of his life, he will grow up and become a man."

After completing his studies at Eton, the Prince took a gap year, during which he took part in British Army training exercises in Belize, and, for ten weeks, taught children in the town of Tortel, in southern Chile, as part of the Raleigh International programme. It was during his time in the latter location that he lived with other young teachers, sharing in the common household chores, including cleaning the toilet, and also volunteered as the guest radio jockey for the local radio station.

By 2001, William was back in the United Kingdom and had enrolled, under the name William Wales, at the University of St Andrews. News of this caused a temporary increase in the number of applications to St Andrews, mostly from young women who wanted an opportunity to meet the Prince. The extra attention did not deter him, though, and he embarked on a degree course in art history, later changing his main subject to geography, and going on to earn a Scottish Master of Arts degree with upper second class honours in geography—the best degree of any heir to the throne of Britain and the Commonwealth realms. While at university, Prince William also represented the Scottish national universities water polo team at the Celtic Nations tournament in 2004. He was known as “Steve” by other students to avoid any journalists overhearing and realising his identity.

Royal duties and career

William began to accompany his parents on official visits at an early age; his first overseas royal tour was with his parents to Australia and New Zealand in 1983, a decision made by the Princess of Wales that was considered to be unconventional; not only was William so young, but both the first and second in line for the throne would be travelling together. However, he accompanied either both parents or his father on subsequent tours, and, upon graduation from university, began to undertake duties of his own, as well as obtaining experience in the private workforce when he worked with land management at Chatsworth House and interned at HSBC.

Military career

Having decided to follow a military career, in October 2005 William attended the four day Regular Commissions Board at Westbury in Wiltshire where he underwent selection to judge his suitability to become an Army officer. Having passed selection, William went up to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in January 2006. Successfully completing the course, William graduated from Sandhurst on 15 December 2006, the graduation parade being attended by the Queen and the Prince of Wales, along with other members of the Royal Family, and William officially received his commission as a lieutenant at midnight. With his rank obtained, the Prince, under the name of William Wales, followed his younger brother into the Blues and Royals as a troop commander in an armoured reconnaissance unit, after which he spent four months in training for the post at Bovington Camp, Dorset.

Once officially enrolled and commissioned in the Armed Forces, William expressed a desire to participate in active service; in this there was a recent precedent of the service of his great-great-uncle Edward VIII who, as Prince of Wales, served in France during the First World War; his great-grandfather George VI who also served during World War I (with the Navy at the Battle of Jutland and in France with the Air Force); and his paternal grandfather Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who served with distinction during World War Two. More recently, his uncle Prince Andrew, Duke of York served in the Falklands war.

Though Major-General Sebastian Roberts, general officer commanding the Household Division, had said William being deployed was possible, the Prince's position as second in line to the throne, and the convention of ministers advising against the person in that position being put into dangerous situations, cast doubts on William's ability to see combat. These doubts increased after Prince Harry's deployment was cancelled in 2007, due to "specific threats". William, instead, went on to training in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, obtaining his commission as a sub-lieutenant in the former and flying officer in the latter (both broadly equivalent to the rank of lieutenant in the Army). With this complete, the Prince undertook an attachment with the Air Force, undergoing an intensive four-month training course at RAF Cranwell, which, upon completing the course on 11 April 2008, he was presented with his RAF wings by his father, who had himself received his wings after training at the same college. It was later revealed that it had been during this secondment that Prince William had helped to man a C-17 Globemaster to Afghanistan, during which he assisted in the repatriation of the body of Trooper Robert Pearson. The Prince had been affectionately known by his fellow airmen, and his callsign was designated, as ''Billy the Fish'', a pun on his title.

William then moved to train with the Navy for two months, from June to August 2008, during which time he spent three weeks at the Britannia Royal Naval College, training on units of the surface fleet, and submarines, as well as with the Fleet Air Arm and Royal Marines, before deploying for a further five weeks on HMS ''Iron Duke'' in the Caribbean. It was during this tour that the Prince took part in a secret underwater mission, as well as helping to identify and capture a small vessel that had been transporting an approximate £40 million worth of cocaine, and taking part in other raids.

Owing to William's future role, a long term career in the military was considered out of the question; due to his position, his desire to see active service was always unlikely to be granted. William originally joined the military on a short-service commission lasting three years. However, it was announced in September 2008 that the Prince would be extending his time in the forces, first by taking on another secondment in the autumn of 2008 (including working at the MOD and non-operational flying with the Army Air Corps). Then it was announced that he would transfer from the Army to the RAF in order to train as a full time search and rescue helicopter pilot; this role enables him to take an active role as a member of the armed forces without him being deployed on combat operations.

In January 2009, William transferred his commission to the RAF and was promoted to Flight Lieutenant. He trained to become a helicopter pilot with the RAF's Search and Rescue Force. In January 2010, he graduated from the Defence Helicopter Flying School at RAF Shawbury, where he had been under the instruction of Squadron Leader Craig Finch. On 26 January 2010 he transferred to the Search and Rescue Training Unit at RAF Valley on Anglesey to receive training on the Sea King search and rescue helicopter and graduated from this course 17 September 2010.

It was announced on 15 April 2010 that William will remain at RAF Valley for his operational tour, being assigned to No. 22 Squadron and initially performing co-pilot duties. It is expected that William's operational tour will last 30 to 36 months.

William participated in his first rescue mission (as co-pilot of an RAF Sea King Helicopter) and responded on Saturday, 2 October 2010, to an emergency call from the Liverpool Coastguard. The prince, who was excited to finally take part in an active mission, and the other three members of the crew flew from their base at RAF Valley in Anglesey, North Wales, to an offshore gas rig in Morecambe Bay, northwest England. William and three other crew members picked up a man who had suffered an apparent heart attack on the rig and airlifted him to a local hospital.

Royal duties

At the age of 21, Prince William was appointed as a Counsellor of State, and began his royal duties by first serving in that capacity when the Queen was abroad to attend the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2003, in Nigeria. For his 21st birthday, William also accompanied his father on a royal tour of Wales, where they visited the Anglesey Food Fair and opened a centre for the homeless in Newport. By July 2005, he was on his first solo overseas tour, travelling to New Zealand, on behalf of his grandmother in her role as Queen of New Zealand, to participate in World War II commemorations. For the 30th anniversary of his father's charity, The Prince's Trust, William and his brother were interviewed together for the first time by Ant & Dec. In July 2007, Prince William accompanied his grandmother's cousin The Duke of Kent, who is President of the UK Scout Association, in opening the 21st World Scout Jamboree, celebrating the centennial of the founding of the Scout Movement.

It was said in Tina Brown's 2007 biography of Diana, Princess of Wales, that Prince William had, like his father, expressed a desire to become Governor-General of Australia, though fulfilment of the idea was considered doubtful by then-Prime Minister of Australia John Howard, who said: "We have for a long time embraced the idea that the person who occupies that post should be in every way an Australian citizen."

In 2009, a private office was set up for William by his grandmother, with Sir David Manning being appointed as his adviser. Manning personally accompanied him in January 2010 as he toured Auckland and Wellington on behalf of the Queen; William opened the new building of the Supreme Court of New Zealand and was welcomed as a Māori chief. In March 2011, William visited Christchurch, New Zealand, after the recent earthquake, and there addressed the memorial service at Hagley Park, on behalf of his grandmother. Upon leaving New Zealand, William travelled to Australia, where he made a visit to areas badly affected by flooding in the states of Queensland and Victoria. After twice accompanying his parents to Canada, the Prince, with his wife, is expected to officially tour the country in June and July 2011, attending Canada Day celebrations on Parliament Hill. ''(See 2011 Royal tour of Canada.)'' Speculation in late 2009 that William would be taking over increasing numbers of the Queen's ceremonial and state duties has been denied by the Palace.

Personal interests

Following his parents' examples, William took interest in various causes from a relatively early age. The late Princess of Wales' work with HIV/AIDS aid and prevention, and the Prince of Wales' work with the natural environment and the inner-city disadvantaged, directed William into those areas. He also showed a desire to focus on the needy in Africa, sometimes working with his brother's charity, Sentebale.

On 23 January 2009, it emerged that Prince William had written the foreword to a book for the first time. The cover of ''Home from War'', the autobiography of a soldier from the Prince's regiment who was seriously wounded in a Taliban ambush, notes his contribution.

Humanitarian and environmental causes

William became aware of HIV/AIDS in the mid 1990s, when his mother began to take her two sons to visit shelters and clinics for those suffering from the disease. In January 2005, Prince William and his brother volunteered at a British Red Cross aid distribution centre to pack emergency supplies for countries that were affected by the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami. Later, in September, William granted his patronage to Centrepoint, a charity that assists the homeless. During the period when his mother had been patron of Centrepoint, he had accompanied her on visits to its headquarters and projects.

William also worked in the children's unit at The Royal Marsden Hospital for two days of work experience in 2005, as well as helping out in the medical research, catering, and fund raising departments. The same year, he spent two weeks in North Wales with a mountain rescue team. In May 2007, William became patron of both organisations (his mother had also previously been patron of the Royal Marsden Hospital) and he became attracted to Mountain Rescue England and Wales in order to, in his words, "highlight and celebrate the vital, selfless and courageous work of our mountain rescue organisations".

The Prince also became a patron of the Tusk Trust in December 2005, a charity that works towards conserving wildlife and initiating community development, including providing education, across Africa. William became associated with the organisation after he witnessed its work first hand when he was in Africa. Saying "rural African initiatives that foster education, responsibility and participation in the local community light the way to conservation", he carried out his first official duty with the trust in launching a bike ride across the African continent in 2007.

Sports

William plays polo for charitable causes and is a fan of football, supporting Aston Villa F.C. In May 2006, he became President of England's Football Association and vice royal patron of the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU) in February 2007 (supporting the Queen as patron of the WRU). The same year, the WRU's decision to name a new cup for test matches between Wales and South Africa the Prince William Cup caused controversy, with some believing it would have been more fitting to name the trophy after Ray Gravell.

In 2006, the Prince, along with other Sandhurst officers, took part in running one mile to support the charity Sport Relief, as he had done in 2004 with a team from Clarence House. In May 2007, William became patron of the English Schools' Swimming Association.

William is a noted follower of various packs of foxhounds throughout England and Wales, including the Duke of Beaufort's Hunt, with his father and brother since he was a very young child.

The Prince and his brother are both enthusiastic motorcyclists, with the Prince owning a Ducati 1198 S Corse.

Relationship with Catherine Middleton

During his years at university, William participated in university life; of himself he said: "I'm not a party animal, despite what some people might think." Like his father before him, William's private life became the subject of tabloid speculation, especially around his relationship with Catherine Middleton, who had been one of William's university flatmates and whom William began dating in 2003. Middleton attended the Prince's passing-out parade at Sandhurst, marking the first high-profile event that she attended as William's guest. The relationship between Prince William and Middleton was followed so closely that bookmakers took bets on the possibility of a Royal Wedding and the retail chain Woolworths produced memorabilia bearing the likenesses of the couple. though in June, Middleton attended a party at Lulworth Army Barracks as the guest of Prince William, and in July the Concert for Diana, which had been organised by Princes William and Harry. In August, she accompanied William on holiday in the island of Des Roches in the Seychelles, and in October she joined Prince Charles and Prince Harry for a shooting party at Balmoral. In June 2008, along with the Royal Family, Middleton attended William's investiture into the Order of the Garter.

Middleton was formally introduced to public life by William on 24 February 2011 when she and William attended a lifeboat naming ceremony in Trearddur, North Wales.

Engagement and wedding

On 16 November 2010 it was announced by Clarence House that William and Middleton were to marry. The engagement ring given to Middleton was the 18 carat sapphire engagement ring of Diana, Princess of Wales; two studs were fastened inside the ring to make it fit Catherine's thinner ringfinger. Clarence House, the official residence of Charles and his sons William and Harry, announced on the same day that the couple became engaged in Kenya in October, as Prince William confirmed in a widely circulated television interview beamed from London.

The wedding took place on 29 April 2011 in Westminster Abbey, London. The day was made a bank holiday in the UK. Estimates of the global audience for the wedding range from 300 million to two billion people, whilst 24.5 million watched the event live in the United Kingdom.

A few hours before the wedding, it was announced that William had become Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Strathearn and Baron Carrickfergus, as is customary for princes on the occasion of their weddings.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

name	The Duke of Cambridge
dipstyle	His Royal Highness
offstyle	Your Royal Highness
altstyle	Sir }}

21 June 1982 29 April 2011: ''His Royal Highness'' Prince William of Wales 29 April 2011 present: ''His Royal Highness'' The Duke of Cambridge

The Prince's style and title in full is ''His Royal Highness Prince William Arthur Philip Louis, Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Strathearn, Baron Carrickfergus, Royal Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter''. As a British prince, William does not use a surname for everyday purposes. For formal and ceremonial purposes, the children of Princes of Wales, like the children of Royal Dukes, use the title of Prince or Princess before their Christian name and their father's territorial designation after it. So Prince William was "Prince William of Wales". Such area-based surnames are discarded by women when they marry and by men if they are given a peerage of their own, such as when Prince William was given his dukedom.

For the male-line grandchildren of Elizabeth II, however, there is currently some uncertainty over the correct form of family surname to use, or whether there even is a surname. The Queen has stipulated all her male-line descendants ''who do not bear the titular dignity of prince'' shall use Mountbatten-Windsor as their family surname (although Letters Patent exist stipulating the name Windsor, but with the same caveat). According to their flight suits as seen in television interviews (before Prince William's creation as Duke of Cambridge), Princes William and Harry use Wales as their surname for military purposes. On the morning of his wedding, the Queen conferred the titles Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Strathearn, Baron Carrickfergus upon William. Once he becomes heir to the throne, it is expected that he will be invested as Prince of Wales, although this is not automatic. In addition, on his father's accession to the throne, William, as the eldest son of the sovereign, will become Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay. If William succeeds to the throne and uses his first given name as his regnal name, he would be known as ''William V''.

William succeeded Lord Attenborough in 2010 as the fifth President of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.

Military ranks

January 2006 16 December 2006: Officer Cadet 16 December 2006 16 December 2006: Cornet (Second Lieutenant), The Blues and Royals (short service commission) 16 December 2006 1 January 2009 : Lieutenant, The Blues and Royals 1 January 2008 1 January 2009: Flying Officer, Royal Air Force 1 January 2008 1 January 2009 : Sub-Lieutenant, Royal Navy 1 January 2009 present: Lieutenant, Royal Navy 1 January 2009 present: Captain, The Blues and Royals (and transferred to a full regular commission) 1 January 2009 present: Flight Lieutenant, Royal Air Force

Honours

;Appointments 23 April 2008 present: Royal Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG) 6 July 2009 present: Member of the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple 6 July 2009 present: Bencher of the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple 23 June 2010 present: Royal Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)

Prince William, upon his appointment to the order, became the 1,000th member of the register of the Order of the Garter; he was officially invested by the Queen into the order on 16 June 2008, at a service at St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle. The last time a monarch had appointed a grandchild into the Order of the Garter was in 1894, when Queen Victoria invested Prince Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

;Medals

;Foreign honours 6 July 2008: Joint Service Achievement Medal

Honorary military appointments

; Canada 10 November 2009 present: Canadian Ranger

; United Kingdom 8 August 2006 present: Commodore-in-Chief of HMNB Clyde 8 August 2006 present: Commodore-in-Chief of the Royal Navy Submarine Service 8 August 2006 present: Commodore-in-Chief of Scotland 3 October 2008 present: Honorary Air Commandant of RAF Coningsby 10 February 2011 present: Colonel of the Irish Guards

Honorific eponyms

;Awards : Their Royal Highnesses The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge Award, University of Waterloo, Waterloo

Arms

Bannerimage	Royal Standard of Prince William.svg
Notes	On his 18th birthday, Prince William was granted his own personalised coat of arms; these consist of the escutcheon of the arms of the sovereign in right of the United Kingdom with a label for difference.
Year adopted	21 June 2000
Escutcheon	Quarterly 1st and 4th Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale or (England) Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory counterflory gules (Scotland) Azure, a harp or stringed argent (Ireland).
Orders	The Order of the Garter ribbon.HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE''(Shame be to him who thinks evil of it)''
Other elements	The whole distinguished by a label of three points argent, the central point charged with an escallop gules.
Banner	The Duke of Cambridge's personal Royal Standard is that of the sovereign in right of the United Kingdom, labelled for difference as in his arms. 50px As Earl of Strathearn, the personal standard in Scotland follows the pattern of the UK Royal Standard used in Scotland, labelled for difference.
Symbolism	As the eldest son of the Prince of Wales, Prince William's coat of arms has a label of three points. The ''escallop'' (seashell) alludes to his late mother Diana, Princess of Wales, whose Spencer coat of arms includes three ''escallops argent''.
Previous versions	}}

Personal standard for Canada

The Duke of Cambridge also holds a personal royal standard for Canada, consisting of the shield of the Canadian Royal Arms defaced with both a blue roundel surrounded by a wreath of gold maple leaves and shells, within which is a depiction William's cypher (a ''W'' surmounted by a coronet), and a white label of three points, charged with a red shell.

Ancestry

William is a male line descendant of Elimar I, Count of Oldenburg, and as such a member of the House of Oldenburg, one of Europe's oldest royal houses, and more specifically the cadet branch known as the House of Glücksburg, founded by his paternal ancestor Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. William belongs to the Royal Family of Windsor. His male line ancestors include five kings—Christian I of Denmark, Frederick I of Denmark, Christian III of Denmark, Christian IX of Denmark and George I of Greece—and also 11 counts of Oldenburg, two dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg, five dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck and one duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg.

Among his other recent, cognatic ancestors on his father's side are notably members of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the House of Battenberg, the main line of the House of Hesse-Darmstadt, the House of Hesse-Kassel and the House of Hohenzollern. Among his distant cognatic ancestors are also Henry IV and James II and VII. Should he become king, William would be the first monarch since Queen Anne to be descended from Charles I and Charles II, as his mother was descended from two of Charles's II illegitimate sons, Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton, and Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond. Through his father, William is of German and English descent, and through his mother's family, the Spencers, William is of English descent and of remote Irish, Scottish and American descent.

He is also descended from many of the pre-Union monarchs of Scotland and the pre-Conquest monarchs of England, and many notable foreign monarchs including, Peter I of Russia ("Peter the Great"), Catherine II of Russia ("Catherine the Great"), Nicholas I of Russia, Afonso I of Portugal, Andrew II of Hungary, Ferdinand II of Aragon, Isabella I of Castile, and early French kings.

See also

Royal William, a German red rose named after Prince William shortly after his birth

Notes

References

External links

Royal.gov.uk – Prince William

Prince of Wales.gov.uk – Prince William

Monarchy Wales – leading campaign organisation

Illustrated biography of Prince William

Prince William graduates from RMAS

Prince William talks with NBC's Matt Lauer

|- in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland |- |- |- |- |-

Category:1982 births Category:Alumni of the University of St Andrews Category:Blues and Royals officers Category:British water polo players Category:Dukes of Cambridge Category:Earls or mormaers of Strathearn Category:English Anglicans Category:English polo players Category:Royal Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Living people Category:House of Windsor Category:Mountbatten-Windsor family Category:Old Etonians Category:Old Ludgrovians Category:People from London Category:Presidents of the Football Association Category:Princes of the United Kingdom Category:Royal Air Force officers Category:Royal Navy officers Category:Sandhurst graduates Category:Helicopter pilots Category:People educated at Wetherby School *

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Coordinates	40°37′29″N73°57′8″N
Name	Arthur Evans
Birth place	Nash Mills
Death place	Boars Hill
Nationality	United Kingdom
Field	Archaeology
Alma mater	Oxford
Known for	Knossos
Signature	}}

Sir Arthur John Evans (8 July 1851 – 11 July 1941) was a British archaeologist most famous for unearthing the palace of Knossos on the Greek island of Crete and for developing the concept of Minoan civilization from the structures and artifacts found there and elsewhere throughout eastern Mediterranean. Evans was the first to define Cretan scripts Linear A and Linear B, as well as an earlier pictographic writing.

Along with Heinrich Schliemann, Evans was a pioneer in the study of Aegean civilization in the Bronze Age. The two men knew of each other and Evans visited Schliemann's sites. Schliemann had planned to excavate at Knossos, but died before fulfilling that dream. Evans bought the site and stepped in to take charge of the project that was then still in its infancy. He continued Schliemann's concept of Mycenaean civilization but soon found that he needed to distinguish it from his own concept - the Minoan.

Biographical

Family background

Arthur Evans was born in Nash Mills, England, the first child of John Evans and Harriet Ann Dickinson. John Evans came from a family of men who were both educated and intellectually active; his father, Arthur's grandfather, had been headmaster of Market Bosworth Grammar School. John knew Latin and could quote the classical authors. In 1840, instead of going to college, he started work at a paper mill owned by his maternal uncle John Dickinson. He married his cousin and employer's daughter, Harriet, and in 1851 was made a full partner in the family business. Profits from the mill would eventually help fund Arthur's excavations and restorations at Knossos and resulting publications.

John maintained his status as a chief officer in the company, which eventually became John Dickinson Stationery, but also distinguished himself as an antiquary and numismatist, and as a geologist and archaeologist, publishing works on these topics. He was a member and officer of many learned societies, including being a Fellow of the Royal Society. He won the Lyell Medal and in 1892 was knighted by Queen Victoria.

Unfortunately, Arthur's mother, Harriet, died in 1858 when Arthur was seven. He did have two brothers, Norman and Lewis, and two sisters, and would remain on excellent terms with all of them all of his life. He was raised by a stepmother, Fanny, with whom he also got along very well. She had no children of her own and also predeceased her husband. John's third wife was a classical scholar, and when he was 70 they had a daughter, Joan, who would become an art historian. By the time of John's death in 1908 at 85, when Arthur was 57, the major work on Knossos had already been done. He had primarily used other funding for his work, but Arthur had enjoyed the close support and assistance of his father, who contributed significantly.

Education

Arthur was given every advantage of education. After a childhood stay at Callipers Preparatory School (no longer extant) he attended Harrow School, becoming co-editor of ''The Harrovian'' in his final year, 1869/70. At Harrow he was friends especially with Francis Maitland Balfour. After graduating from Harrow, Evans became part of and relied on the Old Harrovian network of acquaintances. Minchin characterized him as "a philologer and wit" as well as an expert on "the eastern question", i.e. diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the Ottoman Empire. Arthur also continued his father's habit of quoting the appropriate Latin author from memory and knew poems entirely by heart, as was typical for men of his time.

Between 1870 and 1874 Arthur matriculated at Brasenose College, Oxford. His housemaster at Harrow, F. Rendall, had eased the way to his acceptance with the recommendation that he was "a boy of powerful original mind." At Brasenose he read modern history, but his summertime activities with his brothers and friends were perhaps more definitive to his subsequent career. In 1871 he and Lewis visited Hallstatt and the Balkans; in 1872 he and Norman adventured in the Carpathians, crossing borders illegally at high altitudes, pistols at the ready. In 1873 he and Balfour tramped over Lapland, Finland, and Sweden. Everywhere he went he took copious anthropological notes and made numerous drawings of the people, places and artifacts. During the Christmas holidays of 1873, Evans cataloged a coin collection being bequeathed to Harrow by John Gardner Wilkinson, the father of British Egyptology, who was too ill to work on it himself. The headmaster had suggested "my old pupil, Arthur John Evans - a remarkably able young man."

In April–July 1875, after failing to obtain a fellowship at Oxford, Arthur attended a summer term at the University of Göttingen. He decided not to stay and left there to meet Lewis for another trip to the Balkans. That decision marked the end of his formal education. However, at that time, the lack of a formal education did not preclude one from being a successful scientist.

Adventures in the Balkans

After resolving to leave Göttingen, Arthur and Lewis planned an adventure in Bosnia and Herzegovina starting immediately in August 1875. They knew that the region, a part of the Ottoman Empire, was under martial law, and that the Christians (mainly the Serbs) were in a state of insurrection against the Bosnian Muslim beys placed over them. Ottoman troops were in the country in support of the beys. The two brothers had no problem with either the Serbs or the Ottomans but they did provoke the neighboring Austro-Hungarian Empire, and spent the night in "a wretched cell." After deciding to lodge in a good hotel in Slavonski Brod, having judged it safer than Bosanski Brod across the Sava River, they were observed by an officer who saw their sketches and concluded they might be Russian spies. Politely invited by two other officers to join the police chief and produce passports, Arthur replied, "Tell him that we are Englishmen and are not accustomed to being treated in this way." The officers insisted and, interrupting the chief at dinner, Arthur suggested he should have come to the hotel in person to request the passports. The chief, in a somewhat less than civil manner, won the argument about whether he had the right to check the passports of Englishmen by inviting them to spend the night in a cell.

Crete and the palace at Knossos

Evans had been interested in the prehistory of Crete for some time before he was able, in 1900, to begin the massive excavations at Knossos that made his name; he was already deciphering script on Cretan seal stones in 1894. The excavation and restoration of Knossos, and the discovery of what he called the Minoan civilization, would be largely driven by Evans as an individual. In modern science, archaeology is a field of academic teamwork requiring certain credentials and where methods and findings are subject to the close scrutiny of peers; a century ago a project could be driven by one wealthy and self-taught person. The ruins at Knossos had been discovered in 1878 by Minos Kalokairinos, an island merchant and antiquarian, who conducted the first dig at Kephala Hill. The Turkish government interrupted his work, and although several people attempted to continue, it was not until the island was declared an independent state that Evans was able to purchase the entire archaeological site.

Assisted by Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who had already distinguished himself by his excavations on the island of Melos, and Mr. Fyfe, an architect from the British School at Athens, Evans employed a large staff of local labourers as excavators, and began work in 1900. Within a few months they had uncovered a substantial portion of what he called the Palace of Minos. The term "palace" may be misleading; Knossos was an intricate collection of over 1000 interlocking rooms, some of which served as artisans' workrooms and food processing centres (e.g. wine presses). It served as a central storage point, and a religious and administrative center.

On the basis of the ceramic evidence and stratigraphy, Evans concluded that there was another civilization on Crete that had existed before those brought to light by the adventurer-archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann at Mycenae and Tiryns. The small ruin of Knossos spanned and the palace had a maze-like quality that reminded Evans of the labyrinth described in Greek mythology. The labyrinth had been built by King Minos to hide the Minotaur, a half-man half-bull creature that was the offspring of Minos' wife, Pasiphae, and a bull. Evans dubbed the civilization once inhabiting this great palace the Minoan civilization.

By 1903, most of the palace was excavated, bringing to light an advanced city containing artwork and many examples of writing. Painted on the walls of the palace were numerous scenes depicting bulls, leading Evans to conclude that the Minoans did indeed worship the bull. In 1905 he finished excavations. He then proceeded to have the room called the throne room (due to the throne-like stone chair fixed in the room) repainted by a father-and-son team of Swiss artists, the Émile Gilliérons Junior and Senior. While Evans based the recreations on archaeological evidence, some of the best-known frescoes from the throne room were almost complete inventions of the Gilliérons, according to his critics.

Scripta Minoa - The source of the Phoenician alphabet

Evans found 3,000 clay tablets during excavations and worked to transcribe them. From the transcriptions it was clear that the tablets bore traces of more than one script. Evans dated the Linear A Chariot Tablets at Knossos as immediately prior to the catastrophic Minoan civilization collapse of the 15th century BC.

Evans, in his 1901 work ''Scripta Minoa'', claimed that most of the symbols for the Phoenician alphabet (abjad) are almost identical to the many centuries older, 19th century BC, Cretan hieroglyphs.

The basic part of the discussion about Phoenician alphabet in ''Scripta Minoa, Vol. 1'' takes place in the section ''Cretan Philistines and the Phoenician Alphabet'', pages 77–94. Modern scholars now see it as a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet from ca. 1400 BC, adapted to writing a Canaanite (Northwest Semitic) language. The Phoenician alphabet seamlessly continues the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention called Phoenician from the mid 11th century, where it is first attested on inscribed bronze arrowheads.

Legacy

Evans was knighted in 1911 for his services to archaeology and is commemorated both at Knossos and at the Ashmolean Museum, which holds the largest collection of Minoan artifacts outside of Greece.

In 1913 he paid £100 to double the amount paid with the studentship in memory of Augustus Wollaston Franks, established jointly by the University of London and the Society of Antiquaries, which was won that year by Mortimer Wheeler.

From 1894 until his death Evans lived on Boars Hill, Berkshire (now Oxfordshire), near Oxford. His house, Youlbury, has since been demolished. He had Jarn Mound and its surrounding wild garden built during the Great Depression to make work for local out-of-work labourers. Evans left part of his estate to the Boy Scouts and Youlbury Camp is still available for their use.

See also

Snake goddess

Matriarchal religion

Bibliography

Downloadable Google Books.

Downloadable Google Books.

Downloadable Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg.

References

Further reading

Cottrell, Leonard (1957). ''The Bull of Minos''. An account of the archaeology of Crete for the general reader, with much information about Evans's work.

Evans, A.J. (1901). ''Scripta Minoa - Volume 1''.

Evans, A.J. (1952). ''Scripta Minoa - Volume 2''.

Evans, A.J. (1933). ''Jarn Mound''.

Hogan, C. Michael (2007) ''Knossos'', The Modern Antiquarian

Markoe, Glenn E.(2000). Phoenicians. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-226135 (hardback).

Powell, Dilys (1973). ''The Villa Ariadne''. Originally published by Hodder & Stoughton, London.

Ross, J. (1990). ''Chronicle of the 20th Century''. Chronicle Australia Pty Ltd. ISBN 1872031803.

MacGillivray, J Alexander (2001). ''Minotaur - Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth''. Published by Pimlico, a division of Random House. (Originally published by Jonathan Cape in 2000).

Arthur Evans - Ancient Illyria: An Archaeological Exploration (Hardcover)

External links

e-book The prehistoric tombs of Knossos (1906) by Sir Arthur Evans

Category:1851 births Category:1941 deaths Category:Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford Category:British archaeologists Category:English archaeologists Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Minoan archaeologists Category:Old Harrovians Category:People from Berkshire (before 1974) Category:People from Hemel Hempstead Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal Category:Matriarchy Category:Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal

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