Aurelian Walls
Part of Rome
Italy
A section of Aurelian wall between the Porta Ardeatina and Porta San Sebastiano.
Type	Defensive wall
Built	271-275AD
Built by	Roman Army
Construction materials	Concrete Brick Mortar
Height	Up to 10 metres (33 ft)
Demolished	Some parts in the Medieval Period
Current condition	Remaining sections: Either semi-ruinous or partly restored
Current owner	Italian Government
Open to the public	Open to public.
Garrison	Praetorian Guard
Occupants	Romans
Events	Sack of Rome Siege of Rome Capture of Rome
Map of ancient Rome with the Aurelian walls (red) and its gates highlighted. The 4th-Century BC Servian Walls (blue) are also shown.

The Aurelian Walls (Italian: Mura aureliane) is a line of city walls built between 271 AD and 275 AD in Rome, Italy, during the reign of the Roman Emperors Aurelian and Probus.

The walls enclosed all the seven hills of Rome plus the Campus Martius and, on the right bank of the Tiber, the Trastevere district. The river banks within the city limits appear to have been left unfortified, although they were fortified along the Campus Martius.

Construction[link]

The full circuit ran for 19 kilometres (12 mi) surrounding an area of 13.7 square kilometres (5.3 sq mi). The walls were constructed in brick-faced concrete, 3.5 metres (11 ft) thick and 8 metres (26 ft) high, with a square tower every 100 Roman feet (29.6 metres (97 ft)).

In the 5th century, remodelling doubled the height of the walls to 16 metres (52 ft). By 500 AD, the circuit possessed 383 towers, 7,020 crenellations, 18 main gates, 5 postern gates, 116 latrines, and 2,066 large external windows.^[1]

History[link]

Sentry passage near Porta Metronia.

By the third century AD, the boundaries of Rome had grown far beyond the area enclosed by the old Servian Wall, built during the Republican period in the late 4th century BC. Rome had remained unfortified during the subsequent centuries of expansion and consolidation. The need for better defences became acute during the crisis of the Third Century, when barbarian tribes flooded through the Germanic frontier and the Roman Army struggled to stop them. In 270, the barbarian Juthungi and Vandals invaded northern Italy, inflicting a severe defeat on the Romans at Placentia (modern Piacenza) before eventually being driven back. Further trouble broke out in Rome itself in the summer of 271, when the mint workers rose in rebellion. Several thousand people died in the fierce fighting that resulted.^[2]

Aurelian's construction of the walls as an emergency measure was a reaction to the barbarian invasion of 270; the historian Aurelius Victor states explicitly that the project aimed to alleviate the city's vulnerability.^[3] It may also have been intended to send a political signal as a statement that Aurelian trusted that the people of Rome would remain loyal, as well as serving as a public declaration of the emperor's firm hold on power. The construction of the walls was by far the largest building project that had taken place in Rome for many decades, and their construction was a concrete statement of the continued strength of Rome.^[2]

The walls were built in the short time of only five years, though Aurelian himself died before the completion of the project. Progress was accelerated, and money saved, by incorporating existing buildings into the structure. These included the Amphitheatrum Castrense, the Castra Praetoria, the Pyramid of Cestius, and even a section of the Aqua Claudia aqueduct near the Porta Maggiore. As much as a sixth of the walls is estimated to have been composed of pre-existing structures.^[2] An area behind the walls was cleared and sentry passages were built to enable it to be reinforced quickly in an emergency.

The actual effectiveness of the wall is disputable, given the relatively small size of the city's garrison. The entire combined strength of the Praetorian Guard, cohortes urbanae, and vigiles of Rome was only about 25,000 men – far too few to defend the circuit adequately. However, the military intention of the wall was not to withstand prolonged siege warfare; it was not common for the barbarian armies to besiege cities, as they were insufficiently equipped and provisioned for such a task. Instead, they carried out hit-and-run raids against ill-defended targets. The wall was a deterrent against such tactics.^[4]

Parts of the wall were doubled in height by Maxentius, who also improved the watch-towers. In 401, under Honorius, the walls and the gates were improved. At this time, the Tomb of Hadrian across the Tiber was incorporated as a fortress in the city defenses. Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, decided to destroy the walls in 545, to remove from the Byzantines the possibility of defending Rome in the ongoing Gothic War. According to Procopius, one-third of the walls were razed.

Later use[link]

The Aurelian Walls continued as a significant military defense for the city of Rome until September 20, 1870, when the Bersaglieri of the Kingdom of Italy breached the wall near the Porta Pia and captured Rome. The walls also defined the boundary of the city of Rome up until the 19th century, with the built-up area being confined within the walled area.

The Aurelian Walls remain remarkably well-preserved today, largely the result of their constant use as Rome's primary fortification until the 19th century. The Museo delle Mura near the Porta San Sebastiano offers information on the walls' construction and how the defenses operated. The best-preserved sections of the walls are to be found from the Muro Torto (Villa Borghese) to Corso d'Italia to Castro Pretorio; from Porta San Giovanni to Porta Ardeatina; from Porta Ostiense to the Tiber; and around Porta San Pancrazio.^[1]

Gates[link]

Porta Asinaria.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Aurelian Walls

List of gates (porte), from the northernmost and clockwise:

• Porta del Popolo (Porta Flaminia) – here begins via Flaminia
• Porta Pinciana
• Porta Salaria – here begins via Salaria
• Porta Pia – here begins the new via Nomentana
• Porta Nomentana – here began the old via Nomentana
• Porta Praetoriana – old entrance to Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard
• Porta Tiburtina – here begins via Tiburtina
• Porta Maggiore (Porta Praenestina) – here three aqueducts meet, and via Praenestina begins
• Porta San Giovanni – near Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano
• Porta Asinaria – here begins the old via Tuscolana
• Porta Metronia
• Porta Latina – here begins via Latina
• Porta San Sebastiano (Porta Appia) – here begins the Appian Way
• Porta Ardeatina
• Porta San Paolo (Porta Ostiense) – next to the Pyramid of Cestius, leading to Basilica di San Paolo fuori le Mura, here via Ostiense begins

Gates in Trastevere (from the southernmost and clockwise):

• Porta Portuensis
• Porta Aurelia Pancraziana
• Porta Septimiana
• Porta Aurelia-Sancti Petri

Gallery[link]

See also[link]

• Walls of Constantinople

External links[link]

• Museum of the Walls official website
• Newspaper article of latest collapse (1 Nov 2007) Photo gallery of latest collapse(1 Nov 2007)

References[link]

Mancini, Rossana (2001). Le mura Aureliane di Roma. Atlante di un palinsesto murario, Quasar, Roma ISBN 88-7140-199-9

Coordinates: 41°52′24″N 12°29′56″E / 41.87333°N 12.49889°E / 41.87333; 12.49889

Aurelian
44th Emperor of the Roman Empire
Reign	September 270 – September or October 275
Full name	Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (from birth to accession); Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus (as emperor)
Born	9 September 214 or 215
Birthplace	Serdica, Sirmium or Cibalae
Died	September or October 275 (aged 60)
Place of death	Caenophrurium, Thrace
Predecessor	Quintillus
Successor	Tacitus
Wife	Ulpia Severina

Aurelian (Latin: Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus;^[1][2] 9 September 214 or 215 – September or October 275), was Roman Emperor from 270 to 275. During his reign, he defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of the Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome, and the abandonment of the province of Dacia. His successes effectively ended the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century, earning him the title Restorer of the World. Although Domitian was the first Emperor who had demanded to be officially hailed as dominus et deus (master and god), these titles never occurred in written form on official documents until the reign of Aurelian.^[3]

Early life and rise to power[link]

Aureus of Emperor Aurelian.

Aurelian was born in Serdica (today Sofia in Bulgaria) in Moesia or what was later called Dacia Ripensis^[4][5] to an obscure provincial family; his father was tenant to a senator named Aurelius, who gave his name to the family.^[6] Aurelian probably joined the army in 235 at around age twenty.^[7] He distinguished himself in several wars during the tumultuous mid-century; his successes as a cavalry commander ultimately made him a member of emperor Gallienus' entourage. In 268, Aurelian and his cavalry participated in general Claudius' victory over the Goths at the Battle of Naissus.^[8] Later that year Gallienus traveled to Italy and fought Aureolus, his former general and now usurper for the throne. Driving Aureolus back into Mediolanum, Gallienus promptly besieged his adversary in the city. However, while the siege was ongoing the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for the purple – which is plausible.^[9]

Aurelian was married to Ulpia Severina, about whom little is known. Like Aurelian she was from Dacia.^[10] They are known to have had a daughter together.^[11]

Service under Claudius[link]

Claudius was acclaimed Emperor by the soldiers outside Mediolanum. The new Emperor immediately ordered the senate to deify Gallienus.^[12] Next, he began to distance himself from those responsible for his predecessor's assassination, ordering the execution of those directly involved.^[12] Aureolus was still besieged in Mediolanum and sought reconciliation with the new emperor, but Claudius had no sympathy for a potential rival. The emperor had Aureolus killed and one source implicates Aurelian in the deed, perhaps even signing the warrant for his death himself.^[12]

During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: he was given command of the elite Dalmatian cavalry, and was soon promoted to overall Master of Horse, effectively the head of the army after the Emperor – the Emperor's position before his acclamation.^[12] The war against Aureolus and the concentration of forces in Italy allowed the Alamanni to break through the Rhaetian limes along the upper Danube. Marching through Raetia and the Alps unhindered, they entered northern Italy and began pillaging the area. In early 269, emperor Claudius and Aurelian marched north to meet the Alamanni, defeating them decisively at the Battle of Lake Benacus.^[13]

While still dealing with the defeated enemy, news came from the Balkans reporting large-scale attacks from the Heruli, Goths, Gepids, and Bastarnae.^[13] Claudius immediately dispatched Aurelian to the Balkans to contain the invasion as best he could until Claudius could arrive with his main army.^[14] The Goths were besieging Thessalonica when they heard of emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon the siege and pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his Dalmatian cavalry and defeated them in a series of minor skirmishes, killing as many as three thousand of the enemy.^[14] Aurelian continued to harass the enemy, driving them northward into Upper Moesia where emperor Claudius had assembled his main army. The ensuing battle was indecisive: the northward advance of the Goths was halted but Roman losses were heavy.^[14]

Claudius could not afford another pitched battle, so he instead laid a successful ambush, killing thousands. However, the majority of the Goths escaped and began retreating south the way they had come. For the rest of year, Aurelian harassed the enemy with his Dalmatian cavalry.^[15]

Now stranded in Roman territory, the Goths' lack of provisions began to take its toll. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' desperation, attacked them with the full force of his cavalry, killing many and driving the remainder westward into Thrace.^[15] As winter set in, the Goths retreated into the Haemus Mountains, only to find themselves trapped and surrounded. The harsh conditions now exacerbated their shortage of food. However, the Romans underestimated the Goths and let their guard down, allowing the enemy to break through their lines and escape. Apparently emperor Claudius ignored advice, perhaps from Aurelian, and withheld the cavalry and sent in only the infantry to stop their break-out.

The determined Goths killed many of the oncoming infantry and were only prevented from slaughtering them all when Aurelian finally charged in with his Dalmatian cavalry. The Goths still managed to escape and continued their march through Thrace.^[15] The Roman army continued to follow the Goths during the spring and summer of 270. Meanwhile, a devastating plague swept through the Balkans, killing many soldiers in both armies.

Emperor Claudius fell ill on the march to the battle and returned to his regional headquarters in Sirmium, leaving Aurelian in charge of operations against the Goths.^[15] Aurelian used his cavalry to great effect, breaking the Goths into smaller groups which were easier to deal with. By late summer the Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals and booty and were levied into the army or settled as farmers in frontier regions.^[15] Aurelian had no time to relish his victories; in late August news arrived from Sirmium that emperor Claudius was dead.^[16]

Opposition to Quintillus[link]

When Claudius died, his brother Quintillus seized power with support of the Senate. With an act typical of the Crisis of the Third Century, the army refused to recognize the new Emperor, preferring to support one of its own commanders: Aurelian was proclaimed emperor in September 270 by the legions in Sirmium. Aurelian defeated Quintillus' troops, and was recognized as Emperor by the Senate after Quintillus' death. The claim that Aurelian was chosen by Claudius on his death bed^[17] can be dismissed as propaganda; later, probably in 272, Aurelian put his own dies imperii the day of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus a usurper.^[18]

With his base of power secure, he now turned his attention to Rome's greatest problems — recovering the vast territories lost over the previous two decades, and reforming the res publica.

Conqueror and reformer[link]

Aurelian was a military commander, and during his reign he tried to keep legions' fidelity; this coin celebrated the CONCORDIA MILITVM, "concord of the soldiers" – in other words, "harmony between the emperor and the military". Ironically, he was killed by Praetorian Guards.

In 248, Emperor Philip the Arab had celebrated the millennium of the city of Rome with great and expensive ceremonies and games, and the Empire had given a tremendous proof of self-confidence. In the following years, however, the Empire had to face a huge pressure from external enemies, while, at the same time, dangerous civil wars threatened the empire from within, with usurpers weakening the strength of the state. Also, the economical substrate of the state, the agriculture and the commerce, suffered from the disruption caused by the instability. On top of this an epidemic swept through the Empire around 250, greatly diminishing manpower both for the army and for agriculture.

The end result was that the Empire could not endure the blow of the capture of Emperor Valerian in 260. The eastern provinces found their protectors in the rulers of the city of Palmyra, in Syria, whose autonomy grew until the formation of the Palmyrene Empire, which was more successful against the Persian threat. The western provinces, those facing the limes of the Rhine seceded, forming a third, autonomous state within the territories of the Roman Empire, which is now known as Gallic Empire.

In Rome, the Emperor was occupied with the internal menaces to his power and with the defence of Italia and the Balkans. This was the situation faced by Gallienus and Claudius, and the problems Aurelian had to deal with at the beginning of his rule.^[19]

Reunification of the empire[link]

The Roman Empire by 271 A.D before the reconquest of the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire by Aurelian

The first actions of the new Emperor were aimed at strengthening his own position in his territories. Late in 270, Aurelian campaigned in northern Italia against the Vandals, Juthungi, and Sarmatians, expelling them from Roman territory. To celebrate these victories, Aurelian was granted the title of Germanicus Maximus.^[20] The authority of the Emperor was challenged by several usurpers — Septimius, Urbanus, Domitianus, and the rebellion of Felicissimus — who tried to exploit the sense of insecurity of the empire and the overwhelming influence of the armies in Roman politics. Aurelian, being an experienced commander, was aware of the importance of the army, and his propaganda, known through his coinage, shows he wanted the support of the legions.^[18]

Defeat of the Alamanni[link]

The burden of the northern barbarians was not yet over, however. In 271, the Alamanni moved towards Italia, entering the Po plain and sacking the villages; they passed the Po River, occupied Placentia and moved towards Fano. Aurelian, who was in Pannonia to control Vandals' withdrawal, quickly entered Italia, but his army was defeated in an ambush near Placentia (January 271). When the news of the defeat arrived in Rome, it caused great fear for the arrival of the barbarians. But Aurelian attacked the Alamanni camping near the Metaurus River, defeating them in the Battle of Fano, and forcing them to re-cross the Po river; Aurelian finally routed them at Pavia. For this, he received the title Germanicus Maximus. However, the menace of the German people remained high as perceived by the Romans, so Aurelian resolved to build the walls that became known as the Aurelian Walls around Rome.^[21]

The Porta Asinara, a gate in the Aurelian Walls.

The emperor led his legions to the Balkans, where he defeated and routed the Goths beyond the Danube, killing the Gothic leader Cannabaudes, and assuming the title of Gothicus Maximus. However, he decided to abandon the province of Dacia, on the exposed north bank of the Danube, as too difficult and expensive to defend. He reorganised a new province of Dacia south of the Danube, inside the former Moesia, called Dacia Aureliana, with Serdica as the capital.^[22]

Conquest of the Palmyrene Empire[link]

Aurelian, personification of Sol, defeats the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG – oriens Augusti: the rising sun/star of Augustus.

In 272, Aurelian turned his attention to the lost eastern provinces of the empire, the so-called "Palmyrene Empire" ruled by Queen Zenobia from the city of Palmyra.^[23] Zenobia had carved out her own empire, encompassing Syria, Palestine, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor. The Egyptian queen cut off Rome's shipments of grain, and in a matter of weeks, the Romans started running low on bread. In the beginning, Aurelian had been recognized as Emperor, while Vaballathus, the son of Zenobia, hold the title of rex and imperator ("king" and "supreme military commander"), but Aurelian decided to invade the eastern provinces as soon as he felt his army to be strong enough.

Asia Minor was recovered easily; every city but Byzantium and Tyana surrendered to him with little resistance. The fall of Tyana lent itself to a legend: Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great 1st-century philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in a dream.

Apollonius implored him, stating, "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!" Whatever the reason, Aurelian spared Tyana. It paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the Emperor would not exact revenge upon them. Within six months, his armies stood at the gates of Palmyra, which surrendered when Zenobia tried to flee to the Sassanid Empire. The "Palmyrene Empire" was no more.

Eventually Zenobia and her son were captured and made to walk on the streets of Rome in his triumph. With the grain stores once again shipped to Rome, Aurelian's soldiers handed out free bread to the citizens of the city, and the Emperor was hailed a hero by his subjects. After a brief clash with the Persians and another in Egypt against usurper Firmus, Aurelian was obliged to return to Palmyra in 273 when that city rebelled once more. This time, Aurelian allowed his soldiers to sack the city, and Palmyra never recovered. More honors came his way; he was now known as Parthicus Maximus and Restitutor Orientis ("Restorer of the East").^[18]

The rich province Egypt was also recovered by Aurelian. The Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in Alexandria was burned to the ground. This section of the city once contained the Library of Alexandria, although it is not known if the Library still existed in Aurelian's time. (It had already been damaged by fire during the visit of Julius Caesar to Alexandria.)

Conquest of the Gallic Empire[link]

In 274, the victorious emperor turned his attention to the west, and the "Gallic Empire" which had already been reduced in size by Claudius II. Aurelian won this campaign largely through diplomacy; the "Gallic Emperor" Tetricus was willing to abandon his throne and allow Gaul and Britain to return to the Empire, but could not openly submit to Aurelian. Instead, the two seem to have conspired so that when the armies met at Châlons-en-Champagne that autumn, Tetricus simply deserted to the Roman camp and Aurelian easily defeated the Gallic army facing him. Tetricus was rewarded for his part in the conspiracy with a high-ranking position in Italy itself.

Aurelian returned to Rome and won his last honorific from the Senate – Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World"). In four years, he had secured the frontiers of the Empire and reunified it, effectively giving the Empire a new lease on life that lasted 200 years.

Reformations[link]

Aurelian was a reformer, and settled many important functions of the imperial apparatus, including the economy and the religion. He also restored many public buildings, re-organized the management of the food reserves, set fixed prices for the most important goods, and prosecuted misconduct by the public officers.

Religious reform[link]

Aurelian strengthened the position of the Sun god, Sol (Invictus) or Oriens, as the main divinity of the Roman pantheon. His intention was to give to all the peoples of the Empire, civilian or soldiers, easterners or westerners, a single god they could believe in without betraying their own gods. The center of the cult was a new temple, built in 271 in Campus Agrippae in Rome, with great decorations financed by the spoils of the Palmyrene Empire.

Aurelian did not persecute other religions. However, during his short rule, he seemed to follow the principle of "one god, one empire", that was later adopted to a full extent by Constantine. On some coins, he appears with the title deus et dominus natus ("God and born ruler"), also later adopted by Diocletian. Lactantius argued that Aurelian would have outlawed all the other gods if he had had enough time.

Felicissimus' rebellion and coinage reform[link]

Aurelian's reign records the only uprising of mint workers. The rationalis Felicissimus, mintmaster at Rome, revolted against Aurelian. The revolt seems to have been caused by the fact that the mint workers, and Felicissimus first, were accustomed to stealing the silver for the coins and producing coins of inferior quality. Aurelian wanted to eliminate this, and put Felicissimus under trial. The rationalis incited the mintworkers to revolt: the rebellion spread in the streets, even if it seems that Felicissimus was killed immediately, possibly executed.

The Palmyrene rebellion in Egypt had probably reduced the grain supply to Rome, thus disaffecting the population with respect to the emperor. This rebellion also had the support of some senators, probably those who had supported the election of Quintillus, and thus had something to fear from Aurelian.

Aurelian ordered the urban cohorts, reinforced by some regular troops of the imperial army, to attack the rebelling mob: the resulting battle, fought on the Caelian hill, marked the end of the revolt, even if at a high price (some sources give the figure, probably exaggerated, of 7,000 casualties). Many of the rebels were executed; also some of the rebelling senators were put to death. The mint of Rome was closed temporarily, and the institution of several other mints caused the main mint of the empire to lose its hegemony.^[24]

His monetary reformation included in the introduction of antoninianii containing 5% silver. They bore the mark XXI (or its Greek numerals form KA), which meant that twenty of such coins would contain the same silver quantity of an old silver denarius.^[25] Considering that this was an improvement over the previous situation gives an idea of the severity of the economic situation Aurelian faced. The Emperor struggled to introduce the new "good" coin by recalling all the old "bad" coins prior to their introduction.^[18]

Death[link]

Ulpia Severina, wife of Aurelian and Augusta since 274. Holder of the title of mater castrorum et senatus et patriae, typical of the women of the Severan dynasty. Severina possibly ruled alone between Aurelian's death and Tacitus' election, thus being the only Roman Empress ruling in her own right.

In 275, Aurelian marched towards Asia Minor, preparing another campaign against the Sassanids: the deaths of Kings Shapur I (272) and Hormizd I (273) in quick succession, and the rise to power of a weakened ruler (Bahram I), set the possibility to attack the Sassanid Empire.

On his way, the Emperor suppressed a revolt in Gaul — possibly against Faustinus, an officer or usurper of Tetricus — and defeated barbarian marauders in Vindelicia (Germany).

However, Aurelian never reached Persia, as he was murdered while waiting in Thrace to cross into Asia Minor. As an administrator, Aurelian had been very strict and handed out severe punishments to corrupt officials or soldiers. A secretary of Aurelian (called Eros by Zosimus) had told a lie on a minor issue. In fear of what the Emperor might do, he forged a document listing the names of high officials marked by the emperor for execution, and showed it to collaborators. The notarius Mucapor and other high-ranking officers of the Praetorian Guard, fearing punishment from the Emperor, murdered him in September 275, in Caenophrurium, Thrace (modern Turkey).

Aurelian's enemies in the Senate briefly succeeded in passing damnatio memoriae on the Emperor, but this was reversed before the end of the year and Aurelian, like his predecessor Claudius II, was deified as Divus Aurelianus.

There is substantial evidence that Aurelian's wife Ulpia Severina, who had been declared Augusta in 274, may have ruled the Empire by her own power for some time after his death.^[10][11] The sources indicate that there was an interregnum between Aurelian's death and the election of Marcus Claudius Tacitus as his successor. Additionally, some of Ulpia's coins appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death.^[11]

Legacy[link]

Aurelian's short reign reunited a fragmented Empire while saving Rome from barbarian invasions that had reached Italy itself. His death prevented a full restoration of political stability and a lasting dynasty that could end the cycle of assassination of Emperors and civil war that marked this period. Even so, he brought the Empire through a very critical period in its history and without Aurelian, it would never have survived the invasions and fragmentation of the decade in which he reigned. 20 years later the reign of Diocletian would fully restore stability and end the Crisis of the third century. The Western half would survive another 200 years while the East would last for another millennium.

Notes[link]

References[link]

Primary sources[link]

• Aurelius Victor Epitome de Caesaribus, xxxv "Epitome de Caesaribus" (4th century)
• Eutropius, Breviarium historiae Romanae, IX. 13–15 (4th century)
• Historia Augusta Aurelianus Life of Aurelian Part 1 Part 2 Part 3
• Zosimus, Historia Nova Translation of the Historia Nova (published in 1814), book 1, (5th–6th century)
• Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History Compendium excerpt: Claudius to Diocletian 268–284(12th century)

Secondary sources[link]

• Körner, Christian (2001-07-20). "Aurelian". De Imperatoribus Romanis. http://www.roman-emperors.org/aurelian.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-04. 
• Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. pp. 125. ISBN 0-415-23944-3. 
• Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. 

Further reading[link]

• White, John F (2005). Restorer of the World: The Roman Emperor Aurelian. Tempus Publishing. ISBN 1-86227-250-6. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Aurelianus

• Aurelian coinage, at Wildwinds.com
• On coins of Aurelian with the title dominus et deus (Section 1.9)
• www.Aurelianus.net Site about Aurelian coinage, his mints and his life, English and German language

Paul the Apostle
Ananias of Damascus restores the sight of Saint Paul. A 1631 painting by Pietro Cortona.
Apostle to the Gentiles
Born	ca. AD 5[1] in Tarsus in Cilicia[2] (south-central Turkey)
Died	ca. AD 67[3] in Rome[3]
Honored in	All Christianity
Major shrine	Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls
Feast	January 25 (The Conversion of Paul) February 10 (Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta) June 29 (Feast of Saints Peter and Paul) November 18 (Feast of the dedication of the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul)
Attributes	Sword
Patronage	Missions; Theologians; Gentile Christians;

Paul the Apostle (c. AD 5 – c. AD 67; variously referred to as the "Apostle Paul" or "Saint Paul"),^[3] also known as Saul of Tarsus,^[4] is perhaps the most influential early Christian missionary. The writings ascribed to him by the church form a considerable portion of the New Testament. The influence on Christian thinking of the epistles ascribed to him has been significant,^[5][6] due in part to his association as a prominent apostle of Christianity during the spreading of the Gospel through early Christian communities across the Roman Empire.

According to the writings in the New Testament, Paul was known as Saul prior to his conversion, and was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem.^[7] While traveling from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "bring them which were there bound unto Jerusalem", the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. Saul was struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God.^[8]

Along with Simon Peter and James the Just he was one of the most prominent early Christian leaders.^[9] Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are traditionally attributed to Paul. His authorship of seven of the fourteen is questioned by modern scholars.^[6][10] Augustine of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvation is based on faith and not "works of the law".^[6] Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings heavily influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide.

Paul's conversion dramatically changed the course of his life. Through his missionary activity and writings he eventually transformed religious belief and philosophy around the Mediterranean Basin. His leadership, influence and legacy led to the formation of communities dominated by Gentile groups that worshiped the God of Israel, adhered to the "Judaic moral code", but relaxed or abandoned the ritual and dietary teachings of the Law of Moses, that these laws and rituals had either been fulfilled in the life of Christ or were symbolic precursors of Christ, all on the basis of Paul's teachings of the life and works of Jesus Christ and his teaching of a New Covenant (or "new testament")^[11] established through Jesus' death and resurrection. The Bible does not record Paul's death.^[12]

Sources[link]

Conversion of Saint Paul, a fresco by Michelangelo.

The main source for historical information about Paul's life is the material found in several of his epistles and the Book of Acts. However, these epistles contain comparatively little information about Paul's past. The Book of Acts also recounts Paul's career but leaves several parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his (alleged) execution in Rome.^[13] Scholars such as Hans Conzelmann and 20th century theologian John Knox^[14] dispute the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles.^[15][16] Paul's own account of his background is found particularly in Galatians. According to some scholars, the Acts account of Paul visiting Jerusalem^{[Acts 11:27-30]} contradicts the account in Paul's letters.^{[13][page needed]} Some scholars consider Paul's accounts to be more reliable than those found in Acts.^[17]

Roman Citizenship[link]

The idea that Paul is a Roman citizen derives from the Book of Acts. In the letters of Paul, such a claim is never made. Marcus J. Borg and John Dominic Crossan wrote "Luke insists that Paul was a Roman citizen, but Paul himself does not mention the claim, he in fact seems to negate it."^[18] Paul appears to negate such a claim by stating that he had suffered three beatings by the rod, which was a punishment forbidden upon Roman citizens.^[19] However, the fact that he is able to appeal to Caesar, recorded in Acts 25:11, for his final sentencing leads many scholars to believe that he was indeed a Roman citizen.^[20] Without Roman citizenship, Paul would not have had this right.

Names[link]

His given name was Saul (Hebrew: שָׁאוּל, Modern Sha'ul Tiberian Šāʼûl ; "asked for, prayed for"), perhaps after the biblical king Saul, a fellow Benjamite and the first king of Israel. In Ancient Greek: Σαούλ (Saul), Σαῦλος (Saulos), and Παῦλος (Paulos), in Latin Paulus or Paullus, in Hebrew: שאול התרסי‎ Šaʾul HaTarsi (Saul of Tarsus)^[21]

In the book of Acts, when he had the vision that led to his conversion on the Road to Damascus, Jesus called him "Saul, Saul",^[22] in the Hebrew tongue,^[23] and later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus".^[24] When Ananias came to restore his sight, he called him "Brother Saul".^[25]

In Acts 13:9, the author indicates a name change by saying "...Saul, (who also is called Paul,)..."^[26] and thereafter refers to him as Paul. He is called Paul in all other Bible books where he is mentioned.

Prior to conversion[link]

Paul claimed to be "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, an Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee."^[Phil. 3:5] But the Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Paul's "sister's son" is mentioned in Acts 23:16. Acts also quotes Paul indirectly referring to his father by saying he was "a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee".^[Acts 23:6] Paul refers to his mother in Romans 16:13 as among those at Rome.

Acts identifies Paul as from the Mediterranean city of Tarsus (in present-day south-central Turkey), well known for its intellectual environment^{[Acts 21:39]}.

Although born in Tarsus, Paul was raised in Jerusalem^[Acts 26:4] "at the feet of Gamaliel"^[Acts 22:3], a leading authority in the Sanhedrin in the mid 1st century AD. Gamaliel once gave some advice to the Sanhedrin in Acts 5:34-39, to "refrain" from slaying the disciples of Jesus. This is in great contrast to the rashness of his student Saul, who zealously persecuted the "saints". ^{[Acts 9:13; 26:10]}

Paul confesses that "beyond measure" he persecuted the "church of God" prior to his conversion. (Galatians 1:13–14; Philippians 3:6; Acts 8:1–3) As a young man, he cooperated in the killing of the proto-martyr, Stephen, standing by and guarding the clothes of the witnesseses while Stephen was stoned. (Acts 7:58; 8:1; 22:20)

Conversion and mission[link]

Paul's conversion can be dated to 31 – 36^[27][28][29] by his reference to it in one of his letters.^[13] According to the Acts of the Apostles, his conversion (or metanoia) took place on the road to Damascus, where he claimed to have experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus, after which he was temporarily blinded.^{[Acts 9:1-31] [22:1-22] [26:9-24]} Luke, the author of Acts of the Apostles, likely learned of his conversion from Paul, from the church in Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch.^[30]

Post-conversion testimony[link]

In the opening verses of Romans 1, Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic claim and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ:

• Paul describes himself as
  • a servant of Christ Jesus
  • called to be an apostle
  • set apart for the gospel of God
• Paul describes Jesus as
  • having been promised by God "beforehand" through his prophets in the holy Scriptures
  • being the Son of God
  • having biological lineage from David ("according to the flesh")^[31]
  • having been declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead
  • being Jesus Christ our Lord
  • the One through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the sake of his name among all the nations, "including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ."

Paul's writings give some insight into his thinking regarding his relationship with Judaism. He is strongly critical both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority ^[2:16-26] of Jews while conversely strongly sustaining the notion of a special place for the Children of Israel.^[9-11]

Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by a personal revelation of Jesus Christ.^{[Gal 1:11-16]} Paul claimed independence from the Jerusalem community^[17] (possibly in the Cenacle), but was just as quick to claim agreement with it on the nature and content of the gospel.^{[Gal 1:22-24]} What is remarkable about such a conversion is the changes in the thinking that had to take place. He had to change his concept of who the messiah was, particularly what he'd perceived as the absurdity of accepting a crucified messiah^{[citation needed]}. Perhaps more challenging was changing his conception of the ethnic superiority of the Jewish people. There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the gospel to the Gentiles at the moment of his conversion.^[32]

Early ministry[link]

The house believed to be of Ananias of Damascus in Damascus.

Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul escaped from persecution in Damascus.

After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts states he was healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus.^[33] Paul says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death ^{[2Cor. 11:32]}. Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus.^{[Gal. 1:17][34]} Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, and some suppose he actually travelled to Mt. Sinai for meditations in the desert.^[35][36][37] He describes in Galatians how three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.^{[Gal. 1:13-24]}

Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ.^{[Gal. 1:11-12]} Paul claimed almost total independence from the Jerusalem community^[17] and yet appeared eager to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various budding Gentile churches that he planted. In his writings, Paul persistently used the persecutions he claimed to have endured, in terms of physical beatings and verbal assaults, to claim proximity and union with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.

Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.^{[Gal. 2:1-10]} It is not completely known what happened during these 'unknown years', but both Acts and Galatians provide some partial details.^[38] At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch. ^{[Acts 11:26]}

When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45–46,^[39] Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.^[40] According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians."^[Ac. 11:26]

First missionary journey[link]

The author of the Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,^{[Acts 13-14]} led initially by Barnabas,^[41] takes Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and back to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician^{[Ac 13:8-12]} who was criticizing their teachings. From this point on, Paul is described as the leader of the group.^[42]

They sail to Perga in Pamphylia. John Mark leaves them and returns to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas go on to Pisidian Antioch. On Sabbath they go to the synagogue. The leaders invite them to speak. Paul reviews Israelite history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduces Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his team came to town to bring the message of salvation. He recounts the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quotes from the Septuagint^[43] to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the 'God-fearing' Gentiles invited them talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles. ^{[Ac 13:13-48]}

Antioch served as a major Christian center for Paul's evangelizing.^[44]

Second missionary journey[link]

Saint Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon in Athens, by Raphael, 1515. This sermon addressed early issues in Christology.^[45][46]

Paul leaves for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49,^[47] after the meeting of the Jerusalem council where the circumcision question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking John Mark with them on their trips. The book of Acts said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul.

Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's birthplace), Derbe and Lystra. In Lystra, they met Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening their faith daily. ^[Acts 16:5]

In Philippi, certain men were not happy about the liberation of their soothsaying servant girl, who had been possessed with a spirit of divination,^[48] and they turned the city against the missionaries and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas were able to escape but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.^[49] They continued traveling, going by Berea and then to Athens where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus.

Around 50–52, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth.^[13] The reference in Acts to proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date (cf. Gallio inscription).^[13] Paul met Aquila and Priscilla in Corinth who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time. In 52, the missionaries sailed to Caesarea to greet the Church there and then traveled north to Antioch where they stayed for about a year before leaving again on their third missionary journey.^[50]

Third missionary journey[link]

Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to Ephesus, an important center for early Christianity, and stayed there for almost 3 years. He performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity into the hinterlands.^[51] Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city.^[13] During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote 4 letters to the church in Corinth admonishing them for their pagan behavior.^[30]

Then Paul went through Macedonia into Achaea, and as he was getting ready to leave for Syria, he changed his plans because of Jews who had made a plot against him and had to go back through Macedonia. At this time it is likely that Paul visited Corinth for three months (56–57).^[13] In Romans 15:19 Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, but he may have meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca,^[52] which lay in the northern part of modern Albania, but was at that time a division of the Roman province of Macedonia, .^[53]

Paul and his companions visited other cities on their way back to Jerusalem such as Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Rhodes, and Tyre. Paul finished his trip with a stop in Caesarea where he and his companions stayed with Philip the Evangelist before finally arriving at Jerusalem.^[54][55]

Journey to Rome and beyond[link]

After Paul's arrival in Jerusalem at the end of his third missionary journey, he became involved in a serious conflict with some Asian Jews. The conflict eventually led to Paul's arrest and imprisonment in Caesarea for about a year and a half. Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul was to stand trial for his alleged crimes. Acts states that Paul preached in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial. It does not state what happened after this time, but some sources claim that Paul was freed by Nero and continued to preach in Rome even though that seems unlikely based on Nero's historical relationship with Early Christians. It is possible that Paul also traveled to other countries like Spain and Britain.^[56] See the Arrest and death section below.

Among the writings of early Christians, Clement of Rome said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West," and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west."^[57][58] Chrysostom indicated that Paul preached in Spain: "For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we know not."^[59] Cyril of Jerusalem said that Paul, "fully preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs and wonders".^[60] The Muratorian fragment mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he journeyed to Spain."^[61]

Council of Jerusalem[link]

Paul on chapel

Most scholars agree that a vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place some time in the years 48 to 50,^[13] described in Acts 15:2 and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1.^[13] The key question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised.^[62] At this meeting, Paul claims in his letter to the Galatians that Peter, James, and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles. See also Circumcision controversy in early Christianity.

Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, in Paul's letters, and some appear in both.^[63] For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief^{[Acts 11:27-30]} apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only).^{[Gal. 1:18-20][63]} F. F. Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than the first visit to Jerusalem.^[64]

Incident at Antioch[link]

Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch" over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch.^[65]

Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong". Paul reports that he told Peter: "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"^{[Gal. 2:11-14]} Paul also mentions that even Barnabas (his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time) sided with Peter.^[66]

The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia^[67] states: "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke." In contrast, L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity claims: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return."^[68]

The primary source for the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.

Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles[link]

This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.^[63] Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.

Arrest and death[link]

Saint Paul arrested, early 1900s Bible illustration.

Saint Paul's beheading. Painting by Enrique Simonet in 1887.

Paul arrived in Jerusalem in 57 with a collection of money for the community there.^[13] Acts reports that he was warmly received. But Acts goes on to recount how Paul was warned by James and the elders that he was gaining a reputation for being against the Law, 'teaching all the Jews living among the gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell them not to circumcise their children or observe the customs'.(Acts 21, 21) Paul underwent a purification ritual in order to give the Jews no grounds to bring accusations against him for not following their law. Paul caused a stir when he appeared at the Temple, and he escaped being killed by the crowd by being taken into Roman custody.^[13] When a plot to kill Paul on his way to an appearance before the Jews was discovered, he was transported by night to Caesarea. He was held as a prisoner there for two years, until a new governor reopened his case in 59.^[13] When the governor suggested that he be sent back to Jerusalem for further trial, Paul was constrained to "appeal unto Caesar", as was his right as a Roman.^[13] Acts recounts that on the way to Rome Paul was shipwrecked on "Melita" (Malta),^{[13] [Acts 28:1]} where he was met by Publius^[Acts 28:7] and the islanders, who showed him "unusual kindness".^[Acts 28:2] He arrived in Rome c 60 and spent two years under house arrest.^{[13][Acts 28:16]}

Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century believed that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.^[72] Paul was not a bishop of Rome nor did he bring Christianity to Rome since there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there (Acts 28:14-15). Also Paul wrote his letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome (Romans 1:1,7,11-13; 15:23-29). However, Paul would have played an important role in the life of the early church at Rome.

Neither the Bible nor other sources say how or when Paul died, but Ignatius, probably around 110 AD, writes that he was martyred.^[73] According to Christian tradition, Paul, was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero around the mid-60s at Tre Fontane Abbey (English: Three Fountains Abbey).^[74] By comparison, tradition states that Peter, who was not a Roman citizen, was given the more painful death of being crucified upside-down.^[75]

In June 2009, Pope Benedict announced excavation results concerning the tomb of Paul at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The sarcophagus was not opened but was examined by means of a probe, which revealed pieces of incense, purple and blue linen, and small bone fragments. The bone was radiocarbon dated to the 1st or 2nd century. According to the Vatican, these findings are consistent with the traditional claim that the tomb is Paul's.^[76]

Writings[link]

Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are attributed to Paul. Seven of these – Romans, 1st Corinthians, 2nd Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1st Thessalonians and Philemon – are almost universally accepted as being actually written by Paul. Scholars generally agree that four others were not written by Paul, those being 1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy, Titus, and Hebrews.^{[citation needed]} As to the remaining three – Ephesians, Colossians and 2nd Thessalonians – scholars are almost evenly divided.^[77] Of those written by Paul, all except Galatians appear to have been dictated through a secretary, who would paraphrase^{[dubious – discuss]} the message, as was the practice among 1st-century scribes.^[77][78] The epistles were circulated in the Christian community and read aloud by church members along with other works. Paul's epistles were viewed from early times as scripture and later established as Canon of Scripture. Critical scholars regard Paul's epistles, which were written between 50 and 62 AD,^{[citation needed]} to be the earliest books of the New Testament. They are referenced as early as c. 96 by Clement of Rome.^[79]

Authorship[link]

Paul Writing His Epistles, 17th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas).

Paul's letters are largely written to churches which he had visited; he was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians should believe and how they should live. He does not tell his correspondents (or the modern reader) much about the life of Jesus; his most explicit references are to the Last Supper^{[1 Cor. 11:17-34]} and the crucifixion and resurrection.^{[1 Cor. 15]} His specific references to Jesus' teaching are likewise sparse,^{[1 Cor. 7:10-11] [9:14]} raising the question, still disputed, as to how consistent his account of the faith is with that of the four canonical Gospels, Acts, and the Epistle of James. The view that Paul's Christ is very different from the historical Jesus has been expounded by Adolf Harnack among many others. Nevertheless, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus of Christian spirituality.

Of the fourteen letters attributed to Paul and included in the Western New Testament canon, there is little or no dispute that Paul actually wrote at least seven, those being Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Hebrews (no relation to the Gospel according to the Hebrews), which was ascribed to him in antiquity, was questioned even then, never having an ancient attribution, and in modern times is considered by most experts as not by Paul (see also Antilegomena). The authorship of the remaining six Pauline epistles is disputed to varying degrees.

The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned^[80] on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as 'the image of the invisible God,' a Christology found elsewhere only in John's gospel. On the other hand, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians.^[81] Ephesians is a very similar letter to Colossians, but is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique. It lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the reference in 1 Cor. 7:8-9. Finally, according to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now past.^[82] The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul of Tarsus's thinking. It has to be noted, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters has the closest affinity with similar portions of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of Paul's life, and throws considerable light upon them.^[81]

Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration Church, Kizhi Monastery, Karelia, Russia).

Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th – early 7th century (Musée de Cluny)

The Pastoral Epistles, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus have likewise been put in question as Pauline works. Three main reasons are advanced: first, their difference in vocabulary, style, and theology from Paul's acknowledged writings; Defenders of the authenticity note, that they were then probably written in the name and with the authority of the Apostle by one of his companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had to be written, or to whom he gave a written summary of the points to be developed, and that when the letters were finished, Paul read them through, approved them, and signed them.^[81] Secondly, the difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as we have it.^[83] They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter. However, according to Roman law there was nothing deserving of death against him.^[81] Finally, the concerns expressed are very much the practical ones as to how a church should function. They are more about maintenance than about mission^{[citation needed]}.

2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds, with some^{[citation needed]} noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus. This, again, is explainable by the possibility of Paul requesting one of his companions to write the letter for him under his instructions.^[81]

Atonement[link]

Paul wrote down much of the theology of atonement.^[84] Paul taught that Christians are redeemed from the Law (see Supersessionism) and from sin by Jesus' death and resurrection.^[84] His death was an expiation as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's blood peace is made between God and man.^[84] By baptism, a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death, gaining as a free gift a new, justified status of sonship.^[84]

Relationship with Judaism[link]

Some scholars^[who?] see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a "Pharisee" and student of Gamaliel), others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (see Marcionism), while still others^[who?] see him as somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to "Ritual Laws" (see for example Circumcision controversy in early Christianity) but in full agreement on "Divine Law". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of Biblical law in Christianity.

Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a development contrary to Paul's own intent.^[13] He wrote that the faith of Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent.^[13] He argued that Gentile converts did not need to become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic laws.^[13] Nevertheless, in Romans he insisted on the positive value of the Law, as a moral guide.

E. P. Sanders' publications^[85] have since been taken up by Professor James Dunn who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul"^[86] and N.T. Wright,^[87] the Anglican Bishop of Durham. Wright, noting a difference between Galatians and Romans, the latter being much more positive about the continuing covenant between God and his ancient people than the former, contends that works are not insignificant but rather proof of attaining the redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith)^{[Rom. 2:13ff]} and that Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.

World to come[link]

According to Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his lifetime.^[88] He states that Paul expected that Christians who had died in the mean time would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that the saved would be transformed, assuming supernatural bodies.^[88]

Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and, secondly, when they should expect the end. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive.^{[1 Thes. 4:16ff]} This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages his hearers to expect a delay.^[89] The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of lawlessness^{[2 Thess. 2:3]} whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.

Role of women[link]

A verse in the first letter to Timothy, 1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman"), traditionally attributed to Paul, is often used as the main biblical authority for prohibiting women from becoming ordained clergy and or holding certain other positions of ministry and leadership in Christianity, though Paul's authorship of this letter is debated. The Letter to Timothy is also often used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership.^[90]

1st Timothy 2:9 In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broided hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array;
10 But (which becometh women professing godliness) with good works.
11 Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.
12 But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.
13 For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
14 And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression.
15 Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if they continue in faith and charity and holiness with sobriety.

— Authorized Version

The KJV translation of this passage seems^{[clarification needed]} to be saying that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles vis-à-vis men.^[91] Whether it also forbids women from teaching children and women is dubious as even those Catholic churches that prohibit female priests, permit female abbesses to teach and exercise authority over other females. Any interpretation of this portion of Scripture must wrestle with the theological, contextual, syntactical, and lexical difficulties embedded within these few words.^[92] Fuller Seminary theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk finds evidence in Paul’s letters of a much more inclusive view of women. He writes that Romans 16 is a tremendously important witness to the important role of women in the early church. Paul praises Phoebe for her work as a deaconess and Junia who was (according to some scholars) an Apostle. Kirk points to recent studies that have led "many scholars" to conclude that the passage in 1 Corinthians 14 ordering women to "be silent" during worship was a later addition, apparently by a different author, and not part of Paul’s original letter to the Corinthians. Other scholars such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, claim that Paul's restriction on women speaking in 1Corinthians 14 is genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case of prohibiting asking questions or chatting and is not a general prohibition on any woman speaking since in 1Corinthians 11 Paul affirms the right of women to prophesy.^[93] Kirk's third example of a more inclusive view is Galatians 3:28: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus (italics added). In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the world around it, he concludes by highlighting the fact that "...there were New Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches, that this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a theological paradigm within which overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome."^[94]

The conversion on the way to Damascus, by Caravaggio.

Homosexuality[link]

All three of the verses in the New Testament that purportedly contain explicit references to homosexuality are contained within letters attributed to Paul (Romans 1:26-27, 1Corinthians 6:9-10, and 1Timothy 1:8-11): it is argued that his statements condemn homosexuals and homosexual behavior. Porneia appears a number of times in Paul's letters, always with arsenokoitais. Yale University professor John Boswell argues in his book "Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality" that 'arsenokoitai' in 1 Corinthians 6:9 and 1 Timothy 1:10 refers specifically to male prostitution; various writers have presented countering arguments.^[95][96][97]

Influence on Christianity[link]

This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Discussion about the problems with the sole source used may be found on the talk page. (August 2011)

Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.^[6] Paul declared that faith in Christ made the Torah unnecessary for salvation, exalted the Christian church as the body of Christ, and depicted the world outside the Church as under judgment.^[13]

Lord's Supper[link]

Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the Lord's supper, a rite traditionally identified as the Christian Eucharist.

Eastern tradition[link]

In the East, church fathers reduced the element of election in Romans 9 to divine foreknowledge.^[13] The themes of predestination found in Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology.

Western tradition[link]

Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.^[13]

In the Reformation, Martin Luther expressed Paul's doctrine of faith most strongly as justification by faith alone.^[13] John Calvin developed Augustine's predestination into double predestination.^[13]

Modern theology[link]

In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der Römerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. Some theologians believe this work to be the most important theological treatise since Friedrich Schleiermacher's On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers.

As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting divine foreknowledge.^[13]

Church tradition[link]

Statue of Saint Paul in Damascus.

Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life.

1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome, around the year 90 reports this about Paul:^[98]

"By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."

Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation."^[99]

Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. The San Paolo alle Tre Fontane church was built on the location where the execution was believed to have taken place. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, may reflect the day of his martyrdom, other sources have articulated the tradition that Peter and Paul died on the same day (and possibly the same year).^[100] The apocryphal Acts of Paul, the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further west. Some hold the view that he could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed.^{[2 Tim. 4:13]} A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. However, Bede's use of the word "relic" was not limited to corporal remains.

Paul, who was quite possibly martyred in Rome, has long been associated with that city and its church. Paul is the patron saint of London.

The Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul is celebrated on January 25.^[101]

Literary analysis[link]

Facial composite of Paul by experts of the LKA NRW, Germany.

British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contended that the Paul as described in the Book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts.

Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, George Shillington writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they bear his literary and theological marks.^[102] Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were not entirely the inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author nevertheless records the general idea of them.^[103]

F. C. Baur (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the Tübingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.

Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton University and an authority on Gnosticism, argues that Paul was a Gnostic ^[104] and that the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries written to rebut this.

Maccoby theorized that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributed the origins of Christian antisemitism to Paul and claims that Paul's view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects.^[105]

Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.^[106] Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman of Agrippa."^[107] Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in Romans 16:11 where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman."

Alan Segal, Daniel Boyarin, Christopher R. A. Jones regard Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to the heavens as the earliest first person accounts we have of the visionary experiences of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian literature.^{[citation needed]} Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah.^[108]

Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus."^[109] Christian anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy^[110] and Ammon Hennacy^[111], take a similar view.

F.F. Powell argues that Paul, in his epistles, made use of many of the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato, sometimes even using the same metaphors and language.^[112] For example, in Phaedrus, Plato has Socrates saying that the heavenly ideals are perceived as though "through a glass dimly."^[113] These words are echoed by Paul in 1 Corinthians 13:12.

Howard Brenton's 2005 play "Paul" takes a skeptical view of his conversion.^{[citation needed]}

See also[link]

Saints portal

References[link]

Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (April 2012)

Notes[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Aulén, Gustaf. Christus Victor (SPCK 1931)
• Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
• Brown, Raymond E. The Church the Apostles left behind(Chapman 1984)
• Bruce, F.F. 'Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?' Bulletin John Rylands Library 58 (1976) 283–305
• Bruce, F.F., Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (ISBN 0-8028-4778-1)
• Conzelmann, Hans, the Acts of the Apostles—a Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Fortress 1987)
• Davies, W. D. "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul" in Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible. London: T. Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6
• Davies, W. D. Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. S.P.C.K., 3rd ed., 1970. ISBN 0-281-02449-9
• Dunn, James D.G., 1990, Jesus, Paul and the Law Louisville,KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25095-5
• Dunn, James D. G., Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels (Grand Rapids (MI), Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011).
• Hanson, Anthony T. Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology. Eerdmans, 1974. ISBN 0-8028-3452-3
• Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. ISBN 978-1-55934-655-9
• Holzbach, Mathis Christian, Die textpragmat. Bedeutung d. Kündereinsetzungen d. Simon Petrus u.d. Saulus Paulus im lukan. Doppelwerk, in: Jesus als Bote d. Heils. Stuttgart 2008, 166-172.
• Irenaeus, Against Heresies, i.26.2
• Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0-06-015582-5.
• Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-60899-793-0
• MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
• Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN 0-8146-5173-9
• Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0-8146-5845-8
• Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5
• Ogg, George. “Chronology of the New Testament.” Matthew Black, ed. ‘’Peake's Commentary on the Bible.’’ Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6
• Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919)
• Ruef, John, Paul's First letter to Corinth (Penguin 1971)
• Sanders, E.P., Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977)
• Segal, Alan F. Paul, the Convert, (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1.
• Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World (Harvard University Press 1986).
• Horrell, David G. "An Introduction to the Study of Paul." T&T Clark Approaches to Biblical Studies. 2nd edition. London: T&T Clark, 2006

Further reading[link]

• Bart D Ehrman. Peter, Paul and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend; 304 pages, Oxford University Press (March, 2008)
• Bart D. Ehrman. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings; 608 pages, Oxford University Press (July, 2011); ISBN 978-0-19-975753-4
• Hyam MacCoby. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity; 238 pages, Barnes & Noble Books (1998); ISBN 978-0-7607-0787-6
• Hans Joachim Schoeps. Paul: The Theology of the Apostle in the Light of Jewish Religious History (Library of Theological Translations); 34 pages, Lutterworth Press (July, 2002); ISBN 978-0-227-17013-7
• Pinchas Lapide, Peter Stuhlmacher. Paul: Rabbi and Apostle; 77 pages, Augsburg Publishing House; (December 1984)
• Pinchas Lapide, Leonard Swidler, Jurgen Moltmann. Jewish Monotheism and Christian Trinitarian Doctrine; 94 pages, Wipf & Stock Publishers (May, 2002)

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Paul of Tarsus

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Paul of Tarsus

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Paul of Tarsus

Look up Pauline conversion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• St Paul on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Saul of Tarsus (known as Paul, the Apostle of the Heathen)
• Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus
• Catholic Perspective on Paul
• Documentary film on Apostle Paul
• Encyclopædia Britannica: Paul, 1911
• Maps of Paul's three missionary journeys and final captive journey
• Novena to Saint Paul Apostle
• Paul's mission and letters From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians.
• Representations of Saint Paul
• "Saint Paul, the Apostle." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009.
• The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus Dr. Riemer Faber
• The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28
• Works by or about Paul the Apostle in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Why Paul Went West: The Differences Between the Jewish Diaspora Biblical Archaeology Review