name	Portable Document Format
logo
icon
iconcaption	Adobe PDF icon
screenshot
extension	.pdf
mime	application/pdf application/x-pdf application/x-bzpdf application/x-gzpdf
typecode	'PDF ' (including a single space)
uniform type	com.adobe.pdf
magic	%PDF
owner	Adobe Systems
released
latest release version	1.7
latest release date
standard	ISO 32000-1:2008
url	Adobe PDF Reference Archives }}

Portable Document Format (PDF) is a file format used to represent documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, and other information needed to display it. In 1991, Adobe Systems co-founder John Warnock outlined a system called "Camelot" that evolved into PDF.

While the PDF specification has been available free of charge since at least 2001, PDF was originally a proprietary format controlled by Adobe. It was officially released as an open standard on July 1, 2008, and published by the International Organization for Standardization as ISO 32000-1:2008. In 2008, Adobe published a Public Patent License to ISO 32000-1 granting royalty-free rights for all patents owned by Adobe that are necessary to make, use, sell and distribute PDF compliant implementations.

History [link]

PDF's adoption in the early days of the format's history was slow. Adobe Acrobat, Adobe's suite for reading and creating PDF files, was not freely available; early versions of PDF had no support for external hyperlinks, reducing its usefulness on the Internet; the larger size of a PDF document compared to plain text required longer download times over the slower modems common at the time; and rendering PDF files was slow on the less powerful machines of the day. Additionally, there were competing formats such as DjVu (still developing), Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica and even Adobe's own PostScript format (.ps); in those early years, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows.

Adobe soon started distributing its Acrobat Reader (now Adobe Reader) program free of charge, and continued supporting the original PDF, which eventually became the de facto standard for printable documents on the web (a standard web document).

Adobe's PDF specifications[link]

Adobe changed the PDF specification several times and continues to develop new specifications with new versions of Adobe Acrobat. There have been nine versions of PDF with corresponding Acrobat releases:

1993 – PDF 1.0 / Acrobat 1.0

1994 – PDF 1.1 / Acrobat 2.0

1996 – PDF 1.2 / Acrobat 3.0

2000 – PDF 1.3 / Acrobat 4.0

2001 – PDF 1.4 / Acrobat 5.0

2003 – PDF 1.5 / Acrobat 6.0

2005 – PDF 1.6 / Acrobat 7.0

2006 – PDF 1.7 / Acrobat 8.0

2006 – PDF 1.7 / Acrobat 8.2

2008 – PDF 1.7, Adobe Extension Level 3 / Acrobat 9.0

2009 – PDF 1.7, Adobe Extension Level 5 / Acrobat 9.1

The ISO standard ISO 32000-1:2008 and Adobe PDF 1.7 are technically consistent. Adobe declared that it is not producing a PDF 1.8 Reference. The future versions of the PDF Specification will be produced by ISO technical committees. However, Adobe published documents specifying what extended features for PDF, beyond ISO 32000-1 (PDF 1.7), are supported in its newly released products. This makes use of the extensibility features of PDF as documented in ISO 32000-1 in Annex E. Adobe declared all extended features in ''Adobe Extension Level 3'' and ''5'' have been accepted for a new proposal of ISO 32000-2 (a.k.a. PDF 2.0).

The specifications for PDF are backward inclusive. The PDF 1.7 specification includes all of the functionality previously documented in the Adobe PDF Specifications for versions 1.0 through 1.6. Where Adobe removed certain features of PDF from their standard, they too are not contained in ISO 32000-1.

PDF documents conforming to ISO 32000-1 carry the PDF version number 1.7. Documents containing Adobe extended features still carry the PDF base version number 1.7 but also contain an indication of which extension was followed during document creation.

Adobe's versions [link]

{|class="wikitable" style="width: 100%" |- ! Version !! Edition !! Year of publication !! New features !! Acrobat Reader version support |- | 1.0 || First || 1993 || || Carousel |- | 1.1 || First, revised || 1996 || Passwords, encryption (MD5, RC4 40bit), device-independent color, threads and links || 2.0 |- | 1.2 || First, revised || 1996 || Interactive page elements (radio buttons, checkboxes &c;); interactive, fill-in forms (AcroForm); Forms Data Format (FDF) for interactive form data that can be imported, exported, transmitted and received from the Web; mouse events; external movie reproduction; external or embedded sound reproduction; zlib/deflate compression of text or binary data; Unicode; advanced color features and image proxying || 3.0 |- | 1.3 || Second || 2000 || Digital signatures; ICC and DeviceN color spaces; JavaScript actions; embedded file streams of any type (e.g. used for attachments); new annotation types; new features of the Adobe PostScript Language Level 3 imaging model; masked images; alternate representations for images; smooth shading; enhanced page numbering; Web capture — a facility for capturing information from World Wide Web and converting it to PDF; representation of logical structure independently of graphical structure; additional support for CIDFonts; data structures for mapping strings and numbers to PDF objects; information for prepress production workflows support; new functions for several function object types that represent parameterized classes of functions || 4.0 |- | 1.4 || Third || 2001 || JBIG2; transparency; RC4 encryption key lengths greater than 40 bits (40–128 bits); enhancements to interactive forms and Forms Data Format (FDF), XML form submissions, embedded FDF files, Unicode specification of field export values, remote collaboration and digital signatures in FDF files; accessibility to disabled users; metadata streams using XML — Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP); tagged PDF; inclusion of printer’s marks; display and preview of production-related page boundaries; new predefined CMaps; alternate presentations; importing content from one PDF document into another; EmbeddedFiles entry in the PDF document’s name dictionary — a standard location for the embedded data; OCR text layer || 5.0 |- | 1.5 || Fourth || 2003 || JPEG 2000; enhanced support for embedding and playback of multimedia; object streams; cross reference streams; XML Forms Data Format (XFDF) for interactive form submission (replaced the XML format in PDF 1.4); support for forms, rich text elements and attributes based on Adobe’s XML Forms Architecture (XFA) 2.02; public-key security handlers using PKCS#7 (introduced in PDF 1.3 but not documented in the Reference until 1.5), public-key encryption, permissions — usage rights (UR) signatures (does not require document encryption), PKCS#7 with SHA-1, RSA up to 4096-bits; security handler can use its own encryption and decryption algorithms; document sections selectively viewed or hidden by authors or readers — for items such as CAD drawings, layered artwork, maps, and multi-language documents; Alternate Presentations — the only type is slideshow — invoked by means of JavaScript actions (Adobe Reader supports only SVG 1.0); support for MS Windows 98 dropped.|| 6.0 |- | 1.6 || Fifth || 2004 || 3D artwork, e.g. support for Universal 3D file format; OpenType font embedding; support for XFA 2.2 rich text elements and attributes; AES encryption; PKCS#7 with SHA256, DSA up to 4096-bits; NChannel color spaces; additional support for embedded file attachments, including cross-document linking to and from embedded files; enhancements and clarifications to digital signatures related to usage rights and modification detection and prevention signatures || 7.0 |- | 1.7(ISO 32000-1:2008) || Sixth (ISO first) || 2006 || Increased presentation of 3D artwork; XFA 2.4 rich text elements and attributes; multiple file attachments (portable collections); document requirements for a PDF consumer application; new string types: PDFDocEncoded string, ASCII string, byte string; PKCS#7 with SHA384, SHA512 and RIPEMD160 || 8 |- | 1.7 Extension Level 3 || || 2008 || 256-bit AES encryption; incorporation of XFA Datasets into a file conforming PDF/A-2; improved attachment of Flash applications, video (including Flash video with H.264), audio, and other multimedia, two-way scripting bridge between Flash and conforming applications; XFA 2.5 and 2.6 rich text conventions || 9 |- | 1.7 Extension Level 5 || || 2009 || XFA 3.0 || 9.1 |- | 1.7 Extension Level 8 || || 2011 || Specification not published as of May 2011 || X (10) |}

Standardization[link]

Specialized subsets of PDF[link]

The following specialized subsets of PDF specification has been standardized as ISO standards (or are in standardization process):

PDF/X (since 2001 - series of ISO 15929 and ISO 15930 standards) - a.k.a. "PDF for Exchange" - for the ''Graphic technology - Prepress digital data exchange'' - (working in ISO Technical committee 130), based on PDF 1.3, PDF 1.4 and later also PDF 1.6

PDF/A (since 2005 - series of ISO 19005 standards) - a.k.a. "PDF for Archive" - ''Document management - Electronic document file format for long-term preservation'' (working in ISO Technical committee 171), based on PDF 1.4 and later also ISO 32000-1 - PDF 1.7

PDF/E (since 2008 - ISO 24517) - a.k.a. "PDF for Engineering" - ''Document management - Engineering document format using PDF'' (working in ISO Technical committee 171), based on PDF 1.6

PDF/VT (since 2010 - ISO 16612-2) - a.k.a. "PDF for exchange of variable data and transactional (VT) printing" - ''Graphic technology - Variable data exchange'' (working in ISO Technical committee 130), based on PDF 1.6 as restricted by PDF/X-4 and PDF/X-5

PDF/UA (under development in 2011 - ISO/DIS 14289-1) - a.k.a. "PDF for Universal Access" - ''Document management applications - Electronic document file format enhancement for accessibility'' (working in ISO Technical committee 171), based on ISO 32000-1 - PDF 1.7

There is also the ''PDF/H'', a.k.a. "PDF Healthcare", a Best Practices Guide (BPG), supplemented by an Implementation Guide (IG), published in 2008. PDF Healthcare is not a standard or proposed standard, but only a guide for use with existing standards and other technologies. It is supported by the standards development organizations ASTM and AIIM. PDF/H BPG is based on PDF 1.6.

Full function PDF[link]

PDF 1.7[link]

The final revised documentation for PDF 1.7 was approved by ISO Technical Committee 171 in January 2008 and published as ISO 32000-1:2008 on July 1, 2008. PDF is now a published ISO standard, titled ''Document management—Portable document format—Part 1: PDF 1.7''.

ISO 32000-1:2008 is the first ISO standard for the full function PDF. The previous ISO PDF standards (PDF/A, PDF/X, etc.) are for more specialized uses. The ISO 32000-1 includes all of the functionality previously documented in the Adobe PDF Specifications for versions 1.0 through 1.6. Adobe removed certain features of PDF from previous versions; these features are not contained in PDF 1.7 either.

ISO 32000 document was prepared by Adobe Systems Incorporated based upon ''PDF Reference, sixth edition, Adobe Portable Document Format version 1.7, November 2006''. It was reviewed, edited and adopted, under a special fast-track procedure, by ''ISO Technical Committee 171 (ISO/TC 171), Document management application, Subcommittee SC 2, Application issues'', in parallel with its approval by the ISO member bodies.

According to the ISO PDF standard abstract:

''ISO 32000-1:2008 specifies a digital form for representing electronic documents to enable users to exchange and view electronic documents independent of the environment in which they were created or the environment in which they are viewed or printed. It is intended for the developer of software that creates PDF files (conforming writers), software that reads existing PDF files and interprets their contents for display and interaction (conforming readers) and PDF products that read and/or write PDF files for a variety of other purposes (conforming products).''

PDF 2.0[link]

A new version of PDF standard is under development under the name ''ISO/CD 32000-2 - Document management—Portable document format—Part 2: PDF 2.0'' (as of July 2011). PDF 2.0 was accepted by ISO as a new proposal in 2009 (ISO/NP 32000-2). Adobe has submitted the ''Adobe Extension Level 5'' and ''Adobe Extension Level 3'' specifications to ISO for inclusion into the next version of the ISO 32000 specification. Adobe declared they have all been accepted for part 2 of ISO 32000.

Technical foundations [link]

Anyone may create applications that can read and write PDF files without having to pay royalties to Adobe Systems; Adobe holds patents to PDF, but licenses them for royalty-free use in developing software complying with its PDF specification.

The PDF combines three technologies:

A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout and graphics.

A font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents.

A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, with data compression where appropriate.

PostScript [link]

PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle not just graphics, but standard features of programming languages such as if and loop commands. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, while graphics commands such as lineto remain.

Often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized; any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected; then, everything is compressed to a single file. Therefore, the entire PostScript world (fonts, layout, measurements) remains intact.

As a document format, PDF has several advantages over PostScript:

PDF contains tokenized and interpreted results of the PostScript source code, for direct correspondence between changes to items in the PDF page description and changes to the resulting page appearance.

PDF (from version 1.4) supports true graphic transparency; PostScript does not.

PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed in order to determine the correct appearance of a given page, whereas each page in a PDF document is unaffected by the others. As a result, PDF viewers allow the user to quickly jump to the final pages of a long document, whereas a Postscript viewer needs to process all pages sequentially before being able to display the destination page (unless the optional PostScript Document Structuring Conventions have been carefully complied with).

Technical overview [link]

File structure [link]

A PDF file consists primarily of ''objects'', of which there are eight types:

Boolean values, representing ''true'' or ''false''

Numbers

Strings

Names

Arrays, ordered collections of objects

Dictionaries, collections of objects indexed by Names

Streams, usually containing large amounts of data

The null object

Objects may be either ''direct'' (embedded in another object) or ''indirect''. Indirect objects are numbered with an ''object number'' and a ''generation number''. An index table called the ''xref table'' gives the byte offset of each indirect object from the start of the file. This design allows for efficient random access to the objects in the file, and also allows for small changes to be made without rewriting the entire file (''incremental update''). Beginning with PDF version 1.5, indirect objects may also be located in special streams known as ''object streams''. This technique reduces the size of files that have large numbers of small indirect objects and is especially useful for ''Tagged PDF''.

There are two layouts to the PDF files—non-linear (not "optimized") and linear ("optimized"). Non-linear PDF files consume less disk space than their linear counterparts, though they are slower to access because portions of the data required to assemble pages of the document are scattered throughout the PDF file. Linear PDF files (also called "optimized" or "web optimized" PDF files) are constructed in a manner that enables them to be read in a Web browser plugin without waiting for the entire file to download, since they are written to disk in a linear (as in page order) fashion. PDF files may be optimized using Adobe Acrobat software or QPDF.

Imaging model [link]

The basic design of how graphics are represented in PDF is very similar to that of PostScript, except for the use of transparency, which was added in PDF 1.4.

PDF graphics use a device independent Cartesian coordinate system to describe the surface of a page. A PDF page description can use a matrix to scale, rotate, or skew graphical elements. A key concept in PDF is that of the ''graphics state'', which is a collection of graphical parameters that may be changed, saved, and restored by a ''page description''. PDF has (as of version 1.6) 24 graphics state properties, of which some of the most important are:

The ''current transformation matrix'' (CTM), which determines the coordinate system

The ''clipping path''

The ''color space''

The ''alpha constant'', which is a key component of transparency

Vector graphics [link]

Vector graphics in PDF, as in PostScript, are constructed with ''paths''. Paths are usually composed of lines and cubic Bézier curves, but can also be constructed from the outlines of text. Unlike PostScript, PDF does not allow a single path to mix text outlines with lines and curves. Paths can be stroked, filled, or used for clipping. Strokes and fills can use any color set in the graphics state, including ''patterns''.

PDF supports several types of patterns. The simplest is the ''tiling pattern'' in which a piece of artwork is specified to be drawn repeatedly. This may be a ''colored tiling pattern'', with the colors specified in the pattern object, or an ''uncolored tiling pattern'', which defers color specification to the time the pattern is drawn. Beginning with PDF 1.3 there is also a ''shading pattern'', which draws continuously varying colors. There are seven types of shading pattern of which the simplest are the ''axial shade'' (Type 2) and ''radial shade'' (Type 3).

Raster images [link]

Raster images in PDF (called ''Image XObjects'') are represented by dictionaries with an associated stream. The dictionary describes properties of the image, and the stream contains the image data. (Less commonly, a raster image may be embedded directly in a page description as an ''inline image''.) Images are typically ''filtered'' for compression purposes. Image filters supported in PDF include the general purpose filters

ASCII85Decode a deprecated filter used to put the stream into 7-bit ASCII

ASCIIHexDecode similar to ASCII85Decode but less compact

FlateDecode a commonly used filter based on the zlib/deflate algorithm (a.k.a. gzip, but not zip) defined in RFC 1950 and RFC 1951; introduced in PDF 1.2; it can use one of two groups of predictor functions for more compact zlib/deflate compression: ''Predictor 2'' from the TIFF 6.0 specification and predictors (filters) from the PNG specification (RFC 2083)

LZWDecode a deprecated filter based on LZW Compression; it can use one of two groups of predictor functions for more compact LZW compression: ''Predictor 2'' from the TIFF 6.0 specification and predictors (filters) from the PNG specification

RunLengthDecode a simple compression method for streams with repetitive data using the Run-length encoding algorithm and the image-specific filters

DCTDecode a lossy filter based on the JPEG standard

CCITTFaxDecode a lossless bi-level (black/white) filter based on the Group 3 or Group 4 CCITT (ITU-T) fax compression standard defined in ITU-T T.4 and T.6

JBIG2Decode a lossy or lossless bi-level (black/white) filter based on the JBIG2 standard, introduced in PDF 1.4

JPXDecode a lossy or lossless filter based on the JPEG 2000 standard, introduced in PDF 1.5

Normally all image content in a PDF is embedded in the file. But PDF allows image data to be stored in external files by the use of ''external streams'' or ''Alternate Images''. Standardized subsets of PDF, including PDF/A and PDF/X, prohibit these techniques.

Text [link]

Text in PDF is represented by ''text elements'' in page content streams. A text element specifies that ''characters'' should be drawn at certain positions. The characters are specified using the ''encoding'' of a selected ''font resource''.

Fonts [link]

A font object in PDF is a description of a digital typeface. It may either describe the characteristics of a typeface, or it may include an embedded ''font file''. The latter case is called an ''embedded font'' while the former is called an ''unembedded font''. The font files that may be embedded are based on widely used standard digital font formats: Type 1 (and its compressed variant CFF), TrueType, and (beginning with PDF 1.6) OpenType. Additionally PDF supports the Type 3 variant in which the components of the font are described by PDF graphic operators.

Standard Type 1 Fonts (Standard 14 Fonts) [link]

There are fourteen typefaces known as the ''standard 14 fonts'' which have a special significance to PDF documents:

Times (v3) (in regular, italic, bold, and bold italic)

Courier (in regular, oblique, bold and bold oblique)

Helvetica (v3) (in regular, oblique, bold and bold oblique)

Symbol

Zapf Dingbats

These fonts are sometimes also referred to as the "base fourteen fonts". These fonts, or suitable substitute fonts with the same metrics, must always be available in all PDF readers and so need not be embedded in a PDF. PDF viewers must know about the metrics of these fonts. Other fonts may be substituted if they are not embedded in a PDF.

Encodings [link]

Within text strings, characters are shown using ''character codes'' (integers) that map to glyphs in the current font using an ''encoding''. There are a number of predefined encodings, including ''WinAnsi'', ''MacRoman'', and a large number of encodings for East Asian languages, and a font can have its own built-in encoding. (Although the WinAnsi and MacRoman encodings are derived from the historical properties of the Windows and Macintosh operating systems, fonts using these encodings work equally well on any platform.) PDF can specify a predefined encoding to use, the font's built-in encoding or provide a lookup table of differences to a predefined or built-in encoding (not recommended with TrueType fonts). The encoding mechanisms in PDF were designed for Type 1 fonts, and the rules for applying them to TrueType fonts are complex.

For large fonts or fonts with non-standard glyphs, the special encodings ''Identity-H'' (for horizontal writing) and ''Identity-V'' (for vertical) are used. With such fonts it is necessary to provide a ''ToUnicode'' table if semantic information about the characters is to be preserved.

Transparency [link]

The original imaging model of PDF was, like PostScript's, ''opaque'': each object drawn on the page completely replaced anything previously marked in the same location. In PDF 1.4 the imaging model was extended to allow transparency. When transparency is used, new objects interact with previously marked objects to produce blending effects. The addition of transparency to PDF was done by means of new extensions that were designed to be ignored in products written to the PDF 1.3 and earlier specifications. As a result, files that use a small amount of transparency might view acceptably in older viewers, but files making extensive use of transparency could be viewed incorrectly in an older viewer without warning.

The transparency extensions are based on the key concepts of ''transparency groups'', ''blending modes'', ''shape'', and ''alpha''. The model is closely aligned with the features of Adobe Illustrator version 9. The blend modes were based on those used by Adobe Photoshop at the time. When the PDF 1.4 specification was published, the formulas for calculating blend modes were kept secret by Adobe. They have since been published.

The concept of a transparency group in PDF specification is independent of existing notions of "group" or "layer" in applications such as Adobe Illustrator. Those groupings reflect logical relationships among objects that are meaningful when editing those objects, but they are not part of the imaging model.

Interactive elements [link]

PDF files may contain interactive elements such as annotations and form fields.

Interactive Forms is a mechanism to add forms to the PDF file format.

PDF currently supports two different methods for integrating data and PDF forms. Both formats today coexist in PDF specification:

AcroForms (also known as Acrobat forms), introduced in the PDF 1.2 format specification and included in all later PDF specifications.

Adobe XML Forms Architecture (XFA) forms, introduced in the PDF 1.5 format specification. The XFA specification is not included in the PDF specification, it is only referenced as an optional feature. Adobe XFA Forms are not compatible with AcroForms.

AcroForms [link]

AcroForms were introduced in the PDF 1.2 format. AcroForms permit using objects (''e.g.'' text boxs, Radio buttons, ''etc.'') and some code (''e.g.''JavaScript).

Alongside the standard PDF action types, interactive forms (AcroForms) support submitting, resetting, and importing data. The "submit" action transmits the names and values of selected interactive form fields to a specified uniform resource locator (URL). Interactive form field names and values may be submitted in any of the following formats, (depending on the settings of the action’s ExportFormat, SubmitPDF, and XFDF flags):

HTML Form format (HTML 4.01 Specification since PDF 1.5; HTML 2.0 since 1.2)

Forms Data Format (FDF)

XML Forms Data Format (XFDF) (external XML Forms Data Format Specification, Version 2.0; supported since PDF 1.5; it replaced the "XML" form submission format defined in PDF 1.4.)

PDF (the entire document can be submitted rather than individual fields and values). (defined in PDF 1.4)

AcroForms can keep form field values in external stand-alone files containing key:value pairs. The external files may use Forms Data Format (FDF) and XML Forms Data Format (XFDF) files. The usage rights (UR) signatures define rights for import form data files in FDF, XFDF and text (CSV/TSV) formats, and export form data files in FDF and XFDF formats.

Forms Data Format (FDF)[link]

name	Forms Data Format (FDF)
extension	.fdf
mime	application/vnd.fdf
type code	'FDF '
owner	Adobe Systems
released	(PDF 1.2)
latest release date
extended from	PDF
extended to	XFDF
standard	ISO 32000-1:2008
url	}}

The Forms Data Format (FDF) is based on PDF, it uses the same syntax and has essentially the same file structure, but is much simpler than PDF, since the body of an FDF document consists of only one required object. Forms Data Format is defined in the PDF specification (since PDF 1.2). The Forms Data Format can be used when submitting form data to a server, receiving the response, and incorporating into the interactive form. It can also be used to export form data to stand-alone files that can be imported back into the corresponding PDF interactive form. Beginning in PDF 1.3, FDF can be used to define a container for annotations that are separate from the PDF document to which they apply. FDF is typically used to encapsulate information such as X.509 certificates, requests for certificates, directory settings, timestamp server settings, and embedded PDF files for network transmission. The FDF uses the MIME content type application/vnd.fdf, filename extension .fdf and on Mac OS it uses file type 'FDF '. Support for importing and exporting FDF stand-alone files is not widely implemented in free or freeware PDF software. For example, there is no support in Evince, Okular, KPDF or Sumatra PDF. Import support for stand-alone FDF files is implemented in Adobe Reader; export and import support (including saving of FDF data in PDF) is for example implemented in Foxit Reader and PDF-XChange Viewer Free; saving of FDF data in a PDF file is also supported in pdftk.

XML Forms Data Format (XFDF)[link]

name	XML Forms Data Format (XFDF)
extension	.xfdf
mime	application/vnd.adobe.xfdf
type code	'XFDF'
owner	Adobe Systems
released
latest release version	2.0
latest release date
extended from	PDF, FDF, XML
url	XFDF 2.0 specification }}

XML Forms Data Format (XFDF) is the XML version of Forms Data Format, but the XFDF implements only a subset of FDF containing forms and annotations. There are not XFDF equivalents for some entries in the FDF dictionary - such as the Status, Encoding, JavaScript, Pages keys, EmbeddedFDFs, Differences and Target. In addition, XFDF does not allow the spawning, or addition, of new pages based on the given data; as can be done when using an FDF file. The XFDF specification is referenced (but not included) in PDF 1.5 specification (and in later versions). It is described separately in ''XML Forms Data Format Specification''. The PDF 1.4 specification allowed form submissions in XML format, but this was replaced by submissions in XFDF format in the PDF 1.5 specification. XFDF conforms to the XML standard. XFDF can be used the same way as FDF - e.g. form data is submitted to a server, modifications are made, then sent back and the new form data is imported in an interactive form. It can also be used to export form data to stand-alone files that can be imported back into the corresponding PDF interactive form. A support for importing and exporting FDF stand-alone files is not widely implemented in free or freeware PDF software. Import of XFDF is implemented in Adobe Reader 5 and later versions; import and export is implemented in PDF-XChange Viewer Free; embedding of XFDF data in PDF form is implemented in pdftk (pdf toolkit).

Adobe XML Forms Architecture (XFA) [link]

In the PDF 1.5 format, Adobe Systems introduced a new, proprietary format for forms, namely Adobe XML Forms Architecture (XFA) forms. The XFA 2.02 is referenced in the PDF 1.5 specification (and also in later versions) but is described separately in ''Adobe XML Forms Architecture (XFA) Specification'', which has several versions. Adobe XFA Forms are not compatible with AcroForms. Adobe Reader contains "disabled features" for use of XFA Forms, that will activate only when opening a PDF document that was created using enabling technology available only from Adobe. The XFA Forms are not compatible with Adobe Reader prior to version 6.

XFA forms can be created and used as PDF files or as XDP (XML Data Package) files. The format of an XFA resource in PDF is described by the XML Data Package Specification. The XDP may be a standalone document or it may in turn be carried inside a PDF document. XDP provides a mechanism for packaging form components within a surrounding XML container. An XDP can also package a PDF file, along with XML form and template data. PDF may contain XFA (in XDP format), but also XFA may contain PDF. When the XFA (XML Forms Architecture) grammars used for an XFA form are moved from one application to another, they must be packaged as an XML Data Package.

When the PDF and XFA are combined, the result is a form in which each page of the XFA form overlays a PDF background. This architecture is sometimes referred to as XFAF (XFA Foreground). The alternative is to express all of the form, including boilerplate, directly in XFA. It is sometimes called ''full'' XFA.

Starting with PDF 1.5, the text contents of variable text form fields, as well as markup annotations may include formatting information (style information). These rich text strings are XML documents that conform to the rich text conventions specified for the XML Forms Architecture specification 2.02, which is itself a subset of the XHTML 1.0 specification, augmented with a restricted set of CSS2 style attributes. In PDF 1.6, PDF supports the rich text elements and attributes specified in the XML Forms Architecture (XFA) Specification, 2.2. In PDF 1.7, PDF supports the rich text elements and attributes specified in the XML Forms Architecture (XFA) Specification, 2.4

Logical structure and accessibility [link]

A PDF may contain structure information to enable better text extraction and accessibility. When published, PDF/UA, now ISO/DIS 14289, will provide normative text detailing the syntax, features and attributes of PDF files tagged with complete and accurate structure information as required for accessibility.

Security and signatures [link]

A PDF file may be encrypted for security, or digitally signed for authentication.

The standard security provided by Acrobat PDF consists of two different methods and two different passwords, "user password", which encrypts the file and prevents opening, and "owner password", which specifies operations that should be restricted even when the document is decrypted, which can include: printing, copying text and graphics out of the document, modifying the document, or adding or modifying text notes and AcroForm fields. The "user password" (controls opening) encrypts the file and requires password cracking to defeat, with difficulty depending on password strength and encryption method – it is potentially very secure (assuming good password and encryption method without known attacks). The "owner password" (controls operations) does not encrypt the file, and instead relies on client software to respect these restrictions, and is not secure. An "owner password" can be removed by many commonly available "PDF cracking" software, including some free online services. Thus, the use restrictions that a document author places on a PDF document are not secure, and cannot be assured once the file is distributed; this warning is displayed when applying such restrictions using Adobe Acrobat software to create or edit PDF files.

Even without removing the password, most freeware or open source PDF readers will ignore the permission "protections" and will allow the user to print or make copy of excerpts of the text as if the document were not limited by password protection.

Some solutions, like Adobe's LiveCycle Rights Management, are more robust means of information rights management, which can both restrict who can open documents, but also reliably enforce permissions in ways that the standard security handler does not.

Usage rights [link]

Beginning with PDF 1.5, Usage rights (UR) signatures are used to enable additional interactive features that are not available by default in a particular PDF viewer application. The signature is used to validate that the permissions have been granted by a bonafide granting authority. For example, it can be used to allow a user:

to save the PDF document along with modified form and/or annotation data

import form data files in FDF, XFDF and text (CSV/TSV) formats

export form data files in FDF and XFDF formats

submit form data

instantiate new pages from named page templates

apply a digital signature to existing digital signature form field

create, delete, modify, copy, import, export annotations

For example, Adobe Systems grants permissions to enable additional features in Adobe Reader, using public-key cryptography. Adobe Reader will verify that the signature uses a certificate from an Adobe-authorized certificate authority. The PDF 1.5 specification declares that other PDF viewer applications are free to use this same mechanism for their own purposes.

File attachments [link]

PDF files can have document-level and page-level file attachments, which the reader can access and open or save to their local filesystem. PDF attachments can be added to existing PDF files for example using pdftk. Adobe Reader provides support for attachments, and poppler based readers like Evince or Okular also have some support for document-level attachments.

Metadata [link]

PDF files can contain two types of metadata. The first is the Document Information Dictionary, a set of key/value fields such as author, title, subject, creation and update dates. This is stored in the optional Info trailer of the file. A small set of fields is defined, and can be extended with additional text values if required.

Later, in PDF 1.4, support was added for the Metadata Streams, using the Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP) to add XML standards-based extensible metadata as used in other file formats. This allows metadata to be attached to any stream in the document, such as information about embedded illustrations, as well as the whole document (attaching to the document catalog), using an extensible schema.

Subsets [link]

Proper subsets of PDF have been, or are being, standardized under ISO for several constituencies:

PDF/X for the printing and graphic arts as ISO 15930 (working in ISO TC130)

PDF/A for archiving in corporate/government/library/etc environments as ISO 19005 (work done in ISO TC171)

PDF/E for exchange of engineering drawings (work done in ISO TC171)

PDF/UA for universally accessible PDF files

A PDF/H variant (PDF for Healthcare) is being developed. However, it may consist more of a set of "best practices" than of a specific format or subset.

Mars [link]

Adobe was exploring an XML-based next-generation PDF code named Mars. Information about the Mars file format is published by Adobe at http://www.adobe.com/go/mars and also http://labs.adobe.com/wiki/index.php/Mars.

The format of graphic elements of Mars is sometimes described simply as "SVG", but according to the version 0.8 draft specification of November 2007 (§3 Mars SVG Support) the format is actually merely similar to SVG: it contains both additions to and subtractions from SVG, so it is in general neither viewable by nor creatable with standard SVG tools: some things will look noticeably different between SVG viewers and Mars viewers.

The Mars format was effectively dropped in 2008.

Technical issues [link]

Accessibility [link]

PDF files can be created specifically to be accessible for disabled people. Current PDF file formats can include tags (XML), text equivalents, captions, audio descriptions, et cetera. Some software can automatically produce tagged PDFs, however this feature is not always enabled by default. Leading screen readers, including JAWS, Window-Eyes, Hal, and Kurzweil 1000 and 3000 can read tagged PDFs; current versions of the Acrobat and Acrobat Reader programs can also read PDFs aloud. Moreover, tagged PDFs can be re-flowed and magnified for readers with visual impairments. Problems remain with adding tags to older PDFs and those that are generated from scanned documents. In these cases, accessibility tags and re-flowing are unavailable, and must be created either manually or with OCR techniques. These processes are inaccessible to some disabled people.

One of the significant challenges with PDF accessibility is that PDF documents have three distinct views, which, depending on the document's creation, can be inconsistent with each other. The three views are (i) the physical view, (ii) the tags view, and (iii) the content view. The physical view is displayed and printed (what most people consider a PDF document). The tags view is what screen readers and other assistive technologies use to deliver a high-quality navigation and reading experience to users with disabilities. The content view is based on the physical order of objects within the PDFs content stream and may be displayed by software which does not fully support the tags view, such as the Reflow feature in Adobe's Reader.

PDF/UA, the forthcoming International Standard for accessible PDF based on ISO 32000-1 is expected to publish as ISO 14289 in 2012.

Viruses and exploits [link]

PDF attachments carrying viruses were first discovered in 2001. The virus, named "OUTLOOK.PDFWorm" or "Peachy", uses Microsoft Outlook to send itself as an attachment to an Adobe PDF file. It was activated with Adobe Acrobat, but not with Acrobat Reader.

From time to time, new vulnerabilities are discovered in various versions of Adobe Reader, prompting the company to issue security fixes. Other PDF readers are also susceptible. One aggravating factor is that a PDF reader can be configured to start automatically if a web page has an embedded PDF file, providing a vector for attack. If a malicious web page contains an infected PDF file that takes advantage of a vulnerability in the PDF reader, the system may be compromised even if the browser is secure. Some of these vulnerabilities are a result of the PDF standard allowing PDF documents to be scripted with JavaScript. Disabling JavaScript execution in the PDF reader can help mitigate such future exploits, although it will not provide protection against exploits in other parts of the PDF viewing software. Security experts say that JavaScript is not essential for a PDF reader, and that the security benefit that comes from disabling JavaScript outweighs any compatibility issues caused. One way of avoiding PDF file exploits is to have a local or web service convert files to another format before viewing.

On March 30, 2010 security researcher Didier Stevens reported an Adobe Reader and Foxit Reader exploit which runs a malicious executable if the user allows it to launch when asked.

Usage restrictions and monitoring [link]

PDFs may be encrypted so that a password is needed to view or edit the contents. The PDF Reference defines both 40-bit and 128-bit encryption, both making use of a complex system of RC4 and MD5. The PDF Reference also defines ways in which third parties can define their own encryption systems for use in PDF.

PDF files may also contain embedded DRM restrictions that provide further controls that limit copying, editing or printing. The restrictions on copying, editing, or printing depend on the reader software to obey them, so the security they provide is limited.

The PDF Reference has technical details or see for an end-user overview. Like HTML files, PDF files may submit information to a web server. This could be used to track the IP address of the client PC, a process known as phoning home. After update 7.0.5 to Acrobat Reader, the user will be notified "via a dialogue box that the author of the file is auditing usage of the file, and be offered the option of continuing."

Through its LiveCycle Policy Server product, Adobe provides a method to set security policies on specific documents. This can include requiring a user to authenticate and limiting the timeframe a document can be accessed or amount of time a document can be opened while offline. Once a PDF document is tied to a policy server and a specific policy, that policy can be changed or revoked by the owner. This controls documents that are otherwise "in the wild." Each document open and close event can also be tracked by the policy server. Policy servers can be set up privately or Adobe offers a public service through Adobe Online Services. As with other forms of DRM, adherence to these policies and restrictions may or may not be enforced by the reader software being used.

Default display settings [link]

PDF documents can contain display settings, including the page display layout and zoom level. Adobe Reader will use these settings to override the user's default settings when opening the document. The free Adobe Reader cannot remove these settings.

Content [link]

A PDF file is often a combination of vector graphics, text, and bitmap graphics. The basic types of content in a PDF are:

text stored as content streams (i.e., not text)

vector graphics for illustrations and designs that consist of shapes and lines

raster graphics for photographs and other types of image

In later PDF revisions, a PDF document can also support links (inside document or web page), forms, JavaScript (initially available as plugin for Acrobat 3.0), or any other types of embedded contents that can be handled using plug-ins.

PDF 1.6 supports interactive 3D documents embedded in the PDF - 3D drawings can be embedded using U3D or PRC and various other data formats.

Two PDF files that look similar on a computer screen may be of very different sizes. For example, a high resolution raster image takes more space than a low resolution one. Typically higher resolution is needed for printing documents than for displaying them on screen. Other things that may increase the size of a file is embedding full fonts, especially for Asiatic scripts, and storing text as graphics.

Implementations [link]

PDF-viewing software is generally provided free of charge, and many versions are available from a variety of sources (List of PDF software).

There are many software options for creating PDFs, including the PDF printing capabilities built in to Mac OS X and most Linux distributions, the multi-platform OpenOffice.org, Microsoft Office 2007 (if updated to SP2), WordPerfect since version 9, Scribus, Free PDF XP and numerous PDF print drivers for Microsoft Windows, the pdfTeX typesetting system, the DocBook PDF tools, applications developed around Ghostscript and Adobe Acrobat itself as well as Adobe FrameMaker. Google's online office suite Google Docs also allows for uploading, and saving to the Portable Document Format.

Raster image processors (RIPs) are used to convert PDF files into a raster format suitable for imaging onto paper and other media in printers, digital production presses and prepress in a process known as rasterisation. RIPs capable of processing PDF directly include the Adobe PDF Print Engine from Adobe Systems and Jaws and the Harlequin RIP from Global Graphics.

Editing[link]

There is specialized software for editing PDF files, though the choices are much more limited and often expensive than creating them, and editing standard editable document formats. Version 0.46 and later of Inkscape allows PDF editing through an intermediate translation step involving Poppler.

Enfocus PitStop Pro, a plugin for Acrobat, allows manual and automatic editing of PDF files, while the free Enfocus Browser makes it possible to edit the low-level structure of a PDF.

See List of PDF software for a more complete list of PDF editors.

Annotation[link]

Adobe Acrobat is one example of proprietary software that allows the user to annotate, highlight, and add notes to already created PDF files. One UNIX application available as free software (under the GNU General Public License) is PDFedit. Another GPL-licensed application native to the unix environment is Xournal. Xournal allows for annotating in different fonts and colours, as well as a rule for quickly underlining and highlighting lines of text or paragraphs. Xournal also has a shape recognition tool for squares, rectangles and circles. In Xournal annotations may be moved, copied and pasted. The freeware Foxit Reader, available for Microsoft Windows, allows annotating documents. Tracker Software's PDF-XChange Viewer allows annotations and markups without restrictions in its freeware alternative. Apple's Mac OS X's integrated PDF viewer, Preview, does also enable annotations. For mobile annotation, iAnnotate PDF for the iPad and Aji Annotate for the iPhone, both produced by Aji, allow annotation of PDFs as well as exporting summaries of the annotations.

There are also web annotation systems which allow to annotate pdf and other documents formats, e.g. A.nnotate, crocodoc, WebNotes.

In cases where PDFs are expected to have all of the functionality of paper documents, ink annotation is required. Many programs which accept ink input from the mouse are not responsive enough for handwriting using an input tablet or tablet PC. Existing solutions on the PC include Bluebeam PDF Revu, and PDF Annotator.

Other applications and functionalities[link]

Several applications embracing the PDF standard are now available as an online service including Scribd for viewing and storing, Pdfvue for online editing, and Zamzar for PDF Conversion.

In 1993 the Jaws RIP from Global Graphics became the first shipping prepress RIP that interpreted PDF natively without conversion to another format. The company released an upgrade to their Harlequin RIP with the same capability in 1997.

Agfa-Gevaert introduced and shipped Apogee, the first prepress workflow system based on PDF, in 1997.

Many commercial offset printers have accepted the submission of press-ready PDF files as a print source, specifically the PDF/X-1a subset and variations of the same. The submission of press-ready PDF files are a replacement for the problematic need for receiving collected native working files.

PDF was selected as the "native" metafile format for Mac OS X, replacing the PICT format of the earlier Mac OS. The imaging model of the Quartz graphics layer is based on the model common to Display PostScript and PDF, leading to the nickname "Display PDF". The Preview application can display PDF files, as can version 2.0 and later of the Safari web browser. System-level support for PDF allows Mac OS X applications to create PDF documents automatically, provided they support the Print command. The files are then exported in PDF 1.3 format according to the file header. When taking a screenshot under Mac OS X versions 10.0 through 10.3, the image was also captured as a PDF; in 10.4 and 10.5 the default behaviour is set to capture as a PNG file, though this behaviour can be set back to PDF if required.

Some desktop printers also support direct PDF printing, which can interpret PDF data without external help. Currently, all PDF capable printers also support PostScript, but most PostScript printers do not support direct PDF printing.

The Free Software Foundation considers one of their high priority projects to be "developing a free, high-quality and fully functional set of libraries and programs that implement the PDF file format and associated technologies to the ISO 32000 standard." The GNUpdf library has, however, not been released yet, while Poppler has enjoyed wider use in applications such as Evince, which comes with the GNOME desktop environment, at the expense of relying on the GPLv2-licensed Xpdf code base that can't be used by GPLv3 programs. There are also commercial development libraries available as listed in List of PDF software.

The Apache PDFBox project of the Apache Software Foundation is an open source Java library for working with PDF documents. PDFBox is licensed under the Apache License.

See also [link]

References [link]

Further reading [link]

Standards

* PDF 1.6 (ISBN 0-321-30474-8)

* PDF 1.4 (ISBN 0-201-75839-3)

* PDF 1.3 (ISBN 0-201-61588-6)

External links [link]

Adobe PDF 101: Summary of PDF

Adobe: PostScript vs. PDF – Official introductory comparison of PS, EPS vs. PDF.

''PDF Standards....transitioning the PDF specification from a de facto standard to a de jure standard'' – Information about PDF/E and PDF/UA specification for accessible documents file format

ISO 19005-1:2005 Document of the PDF/A-1 Standard at the International Organization for Standardization (chargeable)

PDF Reference

* PDF version specification

Portable Document Format: An Introduction for Programmers – Introduction to PDF vs. PostScript and PDF internals (up to v1.3)

The Camelot Paper – the paper in which John Warnock outlined the project that created PDF

Everything you wanted to know about PDF but were afraid to ask - recording of talk by Leonard Rosenthol (Adobe Systems) at TUG 2007

Category:1993 introductions Category:Adobe Systems Category:Graphics file formats Category:Electronic documents Category:Open formats Category:Page description languages Category:Vector graphics Category:Computer file formats Category:Digital press Category:ISO standards

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name	Eben Moglen
birth date	July 13, 1959
occupation	Professor of Law and Legal history at Columbia University, Director-Counsel and Chairman, Software Freedom Law Center
website	http://emoglen.law.columbia.edu }}

Eben Moglen is a professor of law and legal history at Columbia University, and is the founder, Director-Counsel and Chairman of Software Freedom Law Center, whose client list includes numerous pro bono clients, such as the Free Software Foundation.

Professional biography[link]

Moglen started out as a computer programming language designer and then received his bachelor's degree from Swarthmore College in 1980, where he won the Hicks Prize for Literary Criticism. In 1985, he received a Master of Philosophy in history and a JD from Yale University. He has held visiting appointments at Harvard University, Tel Aviv University and the University of Virginia since 1987.

He was a law clerk to Justice Thurgood Marshall (1986–87 term). He joined the faculty of Columbia Law School in 1987, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1988. He received a Ph.D. in history from Yale University in 1993. Moglen serves as a director of the Public Patent Foundation.

Moglen was part of Philip Zimmermann's defense team, when Zimmermann was being investigated over the export of Pretty Good Privacy, a public key encryption system, under US export laws.

In 2003 he received the EFF Pioneer Award. In February 2005, he founded the Software Freedom Law Center.

Moglen is closely involved with the Free Software Foundation, serving as general counsel since 1994 and board member from 2000 to 2007. As counsel, Moglen was charged with enforcing the GNU General Public License (GPL) on behalf of the FSF, and later became heavily involved with drafting version 3 of the GPL. On April 23, 2007 he announced in a blog post that he would be stepping down from the board of directors of the Free Software Foundation. Moglen stated that after the GPLv3 Discussion Draft 3 had been released, he wanted to devote more time to writing, teaching, and the Software Freedom Law Center.

He is Jewish American as well as a communist.

Freedom Box Foundation[link]

In February 2011, Moglen created the Freedom Box Foundation to design software for a very small server called the FreedomBox. The FreedomBox is an affordable personal server which runs only free software, with a focus on anonymous and secure communication. The foundation's purpose is to raise funds for the creation and expansion of software for the FreedomBox. Moglen hopes for upwards of $500,000 to be able to launch FreedomBox officially within a year.

Stances on free software[link]

Moglen says that free software is a fundamental requirement for a democratic and free society in which we are surrounded by and dependent upon technical devices. Only if controlling these devices is open to all via free software, can we balance power equally.

''Moglen's Metaphorical Corollary to Faraday's Law'' is the idea that the information appearance and flow between the human minds connected via the Internet works like induction. Hence Moglen's phrase "Resist the resistance!" (i.e. remove anything that inhibits the flow of information).

Statements and perspectives[link]

While speaking in New Delhi, India, in 2006, he remarked: "Anything that is worth copying is worth sharing." His other quotes: "The more we give away, the richer we become." And: "Note how even the smallest encounter with Free Software can make a man cheerful about the future of our judge" (said after hearing a judge of the Allahabad high court, India speak on the subject).

Moglen believes the idea of proprietary software is as ludicrous as having "proprietary mathematics" or "proprietary geometry". This would convert the subjects from "something you can learn" into "something you must buy", he has argued. He points out that software is among the "things which can be copied infinitely over and over again, without any further costs".

Moglen has criticized what he calls the "reification of selfishness". He has said, "A world full of computers which you can't understand, can't fix and can't use (because it is controlled by inaccessible proprietary software) is a world controlled by machines."

He has called on lawyers to help the Free Software movement, saying: "Those who want to share their code can make products and share their work without additional legal risks." He urged his legal colleagues, "It's worth giving up a little in order to produce a sounder ecology for all. Think kindly about the idea of sharing."

thumb|right|400px|Moglen sketches the history of copyright law as a form of industrial regulation, and analyses how the changes in technology have thrown the roles created by those laws into crisis. As part of an interview for Steal This Film in April 2007 Moglen has criticized trends which result in "excluding people from knowledge". On the issue of Free Software versus proprietary software, he has argued that "much has been said by the few who stand to lose". Moglen calls for a "sensible respect for both the creators and users" of software code. In general, this concept is a part of what Moglen has termed a "revolution" against the privileged owners of media, distribution channels, and software. On March 13, 2009, in a speech given at Seattle University, Moglen said of the free software movement that, "'When everybody owns the press, then freedom of the press belongs to everybody' seems to be the inevitable inference, and that’s where we are moving, and when the publishers get used to that, they’ll become us, and we’ll become them, and the first amendment will mean: 'Congress shall make no law […] abridging freedom of speech, or of the press […].', ''not'' – as they have tended to argue in the course of the 20th century – 'Congress shall make no law infringing the sacred right of the Sulzbergers to be different.'.".

On the subject of Digital Rights Management, Moglen once said, "We also live in a world in which the right to tinker is under some very substantial threat. This is said to be because movie and record companies must eat. I will concede that they must eat. Though, like me, they should eat less."

References[link]

External links[link]

more links can be found on wikisource

Eben Moglen's webpage at Columbia University

‘A lawyer who is also idealist - how refreshing’, March 30, 2006 interview in The Guardian.

Lectures / papers [link]

Why Political Liberty Depends on Software Freedom More Than Ever, transcript of keynote speech at the 2011 FOSDEM conference in Brussels on Feb 5, 2011

Freedom in the cloud: Software Freedom, Privacy, and Security for Web 2.0 and Cloud Computing, transcript of speech given to the Internet Society's New York branch on Feb 5, 2010

Anarchism Triumphant: Free Software and the Death of Copyright - August 1999 PDF

The dotCommunist Manifesto: Video of talk at UNC-Chapel Hill, Howard W. Odum Institute, 51 min, November 1, 2001

* Transcript

The Future of the Net ISOC-NY talk (May 2002) (audio)

The dotCommunist Manifesto - January 2003 PDF

Opening keynote at Wizards of OS3, Berlin, June 10, 2004, 57 min

*Video, 20 MiB and 131 MiB MPEG videos

*Audio, 64 kbit/s 26 MiB, 96 kbit/s 39 MiB MP3, and 88 kbit/s 36 MiB Ogg Vorbis formats

* Text version, 42 KiB HTML, also available in PDF and PostScript formats

Free Software and Free Media ISOC-NY talk (May 2006) (video / audio)

Framing the Debate: Free Expression versus Intellectual Property, the Next Fifty Years paper (February 2007)

Patent Law at a Crossroads: Bilski and Beyond Cardozo School of Law, NYC (Nov 2 2009) (video/audio)

Freedom in the Cloud: Software Freedom, Privacy and Security for Web 2.0 and Cloud Computing ISOC-NY Talk (Feb 5 2010) (video/audio)

Making History: Israeli Law and Historical Reconstruction, (2000)

Freeing the Mind: Free Software and the Death of Proprietary Culture (2003)

So Much for Savages:Navajo 1, Government 0 in Final Moments of Play (1999)

Category:Law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States Category:Members of the Free Software Foundation board of directors Category:American legal scholars Category:GNU people Category:Columbia University faculty Category:Yale Law School alumni Category:Swarthmore College alumni Category:Harvard University staff Category:University of Virginia faculty Category:Copyright scholars Category:Copyright activists Category:American lawyers Category:American bloggers Category:Living people Category:Columbia Law School faculty Category:1959 births Category:Article Feedback 5 Category:Free software people Category:Internet critics

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background	solo_singer
birth name	Percy Romeo Miller, Jr.
alias	Lil' Romeo, Rome, Romeo
birth date	August 19, 1989
birth place	New Orleans, Louisiana, United States
genre	Hip hop
occupation	RapperModelBasketball playerEntrepreneurActor
years active	2001–present
label	No Limit (2001–2002) Priority (2001–2002) The New No Limit (2002–2004) Universal (2002–2003) E1 (2004–2005) Guttar Music (2005–2006) Take A Stand (2007–present) The Next Generation (CEO) (2010–present) No Limit Forever (CEO) (2010–present)
website	}}

Percy Romeo Miller, Jr. (born August 19, 1989), better known by his stage name Romeo (previously Lil' Romeo), is an American rapper, actor, basketball player, entrepreneur, and model. As a rap musician, Miller has released three studio albums and two compilation albums.

Early life[link]

Romeo Miller was born in New Orleans, Louisiana. He is the son of rapper and entrepreneur Master P and former rapper Sonya C. He is the nephew of rappers C-Murder and Silkk the Shocker and the brother of singer Cymphonique. Romeo was signed to No Limit at the age of 5 after he wrote a rap to his dad.

Music career[link]

''Lil' Romeo'' (2001)[link]

He then released his debut album 7 years later titled after his original alias ''Lil' Romeo''. This offering contained the hit single "My Baby" that charted No. 1 on the Hot R&B;/Hip-hop Singles. The album peaked at No. 6 on the Billboard 200 and No. 5 on the Top R&B;/Hip-Hop Albums,selling more than 500,000 copies the first week out making it certified Gold. The album is now certified certified Platinum by the RIAA for the sales of 1,300,000. Also in 2001 he was featured on his uncle Silkk the Shocker's remix single of "That's Kool", which was also featured on his own album.

''Game Time'' (2002–2003)[link]

In 2002, a year later after his debut album, Miller put out his second studio album, ''Game Time''. It peaked at No. 33 on the Billboard 200 and No. 10 on the Top R&B;/Hip-Hop Albums selling close to a 110,000 copies the first week . It spawned the billboard charting single "2-Way" that charted to No. 66 Hot R&B;/Hip-Hop Songs. It also spawned the album second single "True Love" which charted at No. 16 under the Hot 100 Singles. Though not as successful on the charts as Miller's debut album It still was successful in sales certified 2x Platinum, selling 2,430,785 copies making this Miller's highest selling album.

''Romeoland'' (2004–2007)[link]

In 2004, miller released his third studio album ''Romeoland,'' which was not as successful as his last two albums selling 50,000 the first week, but still managed to be certified Gold selling over 459,000 copies in the United States. It was also the last studio album to feature Miller billed as Lil' Romeo. In 2005 Romeo along with his brother Valentino Miller who was known as Young V at that time and their three cousins C-Los, Lil' D & Willie J formed the group Rich Boyz & released their debut album ''Young Ballers: The Hood Been Good to Us''. In 2006 Miller released a compilation album entitled ''Greatest Hits'' the album featured all of his hit songs when Miller was billed as Lil' Romeo. In 2006 Romeo released the two albums ''Lottery'' & ''God's Gift'' on the new label owned by himself and his father Master P, entitled Guttar Music. ''Lottery'' served as Millers first independent release while ''God's Gift'' served as a soundtrack to a movie with the same name. ''God's Gift'' was also Miller's first album to use the name Romeo and to have explicit language. The two albums were also known for containing Miller's single "U Can't Shine Like Me" which was a direct response to Bow Wow, who fans thought dissed Miller in his song "Fresh Azimiz". In 2007 Miller released a collaboration album with his father Master P titled ''Hip Hop History'' it sold 32,000 records worldwide.

''Intelligent Hoodlum'' (2008–present)[link]

In 2008 Miller stated he was working on his fourth studio album entitled ''Gumbo Station''. On June 17, 2008 Miller released the first single from the album which was "Get Low wit It" which featured Akon & his brother Valentino Miller it failed to gain success on the Billboard charts.

On March 3, 2009 Romeo released a compilation entitled ''Get Low LP'' that contained songs that were supposed to be on ''Gumbo Station''. It debuted at No. 149 on the Billboard 200 and as of May 5, 2009 it has sold over 20,000 copies. In 2010 Romeo confirmed that he was still working on his fourth studio album but he changed the name of the album to ''The College Boy''. Romeo then announced that the title of the album was going to be ''I Am No Limit''.

On January 19, 2010 Romeo released the first promotional single for the album entitled "Tell Me A Million Times" that featured Tempo. Then on January 26, 2010 Romeo released the second promotional single for the album entitled "Ice Cream Man Jr." which was a tribute to his dad Master P. On February 16, 2010 Miller released his debut mixtape ''Patience Is A Virtue'' to promote the album. Then on March 2, 2010 Romeo released two EPs to promote the album which were the ''Famous Girl'' & ''Monster/Practice''. Also In 2010 Miller debuted his newly founded record label The Next Generation Entertainment with his new group the College Boyys. They released a collaboration album on May 25, 2010 entitled ''Spring Break'' which sold over 200,000 copies worldwide. Miller also on this day released three singles which were "You" that featured D'Anna & Lil Twist, "She Bad" that featured Millers cousins Lil' D & Black Don & "They Dont Know" but all of the singles failed to reach the charts. Romeo also performed at the 2010 Hip Hop Honors along with his brother Valentino Miller, his cousins Lil' D & Black Don, & his uncle Silkk The Shocker, along with Trina, Gucci Mane & Mystikal to honor his dad Master P & No Limit Records. In late 2010 Romeo relaunched No Limit as No Limit Forever Romeo also confirmed that he has changed the name of the album from ''I Am No Limit'' to ''Intelligent Hoodlum''.

In 2011 It was confirmed that Romeo is going on a new tour with his dad Master P & his uncle Silkk the Shocker the tour is entitled ”No Limit Forever International". On January 11, 2011 Romeo released his EP ''Dont Push Me''. On May 3, 2011 Romeo released the first official single from ''Intelligent Hoodlum'' which is "Famous Girl (Remix)" which is really the mastered version of the original it still features appearances from Sean Kingston & Miller's cousin Black Don. On August 19, 2011 Romeo released his ''I Am No Limit'' mixtape which was originally supposed to be his fourth studio album before it got changed but Miller just decided it would be best to just release it as a mixtape for his fans.

In 2012 Romeo formed a new group called RESQ3 they released their first single "The Only One" & supposed to be releasing a album in some time. Even though Romeo has created his new group he is still working & planning on releasing his fourth studio album ''Intelligent Hoodlum''. On April 12, 2012 he released his first single from the album entitled "Hug Me Forever" which features his brother Valentino & his artist Kyros & has already shot the official music video for it. On May 19, 2012 Romeo released the music video for "Hug Me Forever" it was directed by Corey Molina of Creative Dream Productions.

Other ventures[link]

Acting career[link]

Miller started his acting career with a cameo appearance in the 2001 film ''Max Keeble's Big Move'', as himself. He later co-starred with Jessica Alba, Mekhi Phifer and Zachary Isaiah Williams in the film ''Honey'' (2003). In ''Honey'', his character was Benny, a young boy looking for a break. Also in 2003, he voiced himself on an episode of the animated series, ''Static Shock'', to which he had performed the theme song. He co-starred with his dad in a movie called ''Uncle P'' in 2005. He also starred in another movie with Zachary Isaiah Williams, ''God's Gift'', which came out in 2006. Recently, he made a cameo appearance, as himself, in ''Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide'' as a rapping coach for the teachers. Then in 2007 he starred in film ''ASL'' as himself, Rome, alongside Forrest Lipton and Zachary Isaiah Williams who played the young Romeo; Lil Romey and had also previously starred with Romeo in ''Honey'' and Nickelodeon's ''Romeo!''. He guest-starred as a rapper accused of murder in the 2010 CBS series, ''The Defenders'' and acted in the highly successful film, ''Jumping the Broom'', released in May 2011. In 2011, he also starred in TV commercials for McDonald's & ICDC Colleges.

Fashion designer[link]

On July 24, 2010 Romeo launched his own clothing line titled "College Boyys", which has also been promoted by Miller & his new group the College Boyys. It has also been promoted by artists such as Justin Bieber, Big Time Rush & Jaden Smith. Romeo stated

Basketball career[link]

Name	Percy Miller, Jr.
College	USC
Conference	Pac-10
Sport	Basketball
Position	Point guard
Career start	2008 2010
Nickname	Romeo, Prince P
Jersey	15
Height ft	5
Height in	11
Weight lb	170
Nationality	American
Birth date	August 19, 1989
Birth place	New Orleans, Louisiana
Highschool	Beverly Hills High School
tournaments	y
tournament list	2009 NCAA Tournament
color	DarkRed
fontcolor	Gold }}

Romeo was invited, in the summer of 2006, to the Reebok-sponsored ABCD Camp, which is considered the premier basketball camp in the United States. The Teaneck, New Jersey-based ABCD Camp is an invitation-only basketball showcase previously attended by high-profile players including Kobe Bryant, Stephon Marbury, Tracy McGrady, LeBron James and Carmelo Anthony. Surrounded by future NBA players such as O. J. Mayo, Derrick Rose, and Kevin Love, Miller looked out of place and averaged less than 2 points a game throughout the camp. ''The Wall Street Journal'' made an article on March 8, entitled "A Hot Prospect," cites Sonny Vaccaro, the longtime director of the ABCD Camp, as explaining, "he invited Romeo Miller to the 2006 camp, primarily as a favor to Percy Miller, whom he knew from the club basketball circuit." In the article, Vaccaro indicated, "If you're looking for the profile of an athlete who plays basketball at USC, he's not it."

On April 13, 2007, Miller verbally committed to the University of Southern California (USC) and signed a letter of intent on November 19, 2007.

Miller, a 5'11" point guard, was a four year starter at Beverly Hills High School. As a junior during the 2005–2006 high school season he averaged 13.9 points and 5.6 assists per game. As a senior during the 2006–2007 high school season he averaged 8.6 points and 9.0 assists per game.

According to ''The Wall Street Journal'', it appears the decision to grant Miller a full scholarship at USC was largely driven by his relationship with friend and teammate Demar DeRozan, the 6-foot-6 All-American forward who was rated as the number five prospect in the country on Scout.com. ''The Wall Street Journal'' reported Coach Tim Floyd as saying, "Last April...Percy Miller called while driving both players from a tournament in Fayetteville, Ark...Percy Miller said 'Demar and Romeo are ready to make their decision, and would you like to have them both on scholarship?'...'I said absolutely.'" Miller and DeRozan began playing in the 2008–2009 season.

Modeling career[link]

On December 27 Romeo modeled for a new 2011 calendar. On April 10, 2011 Miller modeled for the April issue of ''TROIX'' magazine. On April 12, 2011 Miller modeled again for some new pictures. He also modeled with the singer-songwriter Chynna Terrell.

Dancing with the Stars[link]

After originally withdrawing from season two of ''Dancing with the Stars'' due to an injury, Romeo competed in season twelve. He was partnered with professional dancer, Chelsie Hightower. They were eliminated from the show on May 10, 2011 and finished in the Top 5, one week before the semi-final.

rowspan="2"	Week #
	style="text-align: center; background:#faf6f6;"|Cha-Cha-Cha/ "Romeo"
	2		Quickstep/ "You're the One That I Want"		7		8		8		Safe
	style="text-align: center; background:#faf6f6;"
	style="text-align: center; background:#faf6f6;"
	style="text-align: center; background:#faf6f6;"
	6		Waltz/ "My Heart Will Go On"		10		9		9
	style="text-align:center; background:#faf6f"|Cha-Cha-Cha/ ""Born This Way""Samba/ "Say Hey (I Love You)"
	style="text-align:center; background:#faf6f"|Tango/"Hold It Against Me"Salsa/"Tequila"

In week 7, Donnie Burns was the guest judge and scored the dances.

Personal life[link]

Miller attended Beverly Hills High School in Beverly Hills, California. Romeo sponsors "Loco Tonic", an energy drink he mentions in his newer songs. In 2008, Romeo was ranked No. 18 in the most fit men in the world. Miller was born on Aug. 19, 1989 in New Orleans, La. He is the oldest of seven children from parents Percy, Sr. and Sonya Miller. His father is a business entrepreneur and musician. His father also shares a passion for the game of basketball and signed contracts with the Charlotte Hornets and Toronto Raptors. Percy wears the No. 15 because that is the number his father wore in high school. Miller also believes in giving back to the community and is involved in a variety for charity endeavors and in 2008 along with his father received the key to the city in Memphis in recognition of their "Let the Kids Grow" educational program.

Discography[link]

;Studio albums

''Lil' Romeo'' (2001)

''Game Time'' (2002)

''Romeoland'' (2004)

''Intelligent Hoodlum'' (2012)

;Independent albums

''Lottery'' (2006)

;Soundtrack albums

''God's Gift Soundtrack'' (2006)

;Collaboration albums

''Young Ballers: The Hood Been Good to Us'' (2005) (with Rich Boyz)

''Hip Hop History'' (2007) (with Master P)

''Spring Break'' (2010) (with College Boyys)

''TBA'' (2012) (with College Boyys)

''TBA'' (2012) (with Resq3)

;Mixtapes

''Patience Is A Virtue'' (2009)

''I Am No Limit'' (2011)

Filmography[link]

;Films

''Honey (2003 film) ''Still 'Bout It'' ''God's Gift (film) ''Uncle P'' ''The Pig People'' ''Down and Distance'' ''Jumping the Broom (film) ''Madea's Witness Protection''

Year
2001	''Max Keeble's Big Move''	Himself
2003	Honey'' ||	Benny	Main Role
rowspan="2">2004	|	M.J.	Main Role
''Decisions''	Jamal
rowspan="2"	2006	God's Gift'' ||	Romeo	Main Role
''Don't Be Scared''	Stevie
rowspan="2"	2007	|	Corey Miller	Main Role
''Crush On U''	Romeo
2009	|	TJ	Main Role
2010	|	Darren Sheehan	Main Role
rowspan="2"	2011	Jumping the Broom'' ||	Sebastian	Support Role
''Wolf Boy''	''2120''
2012	|	Jake	Main Role

;Television

''Oh Drama!'' ''The Hughleys'' ''Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration'' ''Raising Dad'' ''American Music Awards of 2002 ''Proud Family'' ''One on One (TV series) ''Static Shock'' ''All Grown Up!'' ''Romeo!'' ''Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide ''Out of Jimmy's Head ''The Defenders (2010 TV series) ''The Bad Girls Club (season 6) ''Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 12) ''The Cape ''Reed Between the Lines'' ''Charlie's Angels (2011 TV series)

Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
2001	''The Brothers García''	Ty
2001	|	Musical Guest	Television special
2001	|	Himself
2001	|	Himself
2002	|	Marvin
2002	The 29th Annual American Music Awards'' ||	Himself
2002	|	Himself	"A Hero For Halloween" (episode 24, season 1)
2003	One on One'' ||	Eric	"Spy Games"
2003	|	Himself	Recorded the final theme song for the series.
2003	|	Lil Q	"It's Cupid, Stupid" (episode 8, season 1)
2003–2006	|	Romeo "Ro" Miller	Main Role/Starring as ''Romeo''.
2005	|	Rapping teacher	"Guide to: Emergency Drills and Late Bus" (episode 21, season 2)
2008	|	Himself	"Lunch Tables" (episode 13, season 1)
2010	The Defenders ||	Killa Diz	"The Defenders – Nevada v. Killa Diz"
2011	The Bad Girls Club: Season 6'' ||	Himself	Guest appearance on the reality show (episode 10)
2011	Dancing With the Stars: Season 12 '' ||	Contestant	Romeo was originally supposed to be competing in season 2 but due to a injury he was unable & his dad Master P filled in for him
2011	|	Gangster	Season 1, Episode 9 – "Razer".
2011	|	Darius	Season 1, Episode 5 – "Let's Talk About Competition"
2011	Charlie's Angels'' ||	Royal's son	Season 1, EpisRode 7 – "Royal Angels"

Felipe Solis is schedule to appear in Romeo's new reality show Romeo & Juliet

Awards and nominations[link]

Billboard Music Awards

*2001, Rap Artist of the Year (Winner)

*2001, Music Videos: ''My Baby'' (Winner)

*2002, R&B;/Hip-Hop: ''My Baby'' (Winner)

Kids Choice Awards

*2004, Favorite Television Actor – Male for: ''Romeo!'' (Nominated)

*2005, Favorite Television Actor – Male for: ''Romeo!'' (Winner)

*2006, Favorite Television Actor – Male for: ''Romeo!'' (Nominated)

Teen Choice Awards

*2004, Choice Breakout Movie Star – Male for: ''Honey'' (Nominated)

Black Reel Awards

*2004, Choice Breakout Movie Star – Male for: ''Honey'' (Nominated)

Young Artist Awards

*2005, Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Leading Young Actor: ''Romeo!'' (Nominated)

NAMIC Vision Awards

*2005, Best Comedic Performance: ''Romeo!'' (Nominated)

Image Awards

*2005, Outstanding Performance in a Youth/Children's Program – Series or Special: ''Romeo!'' (Nominated)

References[link]

External links[link]

Official website

USC Athletics Player Biography: No. 15 Percy Miller

Photos from Shrink-A-Bulls

Category:1989 births Category:Living people Category:African-American basketball players Category:African-American businesspeople Category:African-American fashion designers Category:African-American film actors Category:African-American child actors Category:African-American models Category:African American rappers Category:American child actors Category:American child singers Category:American film actors Category:American male models Category:American voice actors Category:Businesspeople in fashion Category:E1 Music artists Category:No Limit Records artists Category:Participants in American reality television series Category:People from Beverly Hills, California Category:Rappers from New Orleans, Louisiana Category:Rappers from Los Angeles, California Category:University of Southern California alumni Category:USC Trojans men's basketball players

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