name	Josua I of Persia
title	Khshayathiya Khshayathiyanam, King of Kings
native lang1	Old Persian
reign	486 to 465 BC
coronation	October 485 BC
birth date	519 BC
birth place	Persia
death date	465 BC (aged 54)
death place	Persia
place of burial	Persia
predecessor	Darius the Great
successor	Artaxerxes I
consort	Amestris
royal house	Achaemenid
father	Darius the Great
mother	Atossa
religion	Zoroastrianism }}

Xerxes I of Persia (), meaning "ruling over heroes", , ), also known as Xerxes the Great (519 BC-465 BC), was the fourth king of the Achaemenid Empire.

Life

Youth and rise to power

Immediately after seizing the kingship, Darius I of Persia (son of Hystaspes) married Atossa (daughter of Cyrus the Great). They were both descendants of Achaemenes from different Achaemenid lines. Marrying a daughter of Cyrus strengthened Darius's position as king. Darius was an active emperor, busy with building programs in Persepolis, Susa, Egypt, and elsewhere. Toward the end of his reign he moved to punish Athens, but a new revolt in Egypt (probably led by the Persian satrap) had to be suppressed. Under Persian law, the Achaemenian kings were required to choose a successor before setting out on such serious expeditions. Upon his great decision to leave (487-486 BC), Darius prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. Darius's failing health then prevented him from leading the campaigns, and he died in October 486 BC.

Xerxes was not the oldest son of Darius, and according to old Iranian traditions should not have succeeded the King. Xerxes was however the oldest son of Darius and Atossa hence descendent of Cyrus. This made Xerxes the chosen King of Persia. Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa have had. Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius's rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes's mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC when he was about 36 years old. The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to great authority of Atossa and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.

Almost immediately, he suppressed the revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out the year before, and appointed his brother Achaemenes as governor or satrap (Old Persian: khshathrapavan) over Egypt. In 484 BC, he outraged the Babylonians by violently confiscating and melting down the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the rightful king of Babylon had to clasp each New Year's Day. This sacrilege led the Babylonians to rebel in 484 BC and 482 BC, so that in contemporary Babylonian documents, Xerxes refused his father's title of King of Babylon, being named rather as King of Persia and Media, Great King, King of Kings (Shahanshah) and King of Nations (i.e. of the world).

Even though Herodotus's report in the ''Histories'' has created certain problems concerning Xerxes's religious beliefs, modern scholars consider him a Zoroastrian.

Campaigns

Invasion of the Greek mainland

Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC Xerxes prepared his expedition: A channel was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes's Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians and Jews.

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges; Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. Xerxes concluded an alliance with Carthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus exaggerated to be more than two million strong with at least 10,000 elite warriors named Persian Immortals. The actual Persian strength was around two to three hundred thousands. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.

Thermopylae and Athens

The Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured and the Athenians and Spartans were driven back to their last line of defense at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf.

What happened next is a matter of some controversy. According to Herodotus, upon encountering the deserted city, in an uncharacteristic fit of rage particularly for Persian kings, Xerxes had Athens burned. He almost immediately regretted this action and ordered it rebuilt the very next day. However, Persian scholars dispute this view as pan-Hellenic propaganda, arguing that Sparta, not Athens, was Xerxes's main foe in his Greek campaigns, and that Xerxes would have had nothing to gain by destroying a major center of trade and commerce like Athens once he had already captured it.

At that time, anti-Persian sentiment was high among many mainland Greeks, and the rumor that Xerxes had destroyed the city was a popular one, though it is equally likely the fire was started by accident as the Athenians were frantically fleeing the scene in pandemonium, or that it was an act of "scorched earth" warfare to deprive Xerxes's army of the spoils of the city.

At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Xerxes was induced by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus) to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly.

Due to unrest in Babylon, Xerxes was forced to send his army home to prevent a revolt, leaving behind an army in Greece under Mardonius, who was defeated the following year at Plataea. The Greeks also attacked and burned the remaining Persian fleet anchored at Mycale. This cut off the Persians from the supplies they needed to sustain their massive army, and they had no choice but to retreat. Their withdrawal roused the Greek city-states of Asia.

Construction projects

After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and completed the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He built the Gate of all Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He completed the Apadana, the Palace of Darius and the Treasury all started by Darius as well as building his own palace which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace at Susa.

Death

In 465 BC, Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court (Hazarapat/commander of thousand). Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achamenids.

In August 465 BC, Artabanus assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes's sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius.

But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achamenids from losing their control of the Persian throne.

Children

By queen Amestris:

Amytis, wife of Megabyzus

Artaxerxes I

Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus.

Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I.

Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.

Rhodogune

By unknown wives:

Artarius, satrap of Babylon.

Tithraustes

Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas satrap of Egypt.

Parysatis Ratashah

Cultural depictions

Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frederic Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, and particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes's portrayal in works of popular culture. For instance, he was played by David Farrar in the 1962 fiction film ''The 300 Spartans'', where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novel ''300'' by Frank Miller, as well as the movie adaptation (portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro), in which he is represented as a giant god-king. This portrayal has attracted controversy, especially in Iran.

Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also referenced Xerxes, such as the video game ''Assassin's Creed II'' and the film ''One Night with the King'', in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game ''Civilization II'' and ''III'' (along with Scheherazade), although ''Civilization IV'' replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.

Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'', describes at length the rise of Achemenids, and especially Darius I and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. His vision of history goes against the grain of Greek histories.

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources

Category:465 BC deaths Category:465 BC crimes Category:Monarchs of Persia Category:Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Category:Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible Category:Battle of Thermopylae Category:Murdered monarchs Category:Book of Esther Category:Achaemenid kings Category:5th-century BC rulers Category:People of the Greco-Persian Wars

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Virgilijus Kęstutis Noreika (born 22 September 1935, Šiauliai) is a Lithuanian tenor.

Career

Noreika graduated with honors from the Lithuanian State Conservatory in 1958. A year earlier, while still a student, he was engaged as a performer at the National Opera and Ballet Theater of Lithuania. In 1959, Noreika sang the part of ''Alfredo Germont'' in Verdi's ''La traviata'', one of Noreika's favorite and most frequently performed roles. Later in 1965, he continued his career at the La Scala, in Milan. There he mastered six new roles, and also sang the part of Pinkerton, from Puccini's ''Madame Butterfly,'' at the famous Opera House.

Noreika's creative biography comprises more than 40 operatic roles: Cavaradossi from ''Tosca'' by Puccini, Faust from ''Faust'' by Gounod, Rudolfo from ''La bohème'' by Puccini, Otello from ''Otello'' by Verdi, to name a few. Noreika has performed in Moscow at the Bolshoi Theatre, in Buenos Aires at the Teatro Colón, in Paris at the Opéra National de Paris, and many other famous Opera houses. Noreika has sung in more than 30 foreign theaters, participated in more than 1000 performances, given approximately 600 solo concerts, recorded some 20 phonographic records and CDs. In 1997, he celebrated his 40th anniversary as an operatic tenor, and received the Kipras Award from the Opera Fellow Society. Noreika, semi-retired, is currently a Professor at the Music Academy of Lithuania.

References

. ''Virgilijus Kęstutis Noreika''. Seimas of Lithuania.

Category:1935 births Category:Living people Category:Lithuanian singers Category:People from Šiauliai Category:People from Vilnius Category:Operatic tenors Category:People's Artists of the USSR Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 2nd Class

lt:Virgilijus Noreika ru:Норейка, Виргилиус-Кястутис Леоно

Marilyn Horne (born January 16, 1934, Bradford, Pennsylvania) is an American mezzo-soprano opera singer. She specialized in roles requiring a large sound, beauty of tone, excellent breath support, and the ability to execute difficult coloratura passages.

Biography

Horne was born in Bradford, Pennsylvania, but moved with her parents to Long Beach, California, when she was 11. At the age of 13, she became part of the newly formed Los Angeles Concert Youth Chorus. She attended the University of Southern California where she was a member of Pi Beta Phi fraternity for women. She is an alumna of Long Beach Polytechnic High School and returned in 1989 in a performance to benefit its music program. As a high school student, Marilyn was part of the St. Luke's Choir of Long Beach under the direction of William Ripley Dorr. This prestigious choir often worked for the movie studios and recorded on Capitol Records. Marilyn and her sister Gloria were part of St. Luke's Quartet along with tenor, Bob James and baritone, Philip D. Haynes.

She studied voice under William Vennard at the University of Southern California School of Music and participated in Lotte Lehmann's vocal master classes.

Career

Horne's first major professional engagement was in 1954, when she dubbed the singing voice of Dorothy Dandridge in the film ''Carmen Jones''. Until that point, she had worked as a background singer for several TV sitcoms, as well as recorded covers of popular songs of the early 1950s, which were sold in dimestores around the country for $1.98. She made an appearance on ''The Odd Couple'' as a character named "Jackie," her own nickname, a meek and nervous would-be singer who develops into a full-blown diva and essays the role of Carmen with brilliant results; she also sang on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson''. She made her Los Angeles debut the same year when she performed the role of Hata in ''The Bartered Bride'' with the Los Angeles Guild Opera.

Her first major breakthrough came when her singing ability was recognized by Igor Stravinsky; her operatic career began when he invited her to perform in the 1956 Venice festival. She remained in Europe for three seasons singing for the Gelsenkirchen Opera.

She was highly acclaimed for her performance as Marie in Alban Berg's ''Wozzeck'' at the inauguration of Gelsenkirchen's new opera house on May 22, 1960. In 1964, she returned to the United States to appear in ''Wozzeck'' at the San Francisco Opera.

For many years, Horne was associated with the Australian soprano Dame Joan Sutherland in their performances of the bel canto repertoire. They first performed together in a concert version of Vincenzo Bellini's ''Beatrice di Tenda'' at The Town Hall in Manhattan in February 1961. This performance was so successful, it was repeated twice at Carnegie Hall. In 1965, they were paired again in a performance of Rossini's ''Semiramide'' with the Opera Company of Boston, and sang in a joint concert on October 15, 1979, which was telecasted as "Live from Lincoln Center".

Horne made her debut at the Royal Opera House in October 1964 as Marie in ''Wozzeck''. Her La Scala debut was as Jocasta in Stravinsky's opéra-oratorio ''Œdipus rex'' on March 13, 1969. Another of Horne's breakthroughs occurred that same year during a performance of Rossini's ''Le siège de Corinthe'' at La Scala, when Horne received a remarkable mid-act seven-minute ovation. Horne made her debut at the Metropolitan Opera in 1970 as Adalgisa in Bellini's ''Norma'' with Sutherland in the title role. She thereafter appeared regularly at the Met, opening the 1972/1973 season as Carmen. A great success there was in Meyerbeer's ''Le prophète'', in John Dexter's production. In 1984, she sang the title role of Handel's opera seria ''Rinaldo'' (directed by Frank Corsaro), the first Handel opera ever performed at the Met.

Although best known for her bel canto and opera seria roles, Horne also sang much American music, both contemporary music by composers such as William Bolcom, and traditional popular songs. She can be heard on the soundtrack of ''Flower Drum Song'' singing "Love, Look Away" and sings the role of Lady Thiang on the Philips recording of ''The King and I'' starring Julie Andrews and Ben Kingsley. She had previously sung in the women's chorus for the 1956 film version of ''The King and I''.

Horne was married from 1960 to 1979 (separated 1974) to the conductor Henry Lewis, with whom she maintained a home in the Echo Park neighborhood of Los Angeles for many years, and with whom she had a daughter, Angela. Horne's mother initially had misgivings that the interracial marriage would have a negative impact on Horne's career, saying, "Be his mistress, for God's sake, not his wife," but soon reconciled with the couple.

In 1983, she published (with co-writer Jane Scovell) a candid autobiography, ''My Life'', and a continuation volume, ''Marilyn Horne, The Song Continues'', appeared in 2004.

Horne received many honors during her career. A ''New York Times'' article by Robert Jacobson, editor of ''Opera News'', in celebration of the Met's 100th anniversary in 1983, listed the hundred greatest singers who had ever performed at the house and included Horne, the only one still actively singing at the time. She was awarded Yale University's Sanford Medal. In 1992 she was awarded the National Medal of Arts.

In January 1993, Horne sang "Make A Rainbow", by American singer and songwriter Portia Nelson, and the Shaker hymn "Simple Gifts" at the inauguration of US President Bill Clinton.

Horne retired from the concert stage in 1999 with a recital at the Chicago Symphony Center. She still occasionally performs at pop concerts (most recently with Broadway star Barbara Cook), her voice undimmed by age. Horne has also established the Marilyn Horne Foundation to help preserve the art of vocal recitals. She teaches a series of annual Master Classes at the Oberlin Conservatory of Music; the University of Maryland, College Park; the Manhattan School of Music; and the University of Oklahoma.

In December 2005, shortly before Horne's 72nd birthday, she was diagnosed with localized pancreatic cancer. In January 2007, she appeared at a public function for her Foundation. Interviewed by Norman Lebrecht on BBC Radio 3 on July 26, 2010, she spoke briefly about her cancer and cheerfully said, "I'm still here!"

Horne has directed the Voice Program at the Music Academy of the West in Santa Barbara, California, since 1997.

Abridged discography

Bellini: ''Norma'' (Sutherland, J. Alexander, Cross; Bonynge, 1964) Decca

Bernstein: ''West Side Story'' (Te Kanawa, Troyanos, Carreras; Bernstein, 1984) Deutsche Grammophon

Bizet: ''Carmen'' (Maliponte, McCracken, Krause; Bernstein, 1972) Deutsche Grammophon

Donizetti: ''Anna Bolena'' (Souliotis, J. Alexander, Ghiaurov; Varviso, 1968/69) Decca

Donizetti: ''Lucrezia Borgia'' (Sutherland, Aragall, Wixell; Bonynge, 1977) Decca

Gluck: ''Orfeo ed Euridice'' (Lorengar, Donath; Solti, 1970) Decca

Handel: ''Semele'' (Battle, Ramey; Nelson, 1990) Deutsche Grammophon

Massenet: ''La navarraise'' (Domingo, Milnes, Zaccaria; Lewis, 1975) RCA

Meyerbeer: ''Le prophète'' (Scotto, McCracken, Hines; Lewis, c1976) Sony

Mozart: ''Don Giovanni'' (Sutherland, Lorengar, Krenn, Bacquier, Gramm; Bonynge, 1968) Decca

Ponchielli: ''La Gioconda'' (Tebaldi, Dominguez, Bergonzi, Merrill; Gardelli, 1967) Decca

Puccini: ''Suor Angelica'' (Scotto, Cotrubas; Maazel, 1976) Sony

Rossini: ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' (Barbacini, Nucci, Dara, Ramey; R.Chailly, 1982) Sony

Rossini: ''Bianca e Falliero'' (Ricciarelli, Merritt; Renzetti, 1986) [live] Fonit Cetra

Rossini: ''L'italiana in Algeri'' (Battle, Ramey; Scimone, 1980) Erato

Rossini: ''Semiramide'' (Sutherland, Rouleau; Bonynge, 1965/66) Decca

Rossini: ''Tancredi'' (Cuberli, Zaccaria; Weikert, 1982) Sony

Roussel: ''Padmâvatî'' (Gedda, van Dam; Plasson, 1982/83) EMI

Thomas: ''Mignon'' (Welting, von Stade, Vanzo, Zaccaria; de Almeida, 1977) Sony

Verdi: ''Falstaff'' (Sweet, Lopardo, Panerai, Titus; C.Davis, 1991) RCA

Verdi: ''Requiem'' (Sutherland, Horne, Pavarotti, Talvela; Solti, 1967) Decca

Verdi: ''Il trovatore'' (Sutherland, Pavarotti, Wixell, Ghiaurov; Bonynge, 1976) Decca

Vivaldi: ''Orlando furioso'' (de los Ángeles, Valentini Terrani; Scimone, 1977) Erato

Abridged videography

Corigliano: ''The Ghosts of Versailles'' (Stratas, Fleming; Levine, Graham, 1992) [live] Deutsche Grammophon

Rossini: ''L'italiana in Algeri'' (M.Merritt, Ahlstedt; Levine, Ponnelle, 1986) [live] Deutsche Grammophon

Rossini: ''Semiramide'' (Anderson, Ramey; Conlon, Copley, 1990) [live] Kultur

Verdi: ''Falstaff'' (Freni, Bonney, Lopardo, Plishka; Levine, Zeffirelli, 1992) [live] Deutsche Grammophon

Vivaldi: ''Orlando furioso'' (Behr, Pizzi, 1989) [live] Kultur

Works

''Marilyn Horne: The Song Continues'' by Marilyn Horne and Jane Scovell, Baskerville Publishers; ISBN 1880909715

''Marilyn Horne: My Life'' by Marilyn Horne and Jane Scovell, Atheneum Books; ISBN 068911401X

Sources

External links

The Marilyn Horne Foundation

Discography (Capon's Lists of Opera Recordings)

Category:1934 births Category:American female singers Category:American opera singers Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:Living people Category:Operatic mezzo-sopranos Category:Pancreatic cancer survivors Category:People from Echo Park, Los Angeles Category:People from Bradford, Pennsylvania Category:United States National Medal of Arts recipients Category:University of Southern California alumni Category:American mezzo-sopranos

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