A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. Megalithic describes structures made of such large stones, utilizing an interlocking system without the use of mortar or cement.
The word 'megalith' comes from the Ancient Greek '''' ''megas'' meaning ''great'', and '''' ''lithos'' meaning ''stone''. Megalith also denotes an item consisting of rock(s) hewn in definite shapes for special purposes. It has been used to describe buildings built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods. A variety of large stones are seen as megaliths, with the most widely known megaliths not being sepulchral. The construction of these structures took place mainly in the Neolithic (though earlier Mesolithic examples are known) and continued into the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age.
Early stone complexes in eastern Turkey
At a number of sites in eastern
Turkey, large ceremonial complexes from the
9th millennium BC have been discovered. They belong to the incipient phases of
agriculture and
animal husbandry, from which the European (or Western) Neolithic would later develop. Large circular structures involving carved megalithic orthostats are a typical feature, e.g. at
Nevali Cori and
Göbekli Tepe. Although these structures are the most ancient megalithic structures known so far, it is not clear that any of the European Megalithic traditions (see below) are actually derived from them. At Göbekli Tepe four stone circles have been excavated from an estimated 20. Some measure up to 30 metres across. The stones carry carved reliefs of boars, foxes, lions, birds, snakes and scorpions.
European megaliths
left|thumb|200px| [[Poulnabrone dolmen|Poulnabrone portal tomb, Ireland]]The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the
portal tomb – a chamber consisting of upright stones (
orthostats) with one or more large flat capstones forming a roof. Many of these, though by no means all, contain human remains, but it is debatable whether use as burial sites was their primary function. Though generally known as dolmens the correct term accepted by archaeologists is portal tomb. However many local names exist, such as ''anta'' in
Portugal, ''stazzone'' in
Sardinia, ''hunebed'' in the
Netherlands, ''Hünengrab'' in
Germany, ''dysse'' in
Denmark, and ''cromlech'' in
Wales. It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds.
The second-most-common tomb type is the passage grave. It normally consists of a square, circular, or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled roof, accessed by a long, straight passageway, with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of Brú na Bóinne and Carrowmore in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney, and Gavrinis in France.
The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves. These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish court tombs, British long barrows, and German ''Steinkisten'' belong to this group.
Another type of megalithic monument is the single standing stone, or menhir. Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight, and, in some areas, long and complex alignments of such stones exist, for example, at Carnac in Brittany.
In parts of Britain and Ireland the best-known type of megalithic construction is the stone circle, of which there are hundreds of examples, including Stonehenge, Avebury, Ring of Brodgar, and Beltany. These, too, display evidence of astronomical alignments, both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example, is famous for its solstice alignment. Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. They are assumed to be of later date than the tombs, straddling the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages.
Tombs
Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of
chamber tomb, and the term is used to describe the structures built across
Atlantic Europe, the
Mediterranean, and neighbouring regions, mostly during the
Neolithic period, by Neolithic farming communities. They differ from the contemporary
long barrows through their structural use of stone.
There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs. The free-standing single chamber dolmens and portal dolmens found in Brittany, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Wales, and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four, or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow.
Examples with outer areas, not used for burial, are also known. The Court Cairns of southwest Scotland and northern Ireland, the Severn-Cotswold tombs of southwest England and the Transepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features, although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living.
The Passage graves of Orkney, Ireland's Boyne Valley, and north Wales are even more complex and impressive, with cross-shaped arrangements of chambers and passages. The workmanship on the stone blocks at Maeshowe for example is unknown elsewhere in northwest Europe at the time.
Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long-term deposition of the remains of their dead, and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of megalithic art carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there.
Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey. Despite its name, the Stone Tomb in Ukraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary.
Other structures
Associated with the megalithic constructions across Europe, there are often large
earthworks of various designs – ditches and banks, broad terraces, circular enclosures known as
henges, and frequently artificial mounds such as
Silbury Hill in
England and
Monte d’Accoddi in Sardinia. Sometimes, as at
Glastonbury Tor in England, it is suggested that a natural hill has been artificially sculpted to form a maze or spiral pattern in the turf.
It seems that spirals were an important motif for the megalith builders, and have been found carved into megalithic structures all over Europe – along with other symbols such as lozenges, eye-patterns, zigzags in various configurations, and cup and ring marks. While not a written script in the modern sense of the term, these symbols are considered to have conveyed meaning to their creators, and are remarkably consistent across the whole of Western Europe.
Spread of megalithic architecture in Europe
In Western Europe and the Mediterranean, megaliths are, in general, constructions erected during the
Neolithic or late stone age and
Chalcolithic or Copper Age (4500-1500 BC). Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is
Stonehenge in England, although many others are known throughout the world. The French
Comte de Caylus was the first to describe the
Carnac stones. Legrand d'Aussy introduced the terms ''
menhir'' and ''
dolmen'', both taken from the
Breton language, into antiquarian terminology. He interpreted megaliths as gallic tombs. In Britain, the
antiquarians
Aubrey and
Stukeley conducted early research into megaliths. In 1805,
Jacques Cambry published a book called ''Monuments celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres, précédées d'une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides, et suivies d'Etymologie celtiques'', where he proposed a
Celtic stone cult. This completely unfounded connection between
druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since. In
Belgium, there is a megalithic site at Wéris, a little town situated in the
Ardennes. In the Netherlands, megalithic structures can be found in the northeast of the country, mostly in the province of
Drenthe.
Knowth is a
passage grave of the
Brú na Bóinne neolithic complex in Ireland, dating from c.3500-3000 BC. It contains more than a third of the total number of examples of
megalithic art in all Western Europe, with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations.
Timeline of megalithic construction
Mesolithic
Excavation of some Megalithic monuments (in Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, and France) has revealed evidence of ritual activity, sometimes involving architecture, from the
Mesolithic, i.e., predating the Neolithic monuments by centuries or millennia. Caveats apply: In some cases, they are so far removed in time from their successors that continuity is unlikely; in other cases, the early dates, or the exact character of activity, are controversial. Examples include:
''Circa'' 8000 BC: Wooden constructions in England (Stonehenge).
''Circa'' 5400 BC: Possible early dates in Ireland (Carrowmore).
Neolithic
''Circa'' 5000 BC: Constructions in Portugal (Évora). Emergence of the Atlantic Neolithic period, the age of agriculture along the western shores of Europe.
''Circa'' 4800 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Barnenez) and Poitou (Bougon).
''Circa'' 4400 BC: Constructions in Malta (Skorba temples).
''Circa'' 4000 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Carnac), Portugal (Lisbon), France (central and southern), Corsica, England and Wales.
''Circa'' 3700 BC: Constructions in Ireland (Knockiveagh and elsewhere).
''Circa'' 3600 BC: Constructions in England (Maumbury Rings and Godmanchester), and Malta (Ġgantija and Mnajdra temples).
''Circa'' 3500 BC: Constructions in Spain (Málaga and Guadiana), Ireland (south-west), France (Arles and the north), Sardinia, Sicily, Malta (and elsewhere in the Mediterranean), Belgium (north-east) and Germany (central and south-west).
''Circa'' 3400 BC: Constructions in Ireland (Newgrange), Netherlands (north-east), Germany (northern and central) Sweden and Denmark.
''Circa'' 3300 BC: Constructions in France (Carnac stones)
''Circa'' 3200 BC: Constructions in Malta (Ħaġar Qim and Tarxien).
''Circa'' 3000 BC: Constructions in France (Saumur, Dordogne, Languedoc, Biscay, and the Mediterranean coast), Spain (Los Millares), Sicily, Belgium (Ardennes), and Orkney, as well as the first henges (circular earthworks) in Britain.
''Circa'' 2800 BC: Climax of the megalithic Funnel-beaker culture in Denmark, and the construction of the henge at Stonehenge.
Chalcolithic
''Circa'' 2500 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Le Menec, Kermario and elsewhere), Italy (Otranto), Sardinia, and Scotland (northeast), plus the climax of the megalithic Bell-beaker culture in Iberia, Germany, and the British Isles (stone circle at Stonehenge). With the bell-beakers, the Neolithic period gave way to the Chalcolithic, the age of copper.
''Circa'' 2400 BC: The Bell-beaker culture was dominant in Britain, and hundreds of smaller stone circles were built in the British Isles at this time.
Bronze Age
''Circa'' 2000 BC: Constructions in Brittany (Er Grah), Italy (Bari), Sardinia (northern), and Scotland (Callanish). The Chalcolithic period gave way to the Bronze Age in western and northern Europe.
''Circa'' 1800 BC: Constructions in Italy (Giovinazzo).
''Circa'' 1500 BC: Constructions in Portugal (Alter Pedroso and Mourela).
''Circa'' 1400 BC: Burial of the Egtved Girl in Denmark, whose body is today one of the most well-preserved examples of its kind.
''Circa'' 1200 BC: Last vestiges of the megalithic tradition in the Mediterranean and elsewhere come to an end during the general population upheaval known to ancient history as the Invasions of the Sea Peoples.
African megaliths
Nabta Playa
thumb|222px|left|[[Nabta Playa|Nabta megalith]]
Nabta Playa at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in the
Nubian Desert, located 500 miles south of modern-day
Cairo. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples in Nabta Playa had fashioned the world's earliest known
astronomical device, 1000 years older than, but comparable to,
Stonehenge. Research shows it to be a prehistoric
calendar that accurately marks the
summer solstice. Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally, likely only in the
summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing
cattle. There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert.
Middle Eastern megaliths
Dolmens and standing stones have been found in large areas of the
Middle East starting at the
Turkish border in the north of
Syria close to
Aleppo, southwards down to
Yemen. They can be encountered in northern
Lebanon, southern Syria,
Israel,
Jordan, and
Saudi Arabia. The most concentrated occurrence of dolmen in particular is in a large area on both sides of the
Great Rift Valley, with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the
Golan Heights, the
Hauran, and in Jordan, which probably has the largest concentration of dolmen in the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the
Hejaz. They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of
Somalia and
Ethiopia.
The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East, dating back from Mesopotamian times. Although not always 'megalithic' in the true sense, they occur throughout the Orient, and can reach 5 meters or more in some cases (such as Ader in Jordan). This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the Old Testament, such as those related to Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven (Genesis 28:10-22). Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions, whereas Moses erected twelve pillars symbolizing the tribes of Israel. The tradition of venerating (standing) stones continued in Nabatean times and is reflected in, e.g., the Islamic rituals surrounding the Kaaba and nearby pillars.
Related phenomena, such as cupholes, rock-cut tombs and circles also occur in the Middle East.
Asian megaliths
Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia. They are found mainly in the
Korean Peninsula. They are also found in the
Liaoning,
Shandong, and
Zhejiang in
China,
Kyūshū and
Shikoku in
Japan,
Dong Nai province in
Vietnam and parts of
India. Some living megalithic traditions is found on the island of
Sumba and
Nias in
Indonesia. The greatest concentration of megalithic burials is in Korea. Archaeologists estimate that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula. Typical estimates hover around the 30,000 mark for the entire peninsula, which in itself constitutes some 40% of all dolmens worldwide (see
Dolmen).
Northern style
Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated in
Manchuria, in particular the
Liao River basin. The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula, where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. The earliest megalithic burials are called "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist. An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the
Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500-850 BC) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the
Han River. Few northern-style megaliths in Manchuria contain
grave goods such as
Liaoning bronze daggers, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals. However, whether a result of grave-robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods.
Southern style
Southern-style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern
Korean Peninsula. It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period. The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations.
Capstone-style
These megaliths are distinguished from other types by the presence of a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, which is lined with large cobbles. A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the
Korean Peninsula, and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700-550 BC), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern
Changwon at Deokcheon-ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive, rectangularly shaped, stone and earthen platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56 X 18 m in size.
Living megalith culture of Indonesia
Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian megalith cultures in past and present. Living megalith culture can be found in Nias, an isolated island offcoast western North Sumatra, Batak culture in interior North Sumatra, Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara, also Toraja culture in interior South Sulawesi. These megalith cultures remain preserved, isolated and undisturbed well until late 19th century.
Several megalith sites and structures also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, ancestral stone statues, and step pyramids structure called ''Punden Berundak'' were discovered in various sites in Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, and Lesser Sunda Islands.
Punden step pyramid and menhir can be found in Pagguyangan Cisolok and Gunung Padang, West Java. Cipari megalith site also in West Java displayed monolith, stone terraces, and sarcophagus. The Punden step pyramid is believed to be the predecessor and basic design of later Hindu-Buddhist temples structure in Java after the adoption of Hinduism and Buddhism by native population. The 8th century Borobudur and 15th-century Candi Sukuh featured the step-pyramid structure.
Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues. Mostly located in the Bada, Besoa and Napu valleys.
Madia Gonds of Maharashtra, India
A study mentions living megalithic practices amongst the
Madia Gonds. The Madia Gonds live in
Bhamragad Taluka of
Gadchiroli District of
Maharashtra,
India.
Analysis and evaluation
Megaliths were used for a variety of purposes. The purpose of megaliths ranged from serving as boundary markers of territory, to a reminder of past events, to being part of the society's religion. Common motifs including crooks and axes seem to be symbols of political power, much like the crook was a symbol of Egyptian pharaohs. Amongst the
indigenous peoples of
India,
Malaysia,
Polynesia,
North Africa,
North America, and
South America, the worship of these stones, or the use of these stones to symbolize a spirit or deity, is a possibility. In the early 20th century, some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global "Megalithic culture" (
hyperdiffusionism, e. g. 'the Manchester school', by
Grafton Elliot Smith and
William James Perry), but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods. Nor is it believed any longer that there was a European megalithic culture, although regional cultures existed, even within such a small areas as the British Isles. The archaeologist Euan Mackie wrote "Likewise it cannot be doubted that important regional cultures existed in the Neolithic period and can be defined by different kinds of stone circles and local pottery styles (Ruggles & Barclay 2000: figure 1). No-one has ever been rash enough to claim a nation-wide unity of all aspects of Neolithic archaeology!"
Types of megalithic structures
The types of megalithic structures can be divided into two categories, the "''Polylithic type''" and the "''Monolithic type''". Different megalithic structures include:
{|width=85% cellspacing=3 style="border: 1px; margin-bottom: 3px;"
|cellspacing=3 cellpadding=3 valign="top"|
;Polylithic type
Dolmen: a free standing chamber, consisting of standing stones covered by a capstone as a lid. Dolmens were used for burial and were covered by mounds.
Taula: a straight standing stone, topped with another forming a 'T' shape.
Cistvaens
Tumuli or barrows
Punden or Punden Berundak: step earth and stone pyramid, similar to tumuli but enforced with stone walls.
Cairns or ''Galgals''
Cromlech (ed., a Welsh term)
Kurgans
Nuraghi
Talayots
Sessi or Stazzone
Round Towers
Marae (Polynesia)
Ahus with Moai and Pukao (Easter Island)
|
|cellspacing=3 cellpadding=3 valign="top"|
;Monolithic type
Menhir: a large, single upright standing stone.
Alignements (or
Stone row avenues [e.g., Linear arrangement of upright, parallel standing stones])
Cycoliths (or stone circles)
Stantare
Trilithon: Two parallel upright stones with a horizontal stone (called a lintel) placed on top, e.g. Stonehenge.
Orthostat: an upright slab forming part of a larger structure.
Stone ship
Statues such as most moai
Gateways
|}
Gallery
See also
List of megalithic sites
Irish Megalithic Tombs
Plain of Jars ranging from the Khorat Plateau in Thailand in the south, through Laos and to North Cachar Hills of northern India.
Standing stone
Stone circle
Nature worship
Bilger's rocks
Notes
References
Articles
Books
External links
MegalithicIreland.com
New Geology - solved mysteries of cart ruts & megaliths
Dolmens, Menhirs & Stones-Circles in the South of France
Megaliths in Charente-Maritime, France
Dolmen Path - Russian Megaliths
The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map
Index of Megalithic monuments in Ireland
The Modern Antiquarian
Pretanic World - Megaliths and Monuments
Modern Megalith-Building
*
Category:Stones
Category:Stone Age
Category:Sacred rocks
Category:Burial monuments and structures
Category:Archaeology of death
Category:Stone Age Europe
Category:African archaeology
Category:Asian archaeology
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![A menhir is a large upright standing stone. Menhirs may be found singly as monoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Their size can vary considerably; but their shape is generally uneven and squared, often tapering towards the top. Menhirs are widely distributed across Europe, Africa, and Asia, but are most numerous in Western Europe; in particular in Ireland, Great Britain and Brittany. In northwest France there are 1,200 menhirs. [1] They originate from many different periods across](http://web.archive.org./web/20120511023422/http://cdn1.wn.com/pd/06/83/a1254a357a6a0cfa6f7fbdecb28f_medium.jpg "A menhir is a large upright standing stone. Menhirs may be found singly as monoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Their size can vary considerably; but their shape is generally uneven and squared, often tapering towards the top. Menhirs are widely distributed across Europe, Africa, and Asia, but are most numerous in Western Europe; in particular in Ireland, Great Britain and Brittany. In northwest France there are 1,200 menhirs. [1] They originate from many different periods across")
