Palladium ( ) is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Pd and an atomic number of 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal and was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston. He named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was itself named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena, acquired by her when she slew Pallas. Palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium form a group of elements referred to as the platinum group metals (PGMs). These have similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.

The unique properties of palladium and other platinum group metals account for their widespread use. A quarter of all goods manufactured today either contain PGMs or have a significant part in their manufacturing process played by PGMs. Over half of the supply of palladium and its congener platinum goes into catalytic converters, which convert up to 90% of harmful gases from auto exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide) into less harmful substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications and groundwater treatment. Palladium plays a key role in the technology used for fuel cells, which combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water.

Ore deposits of palladium and other PGMs are rare, and the most extensive deposits have been found in the norite belt of the Bushveld Igneous Complex covering the Transvaal Basin in South Africa, the Stillwater Complex in Montana, United States, the Sudbury District of Ontario, Canada, and the Norilsk Complex in Russia. Recycling is also a source of palladium, mostly from scrapped catalytic converters. The numerous applications and limited supply sources of palladium result in palladium drawing considerable investment interest.

Characteristics

Palladium belongs to group 10 in the periodic table:

!Atomic number

Z !	Element !! No. of electrons/shell
28	nickel	2, 8, 16, 2 or 2, 8, 17, 1
46	palladium
78	platinum
110	darmstadtium

but has a very atypical configuration in its outermost electron shells compared to the rest of the members of group 10 (see also niobium (41), ruthenium (44) and rhodium (45)).

Palladium is a soft silver-white metal that resembles platinum. It is the least dense and has the lowest melting point of the platinum group metals. It is soft and ductile when annealed and greatly increases its strength and hardness when it is cold-worked. Palladium dissolves slowly in sulfuric, nitric and hydrochloric acid. This metal also does not react with oxygen at normal temperatures (and thus does not tarnish in air). Palladium heated to 800°C will produce a layer of palladium(II) oxide (PdO). It lightly tarnishes in moist atmosphere containing sulfur.

The metal has the uncommon ability to absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen at room temperatures. It is thought that this possibly forms palladium hydride (PdH₂) but it is not yet clear if this is a true chemical compound. When palladium has absorbed large amounts of hydrogen, it will expand slightly in size.

Common oxidation states of palladium are 0, +1, +2 and +4. Although originally +3 was thought of as one of the fundamental oxidation states of palladium, there is no evidence for palladium occurring in the +3 oxidation state; this has been investigated via X-ray diffraction for a number of compounds, indicating a dimer of palladium(II) and palladium(IV) instead. In 2002, palladium(VI) was first reported.

Isotopes

Naturally occurring palladium is composed of seven isotopes, which includes six stable isotopes. The most stable radioisotopes are ¹⁰⁷Pd with a half-life of 6.5 million years (found in nature), ¹⁰³Pd with a half-life of 17 days, and ¹⁰⁰Pd with a half-life of 3.63 days. Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 90.94948(64) u (⁹¹Pd) to 122.93426(64) u (¹²³Pd). Most of these have half-lives that are less than a half-hour, except ¹⁰¹Pd (half-life: 8.47 hours), ¹⁰⁹Pd (half-life: 13.7 hours), and ¹¹²Pd (half-life: 21 hours).

The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, ¹⁰⁶Pd, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay product before ¹⁰⁶Pd is rhodium and the primary product after is silver.

Radiogenic ¹⁰⁷Ag is a decay product of ¹⁰⁷Pd and was first discovered in 1978 in the Santa Clara meteorite of 1976. The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. ¹⁰⁷Pd versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly been melted since accretion of the solar system, must reflect the presence of short-lived nuclides in the early solar system.

Compounds

Palladium primarily exists in the 0, +2, +4 oxidation states; the +4 oxidation state is comparatively rare. One major example of palladium(IV) is hexachloropalladate(IV), [PdCl₆]²⁻.

Elemental palladium reacts with chlorine to give palladium(II) chloride; it dissolves in nitric acid and precipitates palladium(II) acetate on addition of acetic acid. These two compounds and the bromide are reactive and relatively inexpensive, making them convenient entry points to palladium chemistry. All three are not monomeric; the chloride and bromide often need to be refluxed in acetonitrile to obtain the more reactive acetonitrile complex monomers, for example: :PdX₂ + 2 MeCN → PdX₂(MeCN)₂ (X = Cl, Br)

Palladium(II) chloride is the principal starting material for many other palladium catalysts. It is used to prepare heterogeneous palladium catalysts: palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on carbon, and palladium chloride on carbon. It reacts with triphenylphosphine in coordinating solvents to give bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride, a useful catalyst. Where desired, the catalyst may be formed ''in situ''.

: PdCl₂ + 2 PPh₃ → PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂

Reduction of this phosphine complex with hydrazine with more phosphine gives tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0), one of the two major palladium(0) complexes:

:2 PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ + 4 PPh₃ + 5 N₂H₄ → 2 Pd(PPh₃)₄ + N₂ + 4 N₂H₅⁺Cl⁻

The other major palladium(0) complex, tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd₂(dba)₃), is prepared by reducing sodium tetrachloropalladate in the presence of dibenzylideneacetone.

The great many reactions in which palladium compounds serve as catalysts are collectively known as palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions. Prominent examples include the Heck, Suzuki and Stille reactions. Palladium(II) acetate, tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) (Pd(PPh₃)₄, and tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd₂(dba)₃) are useful in this regard, either as catalysts or as starting points to catalysts.

History

William Hyde Wollaston noted the discovery of a new noble metal in July 1802 in his lab-book and named it palladium in August of the same year. Wollaston purified enough of the material and offered it, without naming the discoverer, in a small shop in Soho in April 1803. After harsh criticism that palladium is an alloy of platinum and mercury by Richard Chenevix, Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of 20 British pounds for 20 grains of synthetic palladium ''alloy''. Chenevix received the Copley Medal in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium. Wollaston published the discovery of rhodium in 1804 and mentions some of his work on palladium. He disclosed to be the discoverer of palladium in a publication in 1805.

It was named by Wollaston in 1802 after the asteroid Pallas, which had been discovered two years earlier. Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from South America by dissolving the ore in aqua regia, neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide, and precipitating platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate with ammonium chloride. He added mercuric cyanide to form the compound palladium cyanide, which was heated to extract palladium metal.

Palladium chloride was at one time prescribed as a tuberculosis treatment at the rate of 0.065 g per day (approximately one milligram per kilogram of body weight). This treatment had many negative side-effects, and was later replaced by more effective drugs.

Palladium's affinity for hydrogen led it to play an essential role in the Fleischmann–Pons experiment in 1989.

In the run up to 2000, the Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly delayed and disrupted because the export quota was not granted on time, for political reasons. The ensuing market panic drove the price to an all-time high of $1100 per troy ounce in January 2001. Around this time, the Ford Motor Company, fearing auto vehicle production disruption due to a possible palladium shortage, stockpiled large amounts of the metal purchased near the price high. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford lost nearly US$1 billion. World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300 tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222 tonnes in 2006 according to the United States Geological Survey. Most palladium is used for catalytic converters in the automobile industry.

Occurrence

In 2007, Russia was the top producer of palladium, with a 44% world share, followed by South Africa with 40%. Canada with 6% and the U.S. with 5% are the only other substantial producers of palladium.

Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, North and South America. For the production of palladium these deposits play only a minor role. The commercially most important sources are nickel-copper deposits found in the Sudbury Basin, Ontario, and the Norilsk–Talnakh deposits in Siberia. The other large deposit is the Merensky Reef platinum group metals deposit within the Bushveld Igneous Complex South Africa. The Stillwater igneous complex of Montana and the Roby zone ore body of the Lac des Îles igneous complex of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States. Palladium is found in the rare minerals cooperite and polarite.

Palladium is also produced in nuclear fission reactors and can be extracted from spent nuclear fuel (see synthesis of precious metals) though this source for palladium is not used. None of the existing nuclear reprocessing facilities are equipped to extract palladium from the high-level radioactive waste.

Applications

The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters. Palladium is also used in jewelry, in dentistry, watch making, in blood sugar test strips, in aircraft spark plugs and in the production of surgical instruments and electrical contacts. Palladium is also used to make professional transverse flutes. As a commodity, palladium bullion has ISO currency codes of XPD and 964. Palladium is one of only four metals to have such codes, the others being gold, silver and platinum.

Catalysis

When it is finely divided, such as in palladium on carbon, palladium forms a versatile catalyst and speeds up hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions, as well as in petroleum cracking. A large number of carbon-carbon bond forming reactions in organic chemistry (such as the Heck and Suzuki coupling) are facilitated by catalysis with palladium compounds. (see #Compounds and palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions) In addition palladium, when dispersed on conductive materials, proves to be an excellent electrocatalyst for oxidation of primary alcohols in alkaline media. In 2010, palladium-catalysed organic reactions were recognised by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Palladium is also a versatile metal for homogeneous catalysis. It is used in combination with a broad variety of ligands for highly selective chemical transformations. A 2008 study showed that palladium is an effective catalyst for making carbon-fluoride bonds. Palladium is found in the Lindlar catalyst, also called Lindlar's Palladium.

Electronics

The second biggest application of palladium in electronics is making the multilayer ceramic capacitor. Palladium (and palladium-silver alloys) are used as electrodes in multi-layer ceramic capacitors. Palladium (sometimes alloyed with nickel) is used in connector platings in consumer electronics.

It is also used in plating of electronic components and in soldering materials. The electronic sector consumed 1.07 million troy ounces (33.2 tonnes) of palladium in 2006, according to a Johnson Matthey report.

Technology

Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium; thus, it provides a means of purifying the gas. Membrane reactors with Pd membranes are therefore used for the production of high purity hydrogen. Palladium is a part of the palladium-hydrogen electrode in electrochemical studies. Palladium(II) chloride can oxidize large amounts of carbon monoxide gas, and is used in carbon monoxide detectors.

Hydrogen storage

Palladium hydride is metallic palladium that contains a substantial quantity of hydrogen within its crystal lattice. At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, palladium can absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen in a reversible process. This property has been investigated because hydrogen storage is of such interest and a better understanding of what happens at the molecular level could give clues to designing improved metal hydrides. A palladium based store, however, would be prohibitively expensive due to the cost of the metal.

Jewelry

Palladium itself has been used as a precious metal in jewelry since 1939, as an alternative to platinum for making white gold. This use resulted in the naturally white color of palladium which required no rhodium plating. Palladium is proportionally much lighter than platinum. Similar to gold, palladium can be beaten into a thin leaf form as thin as 100 nm (1/250,000 in). Unlike platinum, palladium may discolor upon heating to above 400 °C; it is relatively brittle and reacts with strong acids such as nitric acid.

Palladium is one of the three most popular metals used to make white gold alloys (nickel and silver can also be used). Palladium-gold is a more expensive alloy than nickel-gold, but seldom causes allergic reactions (though certain cross-allergies with nickel may occur).

When platinum was declared a strategic government resource during World War II, many jewelry bands were made out of palladium. As recently as September 2001, palladium was more expensive than platinum and rarely used in jewelry also due to the technical obstacle of casting. However the casting problem has been resolved and its use in jewelry has increased because of a large spike in the price of platinum and a drop in the price of palladium.

Prior to 2004, the principal use of palladium in jewelry was the manufacture of white gold. In early 2004, when gold and platinum prices rose steeply, China began fabricating significant volumes of palladium jewelry and used 37 tonnes of palladium for this purpose in 2005. Changes of the relative price between palladium and platinum after 2008 lowered demand for palladium to 17.4 tonnes in 2009.

Photography

With the platinotype printing process photographers make fine-art black-and-white prints using platinum or palladium salts. Often used with platinum, palladium provides an alternative to silver.

Precautions

Finely divided palladium metal can be pyrophoric. As a platinum-group metal, the bulk material is quite inert. Although contact dermatitis has been reported, the amount of data on the effects of exposure to palladium is limited. It has been shown that people with an allergic reaction to palladium also react to nickel, making it possible to avoid the use of dental alloys containing palladium on those so allergic.

A considerable amount of palladium is distributed by the exhausts of cars with catalytic converters. Between 4 and 108 ng/km of palladium particulate is released by such cars. The total uptake of from food is estimated to be lower than 2 µg per person and day. The second possible source for palladium is alloys for dental restoration, there the possible uptake of palladium is estimated to be lower than 15 µg per person and day. People working with palladium or its compounds might have a considerably higher uptake. For soluble compounds like palladium chloride 99% is eliminated from the body within 3 days.

The median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of soluble palladium compounds in mice is 200 mg/kg for oral and 5 mg/kg for intravenous administration.

See also

2000s commodities boom

Palladium as an investment

Palladium coin

Periodic table

Platinum

Precious metal

References

External links

Current and Historical Palladium Price

Special Market Report on Palladium and Precious Metals

Category:Chemical elements Category:Noble metals Category:Transition metals Category:Precious metals

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Coordinates	30°19′10″N81°39′36″N
name	Alan Braxe
background	group_or_band
origin	Brax, France
genre	HouseElectroTechno
years active	1998–present
label	Vulture Music (France)
associated acts	Fred Falke, Kris Menace
notable instruments	}}

Alain Quême, also known as Alan Braxe, is a French electronic music artist. Braxe is most widely known for his collaborative work with electronic bassist Fred Falke and Kris Menace. In 2005 Alan released ''The Upper Cuts'', a collection of his previous released material.

History

Alan Braxe began work as a musician in Paris in the mid 1990s. He is seen as a key figure in the French electronic music scene. His nickname is a variant of Brax, a region in France where he used to live. He is the cousin of DJ Falcon (Stephane Quême) and Quartet (Delphine Quême).

Braxe's debut single, 'Vertigo' came out on Roulé in 1997. It was a hit in large part thanks to the 'Virgo Edit' of the song, which was co-produced with Thomas Bangalter. Braxe scored a major hit in 1998 with 'Music Sounds Better with You' a track co-written with Bangalter from Daft Punk and Benjamin Diamond under the name Stardust that reached number one on the United States Dance chart. He later formed Vulture Music, and continued to release singles under its imprint, including the 2004 hit 'Rubicon'.

Recently he has become an in-demand remixer, contributing remixes (frequently co-produced with Fred Falke) for Goldfrapp, Röyksopp, Test Icicles, Annie, Shakedown, Kylie Minogue and Justice.

Alan Braxe has produced remixes for a number of artists. At first, many of these were associated with the French electronic music scene, but recently the popularity of his 'Rubicon' single has led to more high profile jobs for mainstream rock and electronic artists.

In 2005, Braxe signed the track 'Discopolis' to his record label Vulture, produced by Kris Menace and Lifelike, which became one of the biggest selling tracks of the year. Together and with the help of Kris Menace, Braxe started DJing in 2006. Braxe & Menace also released 'Lumberjack' on 4 June 2007.

In 2008, Alan Braxe and Kris Menace decided to DJ separately and Braxe released 'Nightwatcher', also known by the title 'Addicted' on the English label Eye Industries.

Discography

Albums

''The Upper Cuts'' - June 2005 (Vulture Music). Credited to "Alan Braxe and Friends." Includes collaborations, remixes, and a solo track from 1997 to 2005.

Singles and EPs

''Vertigo'' - 1997 (Roulé).

''Intro'' - 2000 (Vulture Music). CD5 and 12" Release. With Fred Falke.

''Palladium / Penthouse Serenade'' - 2002 (Vulture Music). 12" Release. With Fred Falke.

''In Love With You'' - 2003 (Vulture Music) 12" Release. With Romuald Louverjon as "The Paradise".

''Love Lost'' - 2003 (Kitsune Music). 12" Release. With Fred Falke.

''Rubicon'' - 2004 (Vulture Music). CD5 and 12" Release. With Fred Falke.

''Lumberjack'' - 2007 (Vulture Music). 12" Release. With Kris Menace.

Remixes by Alan Braxe

"Alarm Call" by Björk, 1998.

"I Feel Good Things for You" by Daddy's Favorite, 1998.

"Loopduell 1" by Ian Pooley, 1998.

"Fall In Love" by B.O.C Productions, 1999.

"In Your Arms" by Benjamin Diamond, 2000.

"Anticipating" by Britney Spears, 2002.

"At Night" by Shakedown, 2002.

"Heartbeat" by Annie, 2005.

"Let's Get High" by Benjamin Diamond, 2005.

"Discopolis" by Lifelike & Kris Menace, 2006.

"So Far Away" by John Lord Fonda on ''DeBaSer'', 2006.

"That's What Dreams Are Made Of" by Space Cowboy on ''Digital Rock'', 2006.

"2 Hearts" by Kylie Minogue, 2007.

"The Cult of the Romance" by Fenech-Soler, 2007.

"Broken-Hearted Girl" by Beyoncé, 2009.

"Life Is Still Beautiful" by The Orange Lights, 2009.

"The Writer" by Ellie Goulding, 2010.

"Los Feeling" by Visitor, 2010

"White Knuckle Ride" by Jamiroquai, 2010

Remixes by Alan Braxe with Fred Falke

"Black History Month" by Death from Above 1979 on ''Romance Bloody Romance'', 2005.

"Number 1" by Goldfrapp on ''Number 1'', 2005.

"Only This Moment" by Röyksopp on ''Only This Moment'', 2005.

"Bossy" by Kelis on ''Bossy EP'', 2006. (Two remixes)

"Kelly" by Van She on ''Kelly EP'', 2006.

"Girl That Speaks No Words" by Infadels on ''Girl That Speaks No Words'', 2006.

"Mona Lisa's Child" by Keith on ''Mona Lisa's Child (Remixes)'', 2006.

"Runaway" by Jamiroquai on ''Runaway EP'', 2006.

"What's Your Damage?" by Test Icicles on ''Dig Your Own Grave E.P.'', 2006.

"Alright" by Jamiroquai on ''Alright'', 2007.

"D.A.N.C.E." by Justice on ''D.A.N.C.E.'', 2007.

"Take It Like A Man" by Dragonette on Take It Like A Man, 2007.

References

External links

Category:Living people Category:French house musicians

fr:Alan Braxe it:Alan Braxe lt:Alan Braxe

Coordinates	30°19′10″N81°39′36″N
name	Pharrell Williams
background	solo_singer
alias	Skateboard P, Pharrell (mononym)
born	April 05, 1973
origin	Virginia Beach, Virginia, United States
instrument	Piano, Keyboards, Guitar,Drums
genre	Hip hop, pop, funk, rock, pop rap, R&B;, electro
occupation	Producer, Musician, Songwriter, Singer
years active	1994–present
label	Star Trak, Interscope
associated acts	Missile Command, Robin Thicke, Game, Snoop Dogg, The Neptunes, N.E.R.D, Justin Timberlake, Tyler, The Creator, OFWGKTA
website
notable instruments	Piano, Keyboards }}

Pharrell Williams (born April 5, 1973), commonly known simply by the mononym Pharrell, is an American rapper, singer, record producer, composer, and fashion designer. Williams and Chad Hugo make up the record production duo The Neptunes, producing hip hop and R&B; music. He is also the lead vocalist and drummer of funk/hip-hop band N.E.R.D, which he formed with Hugo and childhood friend Shay Haley. He released his debut single "Frontin'" in 2003 and followed up with his debut album ''In My Mind'' in 2006.

As part of The Neptunes, Williams has produced numerous hit singles for various music artists. The production duo have earned three Grammy Awards amongst ten nominations. He is also the co-founder of the clothing brands Billionaire Boys Club and Ice Cream Clothing.

Early life

Pharrell Williams was born on April 5, 1973, on Virginia Beach, Virginia. He was born eldest of three sons of Carolyn, a teacher, and Williams, a handyman. He met Chad Hugo in a seventh grade summer band camp where Williams played the keyboards and drums and Hugo played tenor saxophone. They were also both members of a marching band; Williams played the snare drum while Chad took the role of student conductor. Along with Hugo, Williams attended Princess Anne High School where they played in the school band; that is where he got the name Skateboard P.

In the 1990s, Hugo and Williams formed a 4-piece "R&B; type" group along with friends Shay Haley and Mike Etheridge, which they named ''The Neptunes''. They later entered a high school talent show where they were discovered by Teddy Riley, whose studio was next to Princess Anne High School. After graduating from high school, they signed with Riley as a group.

Career

1992–2001: Career beginnings

Through working with Teddy Riley, Williams went on to write a verse for Wreckx-N-Effect's 1992 hit "Rump Shaker". That same year, he also performed a small rap solo on SWV's second hit, "Right Here (UK Remix)". In 1994, Hugo and Williams had established themselves formally as a production duo under the previously used name "The Neptunes", and produced "Tonight's The Night" from Blackstreet's self-titled debut. Over the next three years they continued to produce occasionally. Some of the production had little resemblance to the trademark Neptunes sound present today. However, some like Mase's 1997 song "Lookin' At Me" from his album ''Harlem World'', and the most definite beginning of the so-called distinctive "Neptunes sound", came with N.O.R.E.'s "Superthug" in 1998, reaching number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100, and gaining them widespread attention for the first time. In 1999, the duo then worked heavily with Kelis, producing her first album ''Kaleidoscope''

2001–2004: ''In Search Of...'', Clipse and ''Fly or Die''

In 2001, The Neptunes produced Britney Spears' single, "I'm a Slave 4 U" gaining their first worldwide number one. The same year, N.E.R.D, consisting of Williams, Hugo and Haley, released their first album, ''In Search Of...'', in Europe, where the first Kelis album was better received. The album sounded very much like their previous production work; the group decided that they should make their work as N.E.R.D sound different, and re-recorded the album, with the rock band Spymob. Williams and Hugo met rap duo Clipse in Virginia Beach in 1993, where they were signed to Arista Records through Williams' Star Trak Entertainment imprint.

Then in 2002 their re-produced album was released worldwide, and The Neptunes reached number one in the U.S. with Nelly's single, "Hot in Herre". In August of the same year, The Neptunes were named "Producers of the Year" at both The Source Awards and the Billboard Music Awards. Clipse released their commercial debut album, ''Lord Willin''' in August 2002. The album opened at number one on the ''Billboard'' Top R&B;/Hip-Hop Albums chart and number four on the ''Billboard'' 200, fueled by the strength of its first two singles, "Grindin'" and "When the Last Time", which peaked at number 34 and number 19 respectively on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.

The Neptunes released a self-credited album called ''The Neptunes Present... Clones'' in 2003, featuring songs and remixes from various artists. This album topped the U.S. ''Billboard'' 200 Albums Chart. The Neptunes and Williams specifically were also kept in public eye largely due to ties with Jay-Z, producing several hit singles for him and landing two tracks on his album ''The Black Album''. The track "Frontin'" was a big hit (the 34th biggest single of 2003 according to ''Billboard'' magazine). A survey in August 2003 found the Neptunes produced almost 20 percent of songs played on British radio at the time, a survey in the US had them at 43 percent. The same year, The Neptunes remixed the Daft Punk song ''Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger'' for the duo's poorly-received remix album ''Daft Club''. The track also featured a brief rap section performed by Williams.

N.E.R.D's second funk rock-oriented album, ''Fly or Die'', released in March 2004. Williams' rock credentials were further bolstered by his appearance at the 2004 Grammy Awards, performing The Beatles' "I Saw Her Standing There" on drums along with Sting, Dave Matthews, and Vince Gill. Williams went home with two Grammy Awards that night, one for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical, and another for Best Pop Vocal Album for his work on Justin Timberlake's hit album ''Justified''. They also gained their first UK number one, again with Nelly, and ''Flap Your Wings''.

2005–present: Debut album and collaborations

On September 9, 2005, Williams performed the opening single from his debut solo album ''In My Mind'', "Can I Have It Like That", featuring Gwen Stefani. The single did poorly in the US, reaching only number 48. It fared better in the UK, reaching number three. Between then and the July 25, 2006 release of "In My Mind", he released "Angel" (in Europe only), and later "Number One" with Kanye West. Several songs leaked to the internet before the album release, most notably "Mamacita" featuring Daddy Yankee, which was subsequently cut from the final version. "That Girl" featuring Snoop Dogg was the final single.

In 2006, Williams, along with Chad Hugo, produced Clipse's second album ''Hell Hath No Fury''. Most critics labeled the album to be Williams's best production in years, and put the Virginia rap duo back in the charts.

On May 16, 2007, for seven days only, the first of two expected collaborations with Madonna, entitled "Hey You", was made available for free download from the MSN website. MSN, in conjunction with Madonna, donated 25 cents for each of the first one million downloads to the Alliance for Climate Protection, in support of Live Earth. Later that year, Williams performed songs at the Concert for Diana on July 1, 2007. Then, on July 7, 2007, he performed at the Brazilian leg of Live Earth in Rio de Janeiro.

A second album, entitled ''Out of My Mind'', was recorded with his newly formed band "The Yessirs" featuring Questlove of The Roots. However, Williams' record label did not think that a companion album to the first would sell well. He also produced Beyoncé's rendition of "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend". He then wrote and produced "Why Should I Be Sad" on Britney Spears' fifth studio album, ''Blackout''. He also produced two songs from The Hives album, ''The Black and White Album'', titled "Well All Right!" and "T.H.E.H.I.V.E.S.".

In April 2008, Madonna released her eleventh album, ''Hard Candy'', which featured vocals from Williams and production from The Neptunes on several tracks. Later in June, an article in NME revealed that Williams is very interested in producing The Strokes' fourth album. Williams, along with other musicians, is to work on a remix album for Maroon 5's ''Call & Response''.

Pharrell worked with Colombian artist Shakira on the songs 'Did It Again', 'Why Wait', 'Good Stuff' and 'Long Time' for her sixth studio album, ''She Wolf''. The album was released in October 2009.

It has been revealed that Williams will collaborate with Lindsay Lohan on her upcoming third studio album ''Spirit in the Dark''. He will also provide guest vocals on the album's first single, "Playground".

In September 2009, it was announced that Williams co-wrote and produced a song titled "Fresh Out the Oven" for Jennifer Lopez. The song was released as a buzz single from Lopez's upcoming seventh studio album ''Love?'', which is due for release in the Summer of 2010.

In October 2009, it was announced that he would make a guest appearance on French indie/electronic rapper Uffie's debut album, due out in early 2010.

He has also worked with rapper Snoop Dogg and singer Brandy on the song "Special" in Snoop Dogg's album Malice 'n' Wonderland.

Pharrell has been featured on an unofficial remix/mash-up of "Arab Money" featuring Busta Rhymes.

Pharrell and Kid Cudi collaborated on an untitled song for Kid Cudi's second studio album ''Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr.Rager''. Cudi described the song as a "club hit".

In late 2009, Pharrell also started working with the multi-Platinum recording artist Game (previously known as The Game) for his fourth studio album known as The R.E.D. Album, Pharrell returned to work with US singer Justin Timberlake, whom he hadn't worked with for nearly 8 years after he was a producer on Timberlake's debut solo album Justified.

In July 2010, Pharrell Williams composed one of the soundtracks in the movie Despicable Me at the Hollywood Studio Symphony.

Pharrell collaborated with Swedish house music group the Swedish House Mafia, on the song "One" from their debut album Until One. The released song featuring Pharrell's vocals was renamed "One (Your Name)."

Pharrell & his group N.E.R.D supported Gorillaz on their Escape to Plastic Beach World Tour. On the tour, Damon Albarn used his iPad to record and compose the Gorillaz album ''The Fall''. Pharrell recorded a track with Albarn, but this track did not appear on ''The Fall''; it may appear on a future album.

He will be featured on Gucci Mane's second album "The Appeal: Georgia's Most Wanted* on a track called Haterade alongside "Nicki Minaj".

He will also be featured on Swizz Beatz upcoming album "Haute Living".

On August 1st 2011, Pharrell announced his new label, i am Other.

Musical style

Williams often sings in a falsetto, which he utilizes during the hook of a song. Critics often say that Williams has the inability to rap or sing well, but point out that his singing is better than his rapping. Alasdair Lees of ''The Independent'' felt that Williams "strives for the Prince effect", but sounds like Bobby Valentino "on work experience". Anthony Henriques of PopMatters noted that Williams is not a "technically gifted rapper", "does not have a beautiful voice" and his lyrics are "typically inconsequential in a "saying shit just to sound cool' sort of way", but found strengths in his choruses, which he pointed out "typically use a catchy phrase or recognizable melody as an anchor for his nonsensical verses".

Pharrell also did music for the Dreamworks film Despicable Me. The film makers liked his genre of music for the movie. Williams has encompassed a broad range of genres, including hip hop, R&B;, pop, rock, and funk. His lyrics often pertain to his childhood, family, religious faith and sexuality. In the album review for ''Seeing Sounds'' by N.E.R.D, Christian Hoard of ''Rolling Stone'' felt he learned nothing from his lyrics except that Williams was sexually aroused.

Williams has stated that he does not have any direct influences, but has expressed his admiration of several recording artists, including Michael Jackson, J Dilla, Stevie Wonder, Donny Hathaway, Marvin Gaye, Rakim and Q-Tip. Williams described A Tribe Called Quest's 1990 album, ''People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm'', as a "turning point" in his life, which "made me see that music was art".

Ventures

Williams met Nigo, a Japanese record producer and creator of the clothing line A Bathing Ape, in Japan and bonded through similar interests, where they began working together on their fashion lines. Williams later co-founded the clothing brands Billionaire Boys Club and Ice Cream Footwear. He has a store in New York City. In 2008, Williams co-designed a series of glasses and jewelry for Louis Vuitton. The jewelry line is called Blason. He has also worked on furniture with Galerie Emmanuel Perrotin and a French manufacturer, Domeau & Pérès. One of his works, a molded plastic seat with human legs, was created because he "wanted to know what it was like to be in love." The chair depicts a sexual scene with a pair of female legs and male legs.

Pharrell recorded four songs for the computer animated film ''Despicable Me''. Some of the songs are used in the trailers, and are also in the movie.

In 2011 Pharrell designed and released a cream liqueur named QREAM. The "Q" stands for "Queen" and the liqueur comes in two different flavors; strawberry and peach. An opportunity comes when Pharrell was approached by Diageo to collaborate, in which Pharrell proceeded to make his own research and found that the female audience were being neglected, thus substantiate his idea to make a cream liqueur for women. He mentioned the taste being an ambient of an ice cream, but the liqueur itself contains less calories compared to a wine.

Personal life

In 2005 Williams was voted "Best Dressed Man in the World" by ''Esquire'' magazine. He is a fan of the science fiction series ''Star Trek'', as indicated by his consistent use of the Vulcan salute to signify his label name, Star Trak. He also enjoys the works of the late astronomer and science lecturer Carl Sagan, whom he calls "a genius". Williams is a skateboarder and has a half-pipe inside his home. In April 2009, Williams underwent a skin procedure to have most of his tattoos removed.

Discography

''In My Mind'' (2006)

'' Back to the Future'' (2011)

Awards and nominations

{|class="wikitable" |- | colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|Grammy Awards |- !Year !Category !Genre !Title !Result |- |rowspan=6|2004 |Producer of the Year (with Chad Hugo) |N/A |— | |- |Best Pop Vocal Album |Pop |''Justified'' | |- |Best Rap/Sung Collaboration |Rap |"Frontin'" (with Jay-Z) | |- |Best Rap/Sung Collaboration |Rap |"Beautiful" (with Snoop Dogg) featuring Terrence Campbell | |- |Best Rap Song |Rap |"Beautiful" (with Snoop Dogg) | |- |Best Rap Song |Rap |"Excuse Me Miss" (with Jay-Z) | |- |rowspan="2"|2005 |Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group |Rap |"Drop It Like It's Hot" (with Snoop Dogg) | |- |Best Rap Song |Rap |"Drop It Like It's Hot" (with Snoop Dogg) | |- |rowspan=2|2007 |Best Rap Song |Rap |"Money Maker" (with Ludacris) | |- |Best Rap Album |Rap |''In My Mind'' | |}

References

External links

Official website

Category:1973 births Category:African American rappers Category:African American rock musicians Category:American alternative rock musicians Category:American fashion designers Category:American funk musicians Category:American hip hop musicians Category:American record producers Category:American rhythm and blues musicians Category:American rock musicians Category:American singer-songwriters Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Living people Category:N.E.R.D members Category:People from Virginia Beach, Virginia Category:Rappers from Virginia Category:The Neptunes members

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