Coordinates	16°35′″N94°54′30″N
name	Sigmund Freud
birth date	May 06, 1856
birth place	Freiberg in Mähren, Moravia (now part of the Czech Republic), Austrian Empire
death date	September 23, 1939
death place	London, England, UK
residence	Austria
nationality	Austrian
fields	NeurologyPsychotherapyPsychoanalysis
workplaces	University of Vienna
alma mater	University of Vienna
known for	Psychoanalysis
influences	Breuer, Charcot, Darwin, Dostoyevsky, Goethe, Haeckel, Hartmann, Jackson, Aristotle , Plato , Jacobsen, Kant, Mayer, Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, Shakespeare, Sophocles
influenced	Eugen Bleuler, John Bowlby, Viktor Frankl, Anna Freud, Otto Gross, Arthur Janov, Ernest Jones, Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, Jacques Lacan, Fritz Perls, Otto Rank, Wilhelm Reich
awards	Goethe PrizeForeign Member of the Royal Society (London)
signature	FreudSignature.svg
spouse	}}

Sigmund Freud (), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. An early neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy, Freud later developed theories about the unconscious and the mechanism of repression, and created psychoanalysis as a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst.

Freud postulated that sexual drives were the primary motivational forces of human life, developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association, discovered the phenomenon of transference in the therapeutic relationship and established its central role in the analytic process, and interpreted dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history, interpretation and critique of culture.

Early life

Sigismund Schlomo Freud was born on 6 May 1856, to Jewish Galician parents in the Moravian town of Příbor (), then part of the Austrian Empire (1804–1867), now the Czech Republic. His father, Jacob Freud (1815–1896), was 41, a wool merchant, and had two children by a previous marriage. His mother, Amalié (née Nathansohn), the third wife of Jacob, was 21.. He was the first of their eight children and, in accordance with tradition, his parents favored him over his siblings from the early stages of his childhood. Freud was born with a caul, which the family accepted as a positive omen.

Despite their poverty, the Freuds ensured Sigmund’s schooling and education. Due to the Panic of 1857, Freud's father lost his business, and the Freud family moved to Leipzig before settling in Vienna. In 1865, the nine-year-old student Freud entered the ''Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium'', a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors. He went to the University of Vienna at 17. Freud had planned to study law, but instead joined the medical faculty at the University of Vienna to study under Darwinist Professor Karl Claus. At that time, the eel life cycle was unknown and Freud spent four weeks at the Austrian zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an unsuccessful search for their male reproductive organs.

Freud greatly admired the philosopher Franz Brentano, known for his theory of perception, as well as Theodor Lipps, who was one of the main supporters of the ideas of the unconscious and empathy. Brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his 1874 book ''Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint''. Although Brentano himself rejected the unconscious, his discussion of it probably helped introduce Freud to the concept. Brentano identified Thomas Aquinas as one of the earliest people to suggest the existence of the unconscious; Freud may therefore have been unknowingly siding with Aquinas on this issue.

Freud read Friedrich Nietzsche as a student, and bought his collected works in 1900, the year of Nietzsche's death; Freud told Wilhelm Fliess that he hoped to find in Nietzsche "the words for much that remains mute in me." According to Peter Gay, however, Freud treated Nietzsche's writings "as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied"; immediately after reporting to Fliess that he had bought Nietzsche's works, Freud added that he had not yet opened them. Students of Freud began to point out analogies between his work and that of Nietzsche almost as soon as he developed a following.

Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker. Freud believed that smoking enhanced his capacity to work, and believed he could exercise self-discipline in moderating his tobacco-smoking; yet, despite health warnings from Fliess, and to the detriment of his health, Freud remained a smoker, eventually suffering a buccal cancer.

Carl Jung initiated the rumor that a romantic relationship may have developed between Freud and his sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, who had moved into Freud's apartment at 19 Berggasse in 1896. Hans Eysenck suggests that the affair occurred, resulting in an aborted pregnancy for Miss Bernays. The publication in 2006 of a Swiss hotel log, dated 13 August 1898, has been regarded by some Freudian scholars (including Peter Gay) as showing that there was a factual basis to these rumors.

Freud was a "partially assimilated, mostly secular Jew." According to biographer Ernest Jones (1945) "Freud's Jewishness contributed greatly to his work and his firm convictions about his findings. Freud often referred to his ability to stand alone, if need be, without wavering or surrendering his intellectual and scientific discoveries, and he attributed this ability to his irreligious but strong Jewish identity in an antisemitic society, whereby he was accustomed to a marginal status and being set aside as different." Freud once described himself as "an author who is ignorant of the language of holy writ, who is completely estranged from the religion of his fathers—as well as from every other religion", but who remains "in his essential nature a Jew, and who has no desire to alter that nature".

Development of psychoanalysis

In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a fellowship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned neurologist and researcher of hypnosis. He was later to remember the experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology research. Charcot specialized in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience. Freud later turned away from hypnosis as a potential cure for mental illness, instead favouring free association and dream analysis.

After opening his own medical practice, specializing in neurology, Freud married Martha Bernays in 1886. Her father Berman was the son of Isaac Bernays, chief rabbi in Hamburg. The couple had six children (Mathilde, 1887; Jean-Martin, 1889; Olivier, 1891; Ernst, 1892; Sophie, 1893; Anna, 1895).

After experimenting with hypnosis on his neurotic patients, Freud abandoned it as ineffective. He instead adopted a form of treatment where the patient talked through his or her problems. This came to be known as the "talking cure" and its goal was to locate and release powerful emotional energy that had initially been rejected or imprisoned in the unconscious mind. Freud called this psychic action “repression”, and he believed that it was an impediment to the normal functioning of the psyche, even capable of causing physical retardation which he described as "psychosomatic". The term "talking cure" was initially coined by a patient, Anna O., who was treated by Freud's colleague Josef Breuer. The "talking cure" is widely seen as the basis of psychoanalysis. In late 1895 Freud arrived at the view that unconscious memories of sexual molestation in early childhood were a necessary precondition for the ''psychoneuroses'' (hysteria and obsessional neurosis), now known as the seduction theory. However he later lost faith in the theory and that led in 1897 to the emergence of Freud's new theory of infantile sexuality, and eventually to the Oedipus complex.

After the publication of ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' in November 1899, interest in his theories began to grow, and a circle of supporters developed. However, Freud often clashed with those supporters who criticized his theories, the most famous of whom was Carl Jung. Part of the disagreement between them was due to Jung's interest in and commitment to spirituality and occultism, which Freud saw as unscientific.

Karen Horney, a pupil of Karl Abraham, criticized Freud's theory of femininity, leading him to defend it against her. Horney's challenge to Freud's theories, along with that of Melanie Klein, produced the first psychoanalytic debate on femininity. Ernest Jones, although usually an "ultra-orthodox" Freudian, sided with Horney and Klein. Horney was Freud's most outspoken critic, although her and Jones's disagreement with Freud was over how to interpret penis envy rather than whether it existed. Horney understood Freud's conception of the castration complex as a theory about the biological nature of women, one in which women were biologically castrated men, and rejected it as scientifically unsatisfying.

In his forties, Freud experienced several, probably psychosomatic, medical problems, including depression and heart irregularities that fuelled a superstitious belief that he would die at the age of 51. Around this time Freud began exploring his own dreams, memories, and the dynamics of his personality development. During this self-analysis, he came to realize a hostility he felt towards his father, Jacob Freud, who had died in 1896. He also became convinced that he had developed sexual feelings towards his mother in infancy ("between two and two and a half years"). Richard Webster argues that Freud’s account of his self-analysis shows that he “had remembered only a long train journey, from whose duration he ''deduced'' that he might have seen his mother undressing”, and that Freud’s memory was an artificial reconstruction.

Patients

Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories. Some patients known by pseudonyms were Cäcilie M. (Anna von Lieben); Dora (Ida Bauer, 1882–1945); Frau Emmy von N. (Fanny Moser); Fräulein Elisabeth von R. (Ilona Weiss); Fräulein Katharina (Aurelia Kronich); Fräulein Lucy R.; Little Hans (Herbert Graf, 1903–1973); Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer, 1878–1914); Enos Fingy (Joshua Wild, 1878–1920); and Wolf Man (Sergei Pankejeff, 1887–1979). Other famous patients included H.D. (1886–1961); Emma Eckstein (1865–1924); Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), with whom Freud had only a single, extended consultation; and Princess Marie Bonaparte.

Several writers have criticized both Freud's clinical efforts and his accounts of them. Eysenck writes that Freud consistently mis-diagnosed his patients and fraudulently misrepresented case histories. Frederick Crews writes that "...even applying his own indulgent criteria, with no allowance for placebo factors and no systematic followup to check for relapses, Freud was unable to document a single unambiguously efficacious treatment". Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen writes that historians of psychoanalysis have shown "that things did not happen in the way Freud and his authorised biographers told us"; he cites Han Israëls's view that "Freud...was so confident in his first theories that he publicly boasted of therapeutic successes that he had not yet obtained." Freud, in that interpretation, was forced to provide explanations for his abandonment of those theories that concealed his real reason, which was that the therapeutic benefits he expected did not materialise; he knew that his patients were not cured, but "did not hesitate to build grand theories on these non-existent foundations."

Followers

Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. From 1891 until 1938 he and his family lived in an apartment at Berggasse 19 near the ''Innere Stadt'' or historical quarter of Vienna. As a docent of the University of Vienna, Freud, since the mid-1880s, had been delivering lectures on his theories to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric clinic. His work generated a considerable degree of interest from a small group of Viennese physicians. From the autumn of 1902 and shortly after his promotion to the honourific title of ''außerordentlicher Professor'', a small group of followers formed around him, meeting at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon, to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology. This group was called the Wednesday Psychological Society (''Psychologischen Mittwoch-Gesellschaft'') and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.

This discussion group was founded around Freud at the suggestion of the physician Wilhelm Stekel. Stekel had studied medicine at the University of Vienna under Richard von Krafft-Ebing. His conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as a result of his reading ''The Interpretation of Dreams'', to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese daily newspaper ''Neues Wiener Tagblatt''. The other three original members whom Freud invited to attend, Alfred Adler, Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler, were also physicians and all five were Jewish by birth. Both Kahane and Reitler were childhood friends of Freud. Kahane had attended the same secondary school and both he and Reitler went to university with Freud. They had kept abreast of Freud's developing ideas through their attendance at his Saturday evening lectures. In 1901, Kahane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud's work, had opened an out-patient psychotherapy institute of which he was the director in Bauernmarkt, in Vienna. In the same year his medical textbook, ''Outline of Internal Medicine for Students and Practicing Physicians'' was published. In it he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic method. Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 he committed suicide. Reitler was the director of an establishment providing thermal cures in Dorotheergasse which had been founded in 1901. He died prematurely in 1917. Adler, regarded as the most formidable intellect among the early Freud circle, was a socialist who in 1898 had written a health manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularly interested in the potential social impact of psychiatry.

Max Graf, a Viennese musicologist and father of "Little Hans", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday group soon after its initial inception, described the ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings of the society:

''The gatherings followed a definite ritual. First one of the members would present a paper. Then, black coffee and cakes were served; cigar and cigarettes were on the table and were consumed in great quantities. After a social quarter of an hour, the discussion would begin. The last and decisive word was always spoken by Freud himself. There was the atmosphere of the foundation of a religion in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet who made the heretofore prevailing methods of psychological investigation appear superficial.''

By 1906 the group had grown to sixteen members, including Otto Rank, who was employed as the group's paid secretary. Also in that year Freud began correspondence with Carl Gustav Jung who was then an assistant to Eugen Bleuler at the Burghölzli Mental Hospital in Zurich. In March 1907 Jung and Ludwig Binswanger, also a Swiss psychaitrist, travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussion group. Thereafter they established a small psychoanalytic group in Zurich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutional status, the Wednesday group was renamed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.

Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the original psychoanalytic society and founded their own schools. The most famous of these are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung and Otto Rank.

From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as neurosis began to differ markedly from those held by Freud. As Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudianism a series of confrontations between their respective viewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in January and February 1911. In February 1911 Adler, then the President of the society, resigned his position. At this time Stekel also resigned his position as vice-president of the society. Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to found his own heretical organisation with nine other members who had also resigned from the group. This new formation was initially called ''Society for Free Psychoanalysis'' but it was soon renamed the ''Society for Individual Psychology''. In the period after World War I, Adler became increasingly associated with the psychological position which he devised and that is termed individual psychology.

In 1912 Jung published ''Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido'' (published in English in 1916 as ''Psychology of the Unconscious'') and it became clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psychology. In the autumn of 1913 the relationship between Freud and Jung broke down irretrievably and the Swiss psychoanalytic organisation fell into disrepair.

Freud published a paper entitled The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement in 1914, German original being first published in the ''Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse'', where he gave his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and the withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it.

In 1924, Otto Rank published ''Das Trauma der Geburt'' (translated into English as ''The Trauma of Birth'' in 1929), exploring how art, myth, religion, philosophy and therapy were illuminated by separation anxiety in the “phase before the development of the Oedipus complex.” But there was no such phase in Freud’s theories. The Oedipus complex, Freud explained tirelessly, was the nucleus of the neurosis and the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy – indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time that anyone in the inner circle had dared to suggest that the Oedipus complex might not be the supreme causal factor in psychoanalysis. Rank coined the term “pre-Oedipal” in 1925, and is now considered the first object-relations theorist and therapist. As an outcome of their dispute over ''Das Trauma der Geburt'', Rank broke with Freud in 1926.

Struggle with cancer

In February 1923, Freud detected a leukoplakia, a benign growth associated with heavy smoking, on his mouth. Freud initially kept this secret, but in April 1923 he informed Ernest Jones, telling him that the growth had been removed. Freud consulted the dermatologist Maximilian Steiner, who advised him to quit smoking but lied about the growth's seriousness, minimizing its importance. Freud later saw Felix Deutsch, who saw that the growth was cancerous; he identified it to Freud using the euphemism "a bad leukoplakia" instead of the technical diagnosis epithelioma. Deutsch advised Freud to stop smoking and have the growth excised. Freud was treated by Marcus Hajek, a rhinologist whose competence he had previously questioned. Hajek performed an unnecessary cosmetic surgery in his clinic's outpatient department. Freud bled during and after the operation, and may narrowly have escaped death. Freud subsequently saw Deutsch again. Deutsch saw that further surgery would be required, but refrained from telling Freud that he had cancer because he was worried that Freud might wish to commit suicide.

Escape from Nazism

In 1930, Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in recognition of his contributions to psychology and to German literary culture. In January 1933, the Nazis took control of Germany, and Freud's books were prominent among those they burned and destroyed. Freud quipped: “What progress we are making. In the Middle Ages they would have burned me. Now, they are content with burning my books.” On 12 March 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This led to violent outbursts of anti-Semitism in Vienna, and Freud and his family received visits from the Gestapo. Freud decided to go into exile "to die in freedom". He was fortuitously assisted by Anton Sauerwald, a Nazi official given control over Freud's assets in Austria. Four of Freud's five sisters perished in Nazi concentration camps.

At the University of Vienna, Sauerwald had been a student of Professor Josef Herzig, who often played cards with Freud. Sauerwald did not inform his Nazi superiors that Freud had many secret bank accounts and disobeyed a Nazi directive to have Freud's books on psychoanalysis destroyed, instead smuggling them with an accomplice to the Austrian national library, where they were hidden. Finally, dismayed at being ordered to transform Freud's home into an institute for the study of Aryan superiority, Sauerwald signed Freud's exit visa. In June 1938, Freud and his family left Vienna aboard the Orient Express train. They settled in London, at 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead. In the United Kingdom, Freud told a newspaper that “all my money and property in Vienna is gone”; he did not mention his secret bank accounts. When Anton Sauerwald was tried for stealing Freud’s secret wealth after the war, Anna Freud intervened to protect Sauerwald. She disclosed to her cousin Harry Freud, a US army officer who had had Sauerwald arrested, that: "[The] truth is that we really owe our lives and our freedom to ,... [Sauerwald]. Without him we would never have got away." Sauerwald was then released from U.S. custody.

Death

In September 1939, Freud, who was suffering from cancer and in severe pain, persuaded his doctor and friend Max Schur to help him commit suicide. After reading Honoré de Balzac's ''La Peau de chagrin'' in a single sitting, Freud asked him, “Schur, you remember our ‘contract’ not to leave me in the lurch when the time had come. Now it is nothing but torture and makes no sense.” When Schur replied that he had not forgotten, Freud said, “I thank you.” and then “Talk it over with Anna, and if she thinks it’s right, then make an end of it.” Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father’s death, but Schur convinced her it was pointless to keep him alive, and on 21 and 22 September administered doses of morphine that resulted in Freud's death on 23 September 1939. Three days after his death, Freud's body was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium in England during a service attended by Austrian refugees, including the author Stefan Zweig. His ashes were later placed in the crematorium's columbarium. They rest in an ancient Greek urn that Freud received as a gift from Marie Bonaparte, and which he had kept in his study in Vienna for many years. After his wife Martha's death in 1951, her ashes were also placed in the urn.

Ideas

Freud simultaneously developed a theory of the human mind's organization and internal operations and a theory that human behavior both conditions and results from how the mind is organized. This led him to favor certain clinical techniques for trying to help cure mental illness. He theorized that personality is developed by a person's childhood experiences.

Early work

Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873. He took almost nine years to complete his studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological research, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system. He entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons, receiving his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25. He was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which was then known as "cerebral paralysis." He published several medical papers on the topic, and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom. Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness in order to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions.

Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging a patient to talk in free association and to talk about dreams. Another important element of psychoanalysis is lesser direct involvement on the part of the analyst, which is meant to encourage the patient to project thoughts and feelings onto the analyst. Through this process, transference, the patient can discover and resolve repressed conflicts, especially childhood conflicts involving parents.

The origin of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to Josef Breuer. Freud credited Breuer with opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical method by his treatment of the case of Anna O. In November 1880 Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21-year-old woman (Bertha Pappenheim) for a persistent cough which he diagnosed as hysterical. He found that while nursing her dying father she had developed a number of transitory symptoms, including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent, and observed that she entered states of ''absence''. He found that when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy stories in her evening states of ''absence'' her condition improved, and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. However, following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated again. Breuer recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously, and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom. In the years immediately following Breuer's treatment, Anna O. spent three short periods in sanatoria with the diagnosis "hysteria" with "somatic symptoms," and some authors have challenged Breuer's published account of a cure. Richard Skues rejects this interpretation, which he sees as stemming from both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical revisionism, that regards both Breuer's narrative of the case as unreliable and his treatment of Anna O. as a failure.

In the early 1890s Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Breuer had described to him, modified by what he called his "pressure technique" and his newly developed analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruction. According to Freud's later accounts of this period, as a result of his use of this procedure most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported early childhood sexual abuse. He believed these stories, but then came to believe that they were fantasies. He explained these at first as having the function of "fending off" memories of infantile masturbation, but in later years he wrote that they represented Oedipal fantasies.

Another version of events focuses on Freud's proposing that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses in letters to Fliess in October 1895, before he reported that he had actually discovered such abuse among his patients. In the first half of 1896 Freud published three papers stating that he had uncovered, in all of his current patients, deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in early childhood. In these papers Freud recorded that his patients were not consciously aware of these memories, and must therefore be present as ''unconscious memories'' if they were to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neurosis. The patients were subjected to considerable pressure to "reproduce" infantile sexual abuse "scenes" that Freud was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious. Patients were generally unconvinced that their experiences of Freud's clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He reported that even after a supposed "reproduction" of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief.

As well as his pressure technique, Freud's clinical procedures involved analytic inference and the symbolic interpretation of symptoms to trace back to memories of infantile sexual abuse. His claim of one hundred percent confirmation of his theory only served to reinforce previously expressed reservations from his colleagues about the validity of findings obtained through his suggestive techniques.

Cocaine

As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He believed that cocaine was a cure for many mental and physical problems, and in his 1884 paper "On Coca" he extolled its virtues. Between 1883 and 1887 he wrote several articles recommending medical applications, including its use as an antidepressant. He narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific priority for discovering its anesthetic properties of which he was aware but had mentioned only in passing. (Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud's in Vienna, received that distinction in 1884 after reporting to a medical society the ways cocaine could be used in delicate eye surgery.) Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for morphine addiction. He had introduced cocaine to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow who had become addicted to morphine taken to relieve years of excruciating nerve pain resulting from an infection acquired while performing an autopsy. However, his claim that Fleischl-Marxow was cured of his addiction was premature, though he never acknowledged he had been at fault. Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis", and soon returned to using morphine, dying a few years later after more suffering from intolerable pain.

The application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world, Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished.

After the "Cocaine Episode" Freud ceased to publicly recommend use of the drug, but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before giving it up in 1896. In this period he came under the influence of his friend and confidant Fliess, who recommended cocaine for the treatment of the so-called "nasal reflex neurosis". Fliess, who operated on the noses of several of his own patients, also performed operations on Freud and on one of Freud's patients whom he believed to be suffering from the disorder, Emma Eckstein. However, the surgery proved disastrous.

Some critics have suggested that much of Freud's early psychoanalytical theory was a by-product of his cocaine use.

The Unconscious

Freud argued for the importance of the unconscious mind in understanding conscious thought and behavior. However, as psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer pointed out, "the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in his monumental treatise on psychology, examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term 'unconscious' and 'subconscious'". Moreover, as historian of psychology Mark Altschule observed, "It is difficult—or perhaps impossible—to find a nineteenth-century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance."

Freud's theory of dreams has been compared to Plato's. Ernest Gellner writes that, "Plato and Freud hold virtually the same theory of dreams", but Michel Foucault denies any such equivalence: "The sentence 'dreams fulfil desires' may have been repeated throughout the centuries; it is not the same statement in Plato and in Freud." Freud's dream theory was criticized during his life by Lydiard H. Horton, who in 1915 read a paper at a joint meeting of the American Psychological Association and the New York Academy of Sciences that called Freud's dream theory "dangerously inaccurate" and suggested that "rank confabulations...appear to hold water, psychoanalytically".

Freud developed his first topology of the psyche in ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (1899) in which he proposed that the unconscious exists and described a method for gaining access to it. The preconscious was described as a layer between conscious and unconscious thought; its contents could be accessed with a little effort. One key factor in the operation of the unconscious is "repression". Freud believed that many people "repress" painful memories deep into their unconscious mind. Although Freud later attempted to find patterns of repression among his patients in order to derive a general model of the mind, he also observed that repression varies among individual patients. Freud also argued that the act of repression did not take place within a person's consciousness. Thus, people are unaware of the fact that they have buried memories or traumatic experiences.

Later, Freud distinguished between three concepts of the unconscious: the descriptive unconscious, the dynamic unconscious, and the system unconscious. The descriptive unconscious referred to all those features of mental life of which people are not subjectively aware. The dynamic unconscious, a more specific construct, referred to mental processes and contents that are defensively removed from consciousness as a result of conflicting attitudes. The system unconscious denoted the idea that when mental processes are repressed, they become organized by principles different from those of the conscious mind, such as condensation and displacement.

Eventually, Freud abandoned the idea of the system unconscious, replacing it with the concept of the id, ego, and super-ego. Throughout his career, however, he retained the descriptive and dynamic conceptions of the unconscious.

Psychosexual development

Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy ''Oedipus Rex'' by Sophocles. "I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood," Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification (cf. ''Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality''). He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict. Freud also believed that the Oedipus complex was bisexual, involving an attraction to both parents

Traditional accounts have held that, as a result of frequent reports from his patients, in the mid-1890s Freud posited that psychoneuroses were a consequence of early childhood sexual abuse. More specifically, in three papers published in 1896 he contended that ''unconscious memories'' of sexual abuse in infancy are a necessary precondition for the development of adult psychoneuroses. However, examination of Freud's original papers has revealed that his clinical claims were not based on patients' reports but were findings deriving from his analytical clinical methodology, which at that time included coercive procedures. He privately expressed his loss of faith in the theory to his friend Fliess in September 1897, giving several reasons, including that he had not been able to bring a single case to a successful conclusion. In 1906, while still maintaining that his earlier claims to have uncovered early childhood sexual abuse events remained valid, he postulated a new theory of the occurrence of unconscious infantile fantasies. He had incorporated his notions of unconscious fantasies in ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (1900), but did not explicitly relate his seduction theory claims to the Oedipus theory until 1925. Notwithstanding his abandonment of the seduction theory, Freud always recognized that some neurotics had experienced childhood sexual abuse.

Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process codified by the concept of sublimation. He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse", meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of development—first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in evacuating his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage. In the latter stage, Freud contended, male infants become fixated on the mother as a sexual object (known as the Oedipus Complex), a phase brought to an end by threats of castration, resulting in the ''castration complex'', the severest trauma in his young life. (In his later writings Freud postulated an equivalent Oedipus situation for infant girls, the sexual fixation being on the father. Though not advocated by Freud himself, the term 'Electra complex' is sometimes used in this context.) The repressive or dormant latency stage of psychosexual development preceded the sexually mature genital stage of psychosexual development.

Id, ego, and super-ego

In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', and fully elaborated upon it in ''The Ego and the Id'' (1923), in which he developed it as an alternative to his previous topographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious, and preconscious). The id is the impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and only takes into account what it wants and disregards all consequences.

Freud acknowledged that his use of the term ''Id'' (''das Es'', "the It") derives from the writings of Georg Groddeck.

The super-ego is the moral component of the psyche, which takes into account no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be right for a given situation. The rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the impractical hedonism of the id and the equally impractical moralism of the super-ego; it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's actions. When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it may employ defense mechanisms including denial, repression, and displacement. This concept is usually represented by the "Iceberg Model". This model represents the roles the Id, Ego, and Super Ego play in relation to conscious and unconscious thought.

Life and death drives

Freud believed that people are driven by two conflicting central desires: the life drive (libido or Eros) (survival, propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive. The death drive was also termed "Thanatos", although Freud did not use that term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by Paul Federn.

In ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', Freud inferred the existence of the death instinct. Its premise was a regulatory principle that has been described as "the principle of psychic inertia", "the Nirvana principle", and "the conservatism of instinct". Its background was Freud's earlier ''Project for a Scientific Psychology'', where he had defined the principle governing the mental apparatus as its tendency to divest itself of quantity or to reduce tension to zero. Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition, since it proved to be adequate only to the most rudimentary kinds of mental functioning, and replaced the idea that the apparatus tends toward a level of zero tension with the idea that it tends toward a minimum level of tension.

Freud in effect readopted the original definition in ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', this time applying it to a different principle. He asserted that on certain occasions the mind acts as though could eliminate tension entirely, or in effect to reduce itself to a state of extinction; his key evidence for this was the existence of the compulsion to repeat. Examples of such repetition included the dream life of traumatic neurotics and children's play. In the phenomenon of repetition, Freud saw a psychic trend to work over earlier impressions, to master them and derive pleasure from them, a trend was prior to the pleasure principle but not opposed to it. In addition to that trend, however, there was also a principle at work that was opposed to, and thus "beyond" the pleasure principle. If repetition is a necessary element in the binding of energy or adaptation, when carried to inordinate lengths it becomes a means of abandoning adaptations and reinstating earlier or less evolved psychic positions. By combining this idea with the hypothesis that all repetition is a form of discharge, Freud reached the conclusion that the compulsion to repeat is an effort to restore a state that is both historically primitive and marked by the total draining of energy: death.

Religion

Freud regarded the monotheistic god as an illusion based upon the infantile emotional need for a powerful, supernatural pater familias. He maintained that religion – once necessary to restrain man’s violent nature in the early stages of civilization – in modern times, can be set aside in favor of reason and science. “Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices” (1907) notes the likeness between faith (religious belief) and neurotic obsession. ''Totem and Taboo'' (1913) proposes that society and religion begin with the patricide and eating of the powerful paternal figure, who then becomes a revered collective memory. In ''Civilization and its Discontents'' (1930), he describes religion as an “oceanic sensation” he never experienced, (despite being a self-identified cultural Jew). ''Moses and Monotheism'' (1937) proposes that Moses was the tribal pater familias, killed by the Jews, who psychologically coped with the patricide with a reaction formation conducive to their establishing monotheist Judaism; analogously, he described the Roman Catholic rite of Holy Communion as cultural evidence of the killing and devouring of the sacred father. Moreover, he perceived religion, with its suppression of violence, as mediator of the societal and personal, the public and the private, conflicts between Eros and Thanatos, the forces of life and death. Later works indicate Freud’s pessimism about the future of civilization, which he noted in the 1931 edition of ''Civilization and its Discontents''.

Legacy

Psychotherapy

Freud provided the basis for the entire field of individual verbal psychotherapy. According to Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, "Later systems have differed about therapy and technique in certain respects, but all of them have been constructed around Freud's basic discovery that if one can arrange a special set of conditions and have the patient talk about his difficulties in certain ways, behavior changes of many kinds can be accomplished." For Joel Kovel, "Freud with his methods and central insight remains the progenitor of modern therapy", even though psychoanalysis itself has "sunk to a relatively minor role so far as actual therapeutic practice goes."

Jacques Lacan approached psychoanalysis through linguistics and literature. Lacan believed that Freud's essential work had been done prior to 1905, and concerned the interpretation of dreams, neurotic symptoms, and slips, which had been based on a revolutionary way of understanding language and its relation to experience and subjectivity. Lacan regarded ego psychology and object relations theory as based upon misreadings of Freud's work; for Lacan, the determinative dimension of human experience is neither the self (as in ego psychology) nor relations with others (as in object relations theory), but language. Lacan saw desire as more important than need, and considered it necessarily ungratifiable; in Stephen A. Mitchell and Margaret J. Black's words, "for Lacan, the child comes to desire above all else to be the completing object of the m(other's) desire."

Wilhelm Reich developed ideas that Freud had developed at the beginning of his psychoanalytic investigation, but then superseded but never finally discarded; these were the concept of the Actualneurosis, and a theory of anxiety based upon the idea of dammed-up libido. In Freud's original view, what really happened to a person (the 'actual') determined the resulting neurotic disposition. Freud applied that idea both to infants and to adults; in the former case, seductions were sought as the causes of later neuroses, and in the latter incomplete sexual release. Unlike Freud, Reich retained the idea that actual experience, especially sexual experience, was of key significance. Kovel writes that by the 1920s, Reich had "taken Freud's original ideas about sexual release to the point of specifying the orgasm as the criteria of healthy function." Reich was also "developing his ideas about character into a form that would later take shape, first as 'muscular armour', and eventually as a transducer of universal biological energy, the ''orgone''."

Arthur Janov's primal therapy has been an influential post-Freudian psychotherapy. Joel Kovel writes that primal therapy resembles psychoanalytic therapy in its emphasis on early childhood experience, but nevertheless has profound differences with it. While Janov's theory is akin to Freud's early idea of Actualneurosis, he does not have a dynamic psychology but a nature psychology in which need is primary while wish is derivative and dispensable when need is met. Despite its surface similarity to Freud's ideas, Janov's theory lacks a strictly psychological account of the unconscious and belief in infantile sexuality. While for Freud there was a hierarchy of danger situations, for Janov the key event in the child's life is awareness that the parents do not love it. Mark Pendergrast writes that Janov provided the prototype for the current trauma therapist.

Journalist Ethan Watters and Professor of Sociology Richard Ofshe write, "There is no scientific evidence of...[a] purposeful unconscious, nor is there evidence that psychotherapists have special methods for laying bare our out-of-awareness mental processes." They also write that, "Because of the massive investment the field of psychotherapy has made in the psychodynamic approach, the dying convulsions of the paradigm will not be pretty."

Science

Verdicts on the scientific merits of Freud's theories have differed. Gilbert Ryle calls Freud "psychology's one man of genius" and the influence of his teaching "deservedly profound" even though its allegories have been "damagingly popular", while David Stafford-Clark calls him "a man whose name will always rank with those of Darwin, Copernicus, Newton, Marx and Einstein; someone who really made a difference to the way the rest of us can begin to think about the meaning of human life and society." Seymour Fisher and Roger P. Greenberg write that, "A reservoir of experimental data pertinent to Freud's work currently exists and...offers support for a respectable number of his major ideas and theories." In contrast, Eysenck claims that Freud "set psychiatry back one hundred years" and that "what is true in his theories is not new and what is new in his theories is not true", Peter Medawar, a Nobel Prize winning immunologist, made the oft-quoted remark that psychoanalysis is the "most stupendous intellectual confidence trick of the twentieth century", and Webster calls it "perhaps the most complex and successful" pseudoscience in history. Crews writes that "Step by step, we are learning that Freud has been the most overrated figure in the entire history of science and medicine—one who wrought immense harm through the propagation of false etiologies, mistaken diagnoses, and fruitless lines of inquiry."

Karl Popper, who argued that all proper scientific theories must be potentially falsifiable, claimed that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in unfalsifiable form, meaning that no experiment or observation could ever prove them wrong. Grünbaum considers Popper's critique of Freud flawed, and argues that many of Freud's theories are empirically testable, for example the theory that paranoia results from repressed homosexuality invites the falsifiable prediction that a decline in the repression of homosexuality will result in a corresponding decline in paranoia, thereby disproving Popper's claim that psychoanalytic propositions can never be proven wrong. However, Grünbaum's view has in turn been challenged from different perspectives. Gellner describes Freudian psychoanalysis as "an inherently untestable system [that] can and does often permit a kind of ''ex gratia'' testing, on the understanding that this privilege remains easily revocable at will and short notice". Frank Cioffi and Allen Esterson both dispute Grünbaum's contentions that Freud was "hospitable to refutation" and his modifications of his theories as a rule "clearly motivated by evidence", arguing that his exegesis of Freud's writings is flawed on this issue.

According to a study that appeared in the June 2008 issue of ''The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association'', while psychoanalysis remains influential in the humanities, it is regarded as "desiccated and dead" by psychology departments and textbooks. ''The New York Times'' commented that to psychoanalysts the report underscores "pressing questions about the relevance of their field and whether it will survive as a practice", noting that the marginalization of Freudian theory in psychology departments has been attributed to psychoanalysts being out of step with the way in which other disciplines in psychology have placed "emphasis on testing the validity of their approaches scientifically." Meanwhile, advances in neuroscience have "attracted new students and resources, further squeezing out psychoanalysis."

Researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis, founded by neuroscientist and psychoanalyst Mark Solms, have argued for Freud's theories, pointing out brain structures relating to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression. However, Solms's case is frequently dependent on the notion of neuro-scientific findings being "broadly consistent" with Freudian theories, rather than strict validations of those theories. More generally the dream researcher G. William Domhoff has disputed claims of ''specifically'' Freudian dream theory being validated as contended by Solms. There has also been criticism of the very concept of neuro-psychoanalysis by psychoanalysts.

Philosophy

Freud's theories have influenced the Frankfurt School and critical theory. Herbert Marcuse's ''Eros and Civilization'' helped make the idea that Freud and Marx were "speaking to similar questions, if from very different vantage points" credible to the left. Marcuse criticized neo-Freudian revisionism for discarding the death instinct, the primal horde, and the killing of the primal father, which he saw as Freud's most daring hypotheses and possessed of symbolic value, and for flattening out the conflicts between individual and society and between instinctual desires and consciousness, which he saw as a conformist return to pre-Freudian psychology. Rejecting the idea that the death instinct meant an innate urge to aggression, Marcuse interpreted it instead as aiming at the end of the tension that is life. For Marcuse, since it was based on the so-called Nirvana principle, which expressed yearning for the tranquility of inorganic nature, the death instinct was similar in its goals to the life instinct. Marcuse argued that if the tension of life were reduced, the death instinct would cease to be very powerful, thereby turning Freud's seemingly pessimistic conclusions in a utopian direction.

Erich Fromm identifies Freud, together with Karl Marx and Albert Einstein, as the "architects of the modern age", while nevertheless remarking, "That Marx is a figure of world historical significance with whom Freud cannot even be compared in this respect hardly needs to be said." For Paul Robinson, Freud "rendered for the twentieth century services comparable to those Marx rendered for the nineteenth."

Maurice Merleau-Ponty considers Freud, like Hegel, Kierkegaard, Marx, and Nietzsche, to be one of the anticipators of phenomenology. Theodor W. Adorno writes that Freud was Edmund Husserl's "opposite number...against the entire claim and tendency of whose psychology Husserl's polemic against psychologism could have been directed." Paul Ricoeur sees Freud as one of the masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Marx and Nietzsche. Ricoeur and Jürgen Habermas have helped create "a distinctly hermeneutic version of Freud", one which "claimed him as the most significant progenitor of the shift from an objectifying, empiricist understanding of the human realm to one stressing subjectivity and interpretation." Their hermeneutic interpretation of Freud has been criticized by Adolf Grünbaum, who argues that it radically misrepresents Freud's views.

Jacques Derrida finds Freud to be both a late figure in the history of western metaphysics and, with Nietzsche and Heidegger, an important precursor of his own brand of radicalism.

Bernard Williams writes that there has been hope that some psychoanalytical theories may "support some ethical conception as a necessary part of human happiness", but that in some cases the theories appear to support such hopes because they themselves involve ethical thought. In his view, while such theories may be better as channels of individual help because of their ethical basis, it disqualifies them from providing a basis for ethics.

Feminism

Robinson, observing that "Everyone knows that Freud has fallen from grace", suggests that the disenchantment with Freud can be traced to the revival of feminism. Simone de Beauvoir criticized Freud and psychoanalysis in ''The Second Sex''. Betty Friedan criticized Freud and what she considered his Victorian view of women in ''The Feminine Mystique''. Freud's concept of penis envy was attacked by Kate Millett, whose ''Sexual Politics'' accused him of confusion and oversights. Naomi Weisstein writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought that his "years of intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor. Freud was also criticized by Shulamith Firestone and Eva Figes. In ''The Dialectic of Sex'', Firestone argued that Freud was a "poet" who produced metaphors rather than literal truths; in her view, Freud, like feminists, recognized that sexuality was the crucial problem of modern life, but ignored the social context and failed to question society itself. Firestone interpreted Freudian "metaphors" in terms of the literal facts of power within the family. Juliet Mitchell defended Freud against de Beauvoir, Friedan, Millett, Figes, and Firestone in ''Psychoanalysis and Feminism'', accusing them of misreading him and misunderstanding the implications of psychoanalytic theory for feminism. Mitchell's views were in turn criticized by Jane Gallop in ''The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis''. Gallop complements Mitchell for her criticism of "the distortions inflicted by feminists upon Freud's text and his discoveries", but finds her treatment of Lacanian theory lacking.

Some French feminists, among them Julia Kristeva and Luce Irigaray, have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by Jacques Lacan. Irigaray has produced a theoretical challenge to Freud and Lacan, using their theories against them to "put forward a coherent psychoanalytic explanation for theoretical bias. She claims that the cultural unconscious only recognizes the male sex, and details the effects of this unconscious belief on accounts of the psychology of women."

Carol Gilligan writes that "The penchant of developmental theorists to project a masculine image, and one that appears frightening to women, goes back at least to Freud..." She sees Freud's criticism of women's sense of justice reappearing in the work of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan notes that Nancy Chodorow, in contrast to Freud, attributes differences between the sexes not to anatomy but to the fact that "the early social environment differs for and is experienced differently by male and female children." Chodorow writes "against the masculine bias of psychoanalytic theory" and "replaces Freud's negative and derivative description of female psychology with a positive and direct account of her own."

Works

Major works by Freud

''The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works'' of Sigmund Freud, translated from the German under the General Editorship of James Strachey. In collaboration with Anna Freud. Assisted by Alix Strachey and Alan Tyson, 24 volumes, Vintage, 1999

''Studies on Hysteria'' (with Josef Breuer) (''Studien über Hysterie'', 1895)

''The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887–1904'', Publisher: Belknap Press, 1986, ISBN 978-0-674-15421-6

''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (''Die Traumdeutung'', 1899 [1900]) ISBN 978-0-465-01977-9

''The Psychopathology of Everyday Life'' (''Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens'', 1901) ISBN 978-1-4565-6856-6

''Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality'' (''Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie'', 1905)

''Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious'' (''Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewußten'', 1905)

''Delusion and Dream in Jensen's Gradiva (''Der Wahn und die Träume in W. Jensens Gradiva'', 1907)

''Totem and Taboo'' (''Totem und Tabu'', 1913)

''On Narcissism'' (''Zur Einführung des Narzißmus'', 1914)

''Introduction to Psychoanalysis'' (''Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse'', 1917)

''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'' (''Jenseits des Lustprinzips'', 1920)

''The Ego and the Id'' (''Das Ich und das Es'', 1923)

''The Future of an Illusion'' (''Die Zukunft einer Illusion'', 1927)

''Civilization and Its Discontents'' (''Das Unbehagen in der Kultur'', 1930)

''Moses and Monotheism'' (''Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische Religion'', 1939)

''An Outline of Psycho-Analysis'' (''Abriß der Psychoanalyse'', 1940)

Correspondence

'' The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Otto Rank: Inside Psychoanalysis'' (eds. E. J. Lieberman and Robert Kramer). Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012. http://www.amazon.com/Letters-Sigmund-Freud-Otto-Rank/dp/1421403544

''The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887–1904, (editor and translator Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson), 1985, ISBN 978-0-674-15420-9

''The Sigmund Freud Carl Gustav Jung Letters'', Publisher: Princeton University Press; Abr edition, 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-03643-4

''The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham, 1907–1925'', Publisher: Karnac Books, 2002, ISBN 978-1-85575-051-7

''The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones, 1908–1939.'', Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-674-15424-7

''The Sigmund Freud Ludwig Binswanger Letters'', Publisher: Open Gate Press, 2000, ISBN 978-1-871871-45-6

''The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Volume 1, 1908–1914'', Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-674-17418-4

''The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Volume 2, 1914–1919'', Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0-674-17419-1

''The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Volume 3, 1920–1933'', Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-674-00297-5

''The Letters of Sigmund Freud to Eduard Silberstein, 1871–1881'', Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-52828-4

''Sigmund Freud and Lou Andreas-Salome; letters'', Publisher: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; 1972, ISBN 978-0-15-133490-2

''The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Arnold Zweig'', Publisher: New York University Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-8147-2585-6

''Letters of Sigmund Freud – selected and edited by Ernst Ludwig Freud'', Publisher: New York: Basic Books, 1960, ISBN 978-0-486-27105-7

Other works and essays

''Reflections on War and Death'' (''Zeitgemäßes über Krieg und Tod'', 1918)

See also

A Dangerous Method

Afterwardsness

American Psychoanalytic Association

Dark City (1998 film)

Dostoevsky and Parricide

Edward Bernays

Freud and religion

Freud: The Secret Passion

Freud's seduction theory

Freudian slip

Freudo-Marxism

History of the Jews in Galicia (Eastern Europe)

Neo-Freudian

Psychoanalytic literary criticism

Psychoanalytic theory

Psychodynamics

Psychosexual development

Sigmund Freud Archives

Sigmund Freud Museum (London)

Sigmund Freud Museum (Vienna)

Sigmund Freud's views on homosexuality

Signorelli parapraxis

The Century of the Self (related documentary)

The Death of Salvador Dali

The Mark Steel Lectures – Freud

References

Further reading

Substantial biographies

Authorized biography

Jones, Ernest. ''The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud.'' 3 vols. New York: Basic Books, 1953–1957

Other biographies

Gay, Peter. ''Freud: A Life for Our Time.'' London: Papermac, 1988; 2nd revised hardcover edition, Little Books (1 May 2006), 864 pages, ISBN 978-1904435532; Reprint hardcover edition, W. W. Norton & Company (1988); trade paperback, W. W. Norton & Company (17 May 2006), 864 pages, ISBN 978-0393328615

Puner, Helen Walker. ''Freud: His Life and His Mind.'' New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1947

Roazen, Paul. ''Freud and His Followers.'' New York: Knopf, 1975, hardcover; trade paperback, De Capo Press (22 March 1992), 600 pages, ISBN 978-0306804724

Other works about Freud and the psychoanalytic movement

Cioffi, Frank. ''Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience.'' Peru, IL: Open Court, 1999.

Crews, Frederick. ''The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute.'' New York: The New York Review of Books, 1995.

Crews, Frederick. ''Unauthorized Freud: Doubters Confront a Legend.'' New York: Penguin Books, 1998.

Dufresne, Todd. ''Killing Freud: Twentieth-Century Culture and the Death of Psychoanalysis.'' New York: Continuum, 2003.

Dufresne, Todd, ed. ''Against Freud: Critics Talk Back.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.

Ellenberger, Henri. ''Beyond the Unconscious: Essays of Henri F. Ellenberger in the History of Psychiatry.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.

Ellenberger, Henri. ''The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry.'' New York: Basic Books, 1970.

Esterson, Allen. ''Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud.'' Chicago: Open Court, 1993.

Gellner, Ernest. ''The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason.'' London: Fontana Press, 1993.

Grünbaum, Adolf. ''The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.

Grünbaum, Adolf. ''Validation in the Clinical Theory of Psychoanalysis: A Study in the Philosophy of Psychoanalysis.'' Madison, Connecticut: International Universities Press, 1993.

Hale, Nathan G., Jr. ''Freud and the Americans: The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis in the United States, 1876–1917.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Hale, Nathan G., Jr. ''The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985.'' New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Hirschmüller, Albrecht. ''The Life and Work of Josef Breuer.'' New York University Press, 1989.

Jung, Carl Gustav. ''The Collected Works of C. G. Jung Volume 4: Freud and Psychoanalysis.'' Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1961.

Macmillan, Malcolm. ''Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc.'' Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1997.

Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. ''The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory.'' New York: Pocket Books, 1998

Ricoeur, Paul. ''Freud and Philosophy.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970.

Rieff, Philip. ''Freud: The Mind of the Moralist.'' Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1961

Roazen, Paul. ''Freud: Political and Social Thought.'' London: Hogarth Press, 1969.

Roth, Michael, ed. ''Freud: Conflict and Culture.'' New York: Vintage, 1998.

Stannard, David E. ''Shrinking History: On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.

Sulloway, Frank J. ''Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend.'' London: Basic Books, 1979

Webster, Richard. ''Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis.'' Oxford: The Orwell Press, 2005.

Wollheim, Richard. ''Freud.'' Fontana, 1971.

Wollheim, Richard, and James Hopkins, eds. ''Philosophical Essays on Freud.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.

External links

, made in 1938

''Dream Psychology'' by Sigmund Freud

Essays by Freud at Quotidiana.org

Freud Archives at Library of Congress

Freud Museum, Maresfield Gardens, London

International Network of Freud Critics

International Psychoanalytical Association, founded by Freud in 1910

Sigmund Freud Collection at Bartleby.com (15 works in English)

Works by Sigmund Freud (public domain in Canada)

Works by Sigmund Freud in audio format from LibriVox

{{s-ttl|title=Cover of Time Magazine |years=27 October 1924}}

Category:Austrian atheists Category:Austrian Jews Category:Austrian psychoanalysts Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society Category:Jewish atheists Category:Jews who emigrated to the United Kingdom to escape Nazism Category:Narcissism Category:People from Příbor Category:People of the Edwardian era Category:1856 births Category:1939 deaths Category:History of psychiatry

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Coordinates	16°35′″N94°54′30″N
name	C. S. Lewis
birth name	Clive Staples Lewis
alt	Monochrome head-and-left-shoulder photo portrait of 50-year-old Lewis
birth date	November 29, 1898
birth place	Belfast, Ireland
death date	November 22, 1963
death place	Oxford, England
occupation	Novelist, scholar, broadcaster
nationality	British
genre	Fantasy, science fiction, Christian apologetics, children's literature
notableworks	''The Chronicles of Narnia'' ''Mere Christianity'' ''The Allegory of Love'' ''The Screwtape Letters'' The Space Trilogy ''Till We Have Faces''''Surprised by Joy: The Shape of My Early Life''
signature	CS Lewis Signature.svg }}

Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 22 November 1963), commonly referred to as C. S. Lewis and known to his friends and family as "Jack", was a British novelist, academic, medievalist, literary critic, essayist, lay theologian and Christian apologist from Ireland. He is well known for his fictional work, especially ''The Screwtape Letters'', ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' and ''The Space Trilogy''.

Lewis was a close friend of J. R. R. Tolkien, and both authors were leading figures in the English faculty at Oxford University and in the informal Oxford literary group known as the "Inklings". According to his memoir ''Surprised by Joy'', Lewis had been baptised in the Church of Ireland (part of the Anglican Communion) at birth, but fell away from his faith during his adolescence. Owing to the influence of Tolkien and other friends, at the age of 32 Lewis returned to the Anglican Communion, becoming "a very ordinary layman of the Church of England". His faith had a profound effect on his work, and his wartime radio broadcasts on the subject of Christianity brought him wide acclaim.

In 1956 he married the American writer Joy Gresham, 17 years his junior, who died four years later of cancer at the age of 45. Lewis died three years after his wife, as the result of renal failure. His death came one week before his 65th birthday. Media coverage of his death was minimal, as he died on 22 November 1963 – the same day that U.S. President John F. Kennedy was assassinated, and the same day another famous author, Aldous Huxley, died. Lewis's works have been translated into more than 30 languages and have sold millions of copies. The books that make up ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' have sold the most and have been popularised on stage, TV, radio and cinema.

Biography

Childhood

Clive Staples Lewis was born in Belfast, Ireland, on 29 November 1898. His father was Albert James Lewis (1863–1929), a solicitor whose father, Richard, had come to Ireland from Wales during the mid 19th century. His mother was Florence Augusta Lewis, née Hamilton (1862–1908), known as Flora, the daughter of a Church of Ireland (Anglican) priest. He had an elder brother, Warren Hamilton Lewis. At the age of four, shortly after his dog Jacksie was killed by a car, he announced that his name was now Jacksie. At first he would answer to no other name, but later accepted Jack, the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life. When he was seven, his family moved into "Little Lea", the family home of his childhood, in the Strandtown area of East Belfast.

As a boy, Lewis had a fascination with anthropomorphic animals, falling in love with Beatrix Potter's stories and often writing and illustrating his own animal stories. He and his brother Warnie together created the world of Boxen, inhabited and run by animals. Lewis loved to read, and as his father's house was filled with books, he felt that finding a book to read was as easy as walking into a field and "finding a new blade of grass."

Lewis was schooled by private tutors before being sent to the Wynyard School in Watford, Hertfordshire, in 1908, just after his mother's death from cancer. Lewis' brother had enrolled there three years previously. The school was closed not long afterwards due to a lack of pupils; the headmaster Robert "Oldie" Capron was soon after committed to a psychiatric hospital. Lewis then attended Campbell College in the east of Belfast about a mile from his home, but he left after a few months due to respiratory problems. He was then sent to the health-resort town of Malvern, Worcestershire, where he attended the preparatory school Cherbourg House, which Lewis calls "Chartres" in his autobiography. It was during this time that Lewis abandoned his childhood Christian faith and became an atheist, becoming interested in mythology and the occult. In September 1913, Lewis enrolled at Malvern College, where he remained until the following June. He found the school socially competitive. After leaving Malvern he studied privately with William T. Kirkpatrick, his father's old tutor and former headmaster of Lurgan College.

As a teenager, he was wonderstruck by the songs and legends of what he called ''Northernness'', the ancient literature of Scandinavia preserved in the Icelandic sagas. These legends intensified an inner longing he later called "joy". He also grew to love nature; its beauty reminded him of the stories of the North, and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature. His teenage writings moved away from the tales of Boxen, and he began using different art forms (epic poetry and opera) to try to capture his new-found interest in Norse mythology and the natural world. Studying with Kirkpatrick ("The Great Knock", as Lewis afterwards called him) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology and sharpened his skills in debate and sound reasoning. In 1916, Lewis was awarded a scholarship at University College, Oxford.

"My Irish life"

Lewis experienced a certain cultural shock on first arriving in England: "No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England", Lewis wrote in ''Surprised by Joy'', continuing, "The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons. But what was worst was the English landscape ... I have made up the quarrel since; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal."

From boyhood Lewis immersed himself firstly in Norse and Greek and then in Irish mythology and literature and expressed an interest in the Irish language, though there is not much evidence that he laboured to learn it. He developed a particular fondness for W. B. Yeats, in part because of Yeats's use of Ireland's Celtic heritage in poetry. In a letter to a friend Lewis wrote, "I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart, whom I am sure you would delight in, W. B. Yeats. He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology."

In 1921, Lewis met Yeats twice, since Yeats had moved to Oxford. Surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the Celtic Revival movement, Lewis wrote: "I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met: perhaps his appeal is purely Irish – if so, then thank the gods that I am Irish." Early in his career, Lewis considered sending his work to the major Dublin publishers, writing: "If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher, I think I shall try Maunsel, those Dublin people, and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school."

Lewis occasionally expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism toward the English. Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman he wrote: "Like all Irish people who meet in England we ended by criticisms on the invincible flippancy and dulness of the Anglo-Saxon race. After all, there is no doubt, ami, that the Irish are the only people: with all their faults I would not gladly live or die among another folk." Throughout his life, he sought out the company of other Irish living in England and visited Northern Ireland regularly, even spending his honeymoon there in 1958 at the Old Inn, Crawfordsburn. He called this "my Irish life."

Various critics have suggested that it was Lewis's dismay over sectarian conflict in his native Belfast that led him to eventually adopt such an ecumenical brand of Christianity. As one critic has said, Lewis "repeatedly extolled the virtues of all branches of the Christian faith, emphasising a need for unity among Christians around what the Catholic writer G.K. Chesterton called ‘Mere Christianity’, the core doctrinal beliefs that all denominations share." On the other hand, Paul Stevens of the University of Toronto has written that "Lewis's ''Mere Christianity'' masked many of the political prejudices of an old-fashioned Ulster Protestant, a native of middle-class Belfast for whom British withdrawal from Northern Ireland even in the 1950s and 1960s was unthinkable"

World War I

In 1917, Lewis left his studies to volunteer in the British Army. During World War I he was commissioned an officer in the Third Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry. Lewis arrived at the front line in the Somme Valley in France on his nineteenth birthday, and experienced trench warfare.

On 15 April 1918, Lewis was wounded and two of his colleagues were killed by an English shell falling short of its target. Lewis suffered from depression and homesickness during his convalescence. Upon his recovery in October, he was assigned to duty in Andover, England. He was discharged in December 1918, and soon returned to his studies. Lewis received a First in Honour Moderations (Greek and Latin Literature) in 1920, a First in Greats (Philosophy and Ancient History) in 1922, and a First in English in 1923.

Jane Moore

While being trained for the army Lewis shared a room with another cadet, Edward Courtnay Francis "Paddy" Moore (1898–1918). Maureen Moore, Paddy's sister, said that the two made a mutual pact that if either died during the war, the survivor would take care of both their families. Paddy was killed in action in 1918 and Lewis kept his promise. Paddy had earlier introduced Lewis to his mother, Jane King Moore, and a friendship quickly sprang up between Lewis, who was eighteen when they met, and Jane, who was forty-five. The friendship with Mrs. Moore was particularly important to Lewis while he was recovering from his wounds in hospital, as his father did not visit Lewis.

Lewis lived with and cared for Mrs. Moore until she was hospitalised in the late 1940s. He routinely introduced her as his "mother", and referred to her as such in letters. Lewis, whose own mother had died when he was a child and whose father was distant, demanding and eccentric, developed a deeply affectionate friendship with Mrs. Moore.

Speculation regarding their relationship re-surfaced with the publication of A. N. Wilson's biography of Lewis. Wilson (who had never met Lewis) attempted to make a case for their having been lovers for a time. Wilson's biography was not the first to address the question of Lewis's relationship with Mrs. Moore. George Sayer, who knew Lewis for 29 years, sought to shed light on the relationship during the period of 14 years prior to Lewis's conversion to Christianity, in his biography ''Jack: A Life of C. S. Lewis'', in which he wrote:

Were they lovers? Owen Barfield, who knew Jack well in the 1920s, once said that he thought the likelihood was "fifty-fifty." Although she was twenty-six years older than Jack, she was still a handsome woman, and he was certainly infatuated with her. But it seems very odd, if they were lovers, that he would call her "mother." We know, too, that they did not share the same bedroom. It seems most likely that he was bound to her by the promise he had given to Paddy and that his promise was reinforced by his love for her as his second mother.

Later Sayer changed his mind. In the introduction to the 1997 edition of his biography of Lewis he wrote:

I have had to alter my opinion of Lewis's relationship with Mrs. Moore. In chapter eight of this book I wrote that I was uncertain about whether they were lovers. Now after conversations with Mrs. Moore's daughter, Maureen, and a consideration of the way in which their bedrooms were arranged at The Kilns, I am quite certain that they were.

Lewis spoke well of Mrs. Moore throughout his life, saying to his friend George Sayer, "She was generous and taught me to be generous, too."

In December 1917 Lewis wrote in a letter to his childhood friend Arthur Greeves that Jane and Greeves were "the two people who matter most to me in the world."

In 1930, Lewis and his brother Warnie moved, with Mrs. Moore and her daughter Maureen, into "The Kilns", a house in the district of Headington Quarry on the outskirts of Oxford (now part of the suburb of Risinghurst). They all contributed financially to the purchase of the house, which passed to Maureen, then Dame Maureen Dunbar, Btss., when Warren died in 1973.

Mrs. Moore suffered from dementia in her later years and was eventually moved into a nursing home, where she died in 1951. Lewis visited her every day in this home until her death.

Conversion to Christianity

Lewis was raised in a church-going family in the Church of Ireland. He became an atheist at 15, though he later described his young self as being paradoxically "very angry with God for not existing".

His early separation from Christianity began when he started to view his religion as a chore and as a duty; around this time, he also gained an interest in the occult, as his studies expanded to include such topics. Lewis quoted Lucretius (''De rerum natura'', 5.198–9) as having one of the strongest arguments for atheism:

:''Nequaquam nobis divinitus esse paratam'' :''Naturam rerum; tanta stat praedita culpa''

:"Had God designed the world, it would not be :A world so frail and faulty as we see."

Lewis's interest in the works of George MacDonald was part of what turned him from atheism. This can be seen particularly well through this passage in Lewis's ''The Great Divorce'', chapter nine, when the semi-autobiographical main character meets MacDonald in Heaven:

...I tried, trembling, to tell this man all that his writings had done for me. I tried to tell how a certain frosty afternoon at Leatherhead Station when I had first bought a copy of ''Phantastes'' (being then about sixteen years old) had been to me what the first sight of Beatrice had been to Dante: ''Here begins the new life''. I started to confess how long that Life had delayed in the region of imagination merely: how slowly and reluctantly I had come to admit that his Christendom had more than an accidental connexion with it, how hard I had tried not to see the true name of the quality which first met me in his books is Holiness.

He slowly re-embraced Christianity, influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and friend J. R. R. Tolkien, whom he seems to have met for the first time on 11 May 1926, and by the book ''The Everlasting Man'' by G. K. Chesterton. He fought greatly up to the moment of his conversion, noting that he was brought into Christianity like a prodigal, "kicking, struggling, resentful, and darting his eyes in every direction for a chance to escape." He described his last struggle in ''Surprised by Joy'':

You must picture me alone in that room in Magdalen, night after night, feeling, whenever my mind lifted even for a second from my work, the steady, unrelenting approach of Him whom I so earnestly desired not to meet. That which I greatly feared had at last come upon me. In the Trinity Term of 1929 I gave in, and admitted that God was God, and knelt and prayed: perhaps, that night, the most dejected and reluctant convert in all England.

After his conversion to theism in 1929, Lewis converted to Christianity in 1931, following a long discussion and late-night walk with his close friends Tolkien and Hugo Dyson. He records making a specific commitment to Christian belief while on his way to the zoo with his brother. He became a member of the Church of England – somewhat to the disappointment of Tolkien, who had hoped that he would convert to Roman Catholicism.

Lewis was a committed Anglican who upheld a largely orthodox Anglican theology, though in his apologetic writings, he made an effort to avoid espousing any one denomination. In his later writings, some believe that he proposed ideas such as purification of venial sins after death in purgatory (''The Great Divorce'' and ''Letters to Malcolm'') and mortal sin (''The Screwtape Letters''), which are generally considered to be Roman Catholic teachings, although they are also widely held in Anglicanism (particularly in high church Anglo-Catholic circles). Regardless, Lewis considered himself an entirely orthodox Anglican to the end of his life, reflecting that he had initially attended church only to receive communion and had been repelled by the hymns and the poor quality of the sermons. He later came to consider himself honoured by worshipping with men of faith who came in shabby clothes and work boots and who sang all the verses to all the hymns.

Joy Gresham

In Lewis's later life, he corresponded with and later met Joy Davidman Gresham, an American writer of Jewish background, a former Communist, and a convert from atheism to Christianity. She was separated from her alcoholic and abusive husband, the novelist William L. Gresham, and came to England with her two sons, David and Douglas. Lewis at first regarded her as an agreeable intellectual companion and personal friend, and it was at least overtly on this level that he agreed to enter into a civil marriage contract with her so that she could continue to live in the UK. Lewis's brother Warnie wrote: "For Jack the attraction was at first undoubtedly intellectual. Joy was the only woman whom he had met... who had a brain which matched his own in suppleness, in width of interest, and in analytical grasp, and above all in humour and a sense of fun" . However, after complaining of a painful hip, she was diagnosed with terminal bone cancer, and the relationship developed to the point that they sought a Christian marriage. Since she was divorced, this was not straightforward in the Church of England at the time, but a friend, the Rev. Peter Bide, performed the ceremony at her hospital bed in March 1957.

Gresham's cancer soon went into a brief remission, and the couple lived as a family (together with Warren Lewis) until her eventual relapse and death in 1960. The year she died, the couple took a brief holiday in Greece and the Aegean in 1960; Lewis was fond of walking but not of travel, and this marked his only crossing of the English Channel after 1918. Lewis's book ''A Grief Observed'' describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that Lewis originally released it under the pseudonym N.W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him. Ironically, many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief. His authorship was made public after his death by Faber's, with the permission of the executors.

Lewis continued to raise Gresham's two sons after her death. While Douglas Gresham is, like Lewis and his mother, a Christian, David Gresham turned to the faith into which his mother had been born and became Orthodox Jewish in his beliefs. His mother's writings had featured the Jews, particularly one "shohet" (ritual slaughterer), in an unsympathetic manner. David informed Lewis that he was going to become a ritual slaughterer in order to present this type of Jewish religious functionary to the world in a more favourable light. In a 2005 interview, Douglas Gresham acknowledged he and his brother were not close, but he did say they are in email contact. Douglas remains involved in the affairs of the Lewis estate.

Illness and death

In early June 1961, Lewis began experiencing medical problems and was diagnosed with inflammation of the kidneys which resulted in blood poisoning. His illness caused him to miss the autumn term at Cambridge, though his health gradually began improving in 1962 and he returned that April. Lewis's health continued to improve, and according to his friend George Sayer, Lewis was fully himself by the spring of 1963. However, on 15 July 1963 he fell ill and was admitted to hospital. The next day at 5:00 pm, Lewis suffered a heart attack and lapsed into a coma, unexpectedly awaking the following day at 2:00 pm. After he was discharged from the hospital, Lewis returned to the Kilns, though he was too ill to return to work. As a result, he resigned from his post at Cambridge in August. Lewis's condition continued to decline, and in mid-November he was diagnosed with end-stage renal failure. On 22 November 1963 Lewis collapsed in his bedroom at 5:30 pm and died a few minutes later, exactly one week before his 65th birthday. He is buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church, Headington, Oxford . Almost 10 years later, his brother Warren Hamilton "Warnie" Lewis, who died on 9 April 1973, was buried next to him.

Media coverage of his death was almost completely overshadowed by news of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, which occurred on the same day, as did the death of Aldous Huxley, author of ''Brave New World''. This coincidence was the inspiration for Peter Kreeft's book ''Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley'' .

C. S. Lewis is commemorated on 22 November in the church calendar of the Episcopal Church.

Career

Scholar

thumb|right|Magdalen College, Oxford Lewis began his academic career as an undergraduate student at Oxford, where he won a triple first, the highest honours in three areas of study. Lewis then taught as a fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, for nearly thirty years, from 1925 to 1954, and later was the first Professor of Medieval and Renaissance English at the University of Cambridge and a fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge. Using this position, he argued that there was no such thing as an English Renaissance. Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages, especially its use of allegory. His ''The Allegory of Love'' (1936) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives like the ''Roman de la Rose''. Lewis wrote several prefaces to old works of literature and poetry, like Layamon's ''Brut''. His book "A Preface to ''Paradise Lost''" is still one of the most valuable criticisms of that work. His last academic work, ''The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964), is a summary of the medieval world view, the "discarded image" of the cosmos in his title.

thumb|left|upright|The Eagle and Child pub in Oxford where the Inklings met on Tuesday mornings in 1939Lewis was a prolific writer, and his circle of literary friends became an informal discussion society known as the "Inklings", including J. R. R. Tolkien, Nevill Coghill, Lord David Cecil, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and his brother Warren Lewis. At least one scholar points to December 1929 as the Inklings' beginning date. Lewis's friendship with Coghill and Tolkien grew during their time as members of the Kolbítar, an Old Norse reading group Tolkien founded and which ended around the time of the inception of the Inklings. At Oxford he was the tutor of, among many other undergraduates, poet John Betjeman, critic Kenneth Tynan, mystic Bede Griffiths, and Sufi scholar Martin Lings. Curiously, the religious and conservative Betjeman detested Lewis, whereas the anti-Establishment Tynan retained a life-long admiration for him .

Of Tolkien, Lewis writes in ''Surprised by Joy'':

When I began teaching for the English Faculty, I made two other friends, both Christians (these queer people seemed now to pop up on every side) who were later to give me much help in getting over the last stile. They were H.V.V. Dyson ... and J.R.R. Tolkien. Friendship with the latter marked the breakdown of two old prejudices. At my first coming into the world I had been (implicitly) warned never to trust a Papist, and at my first coming into the English Faculty (explicitly) never to trust a philologist. Tolkien was both.

Novelist

In addition to his scholarly work, Lewis wrote a number of popular novels, including his science fiction The Space Trilogy and his fantasy fiction Narnian books, most dealing implicitly with Christian themes such as sin, humanity's fall from grace, and redemption.

''The Pilgrim's Regress''

His first novel after becoming a Christian was ''The Pilgrim's Regress,'' which depicted his experience with Christianity in the style of John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress''. The book was poorly received by critics at the time, although D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones, one of Lewis's contemporaries at Oxford, gave him much-valued encouragement. Asked by Lloyd-Jones when he would write another book, Lewis replied, "When I understand the meaning of prayer."

"Space Trilogy" novels

His "Space Trilogy" or "Ransom Trilogy" novels (also called the "Cosmic Trilogy") dealt with what Lewis saw as the de-humanising trends in contemporary science fiction. The first book, ''Out of the Silent Planet'', was apparently written following a conversation with his friend J. R. R. Tolkien about these trends; Lewis agreed to write a "space travel" story and Tolkien a "time travel" one. Tolkien's story, "The Lost Road", a tale connecting his Middle-earth mythology and the modern world, was never completed. Lewis's main character of Ransom is based in part on Tolkien, a fact that Tolkien himself alludes to in his ''Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien''. The second novel, ''Perelandra'', depicts a new Garden of Eden on the planet Venus, a new Adam and Eve, and a new "serpent figure" to tempt them. The story can be seen as a hypothesis of what could have happened if the terrestrial Eve had resisted the serpent's temptation and avoided the Fall of Man. The last novel in the Trilogy, ''That Hideous Strength'', further develops the theme of nihilistic science threatening traditional human values embodied in Arthurian legend (and making reference to Tolkien's fictional universe of Middle-earth).

Many of the ideas in the Trilogy, particularly the opposition to de-humanization in the third volume, are presented more formally in Lewis’ ''The Abolition of Man'', based on his series of lectures at Durham University in 1943. Lewis stayed in Durham, where he was overwhelmed by the cathedral. ''That Hideous Strength'' is in fact set in the environs of 'Edgestow' university, a small English university like Durham, though Lewis disclaims any other resemblance between the two.

Walter Hooper, Lewis's literary executor, discovered a fragment of another science-fiction novel by Lewis, ''The Dark Tower'', but it is unfinished; it is not clear whether the book was intended as part of the same series of novels. The manuscript was eventually published in 1977, though Lewis scholar Kathryn Lindskoog doubts its authenticity.

''The Chronicles of Narnia''

''The Chronicles of Narnia'' is a series of seven fantasy novels for children and is considered a classic of children's literature. Written between 1949 and 1954 and illustrated by Pauline Baynes, the series is Lewis's most popular work, having sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages . It has been adapted several times, complete or in part, for radio, television, stage and cinema.

The books contain Christian ideas intended to be easily accessible to young readers. In addition to Christian themes, Lewis also borrows characters from Greek and Roman mythology as well as traditional British and Irish fairy tales.

Other works

Lewis wrote a number of works on Heaven and Hell. One of these, ''The Great Divorce'', is a short novella in which a few residents of Hell take a bus ride to Heaven, where they are met by people who dwell there. The proposition is that they can stay (in which case they can call the place where they had come from "Purgatory", instead of "Hell"); but many find it not to their taste. The title is a reference to William Blake's ''The Marriage of Heaven and Hell'', a concept that Lewis found a "disastrous error" . This work deliberately echoes two other more famous works with a similar theme: the ''Divine Comedy'' of Dante Alighieri, and Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress''. Another short work, ''The Screwtape Letters'', consists of suave letters of advice from a senior demon, Screwtape, to his nephew Wormwood, on the best ways to tempt a particular human and secure his damnation. Lewis's last novel was ''Till We Have Faces'', which he thought of as his most mature and masterly work of fiction but which was never a popular success. It is a retelling of the myth of Cupid and Psyche from the unusual perspective of Psyche's sister. It is deeply concerned with religious ideas, but the setting is entirely pagan, and the connections with specific Christian beliefs are left implicit.

Before Lewis's conversion to Christianity, he published two books: ''Spirits in Bondage'', a collection of poems, and ''Dymer'', a single narrative poem. Both were published under the pen name Clive Hamilton. Other narrative poems have since been published posthumously, including: ''Launcelot'', ''The Nameless Isle'', and ''The Queen of Drum''.

He also wrote The Four Loves, which rhetorically explains four loves including friendship, eros, affection, and charity or caritas.

In 2009, a partial draft of Language and Human Nature, which Lewis had begun co-writing with J.R.R. Tolkien, but which was never completed, was discovered.

Christian apologist

In addition to his career as an English professor and an author of fiction, Lewis is regarded by many as one of the most influential Christian apologists of his time; ''Mere Christianity'' was voted best book of the twentieth century by ''Christianity Today'' in 2000. Due to Lewis's approach to religious belief as a sceptic, and his following conversion, he has been called "The Apostle to the Skeptics."

Lewis was very interested in presenting a reasonable case for Christianity. ''Mere Christianity'', ''The Problem of Pain'', and ''Miracles'' were all concerned, to one degree or another, with refuting popular objections to Christianity, such as "How could a good God allow pain to exist in the world?". He also became known as a popular lecturer and broadcaster, and some of his writing (including much of ''Mere Christianity'') originated as scripts for radio talks or lectures.

According to George Sayer, a loss in a 1948 debate with Elizabeth Anscombe, also a Christian, led Lewis to reevaluate his role as an apologist, and his future works concentrated on devotional literature and children's books. Anscombe, however, had a completely different recollection of the debate's outcome and its emotional effect on Lewis. Victor Reppert also disputes Sayer, listing some of Lewis's post-1948 apologetic publications, including the second and revised edition of his ''Miracles'' in 1960, in which Lewis addressed Anscombe's criticism. Noteworthy too is Roger Teichman's suggestion in ''The Philosophy of Elizabeth Anscombe'' that the intellectual impact of Anscombe's paper on Lewis's philosophical self-confidence should not be overrated: "... it seems unlikely that he felt as irretrievably crushed as some of his acquaintances have made out; the episode is probably an inflated legend, in the same category as the affair of Wittgenstein's poker. Certainly Anscombe herself believed that Lewis' argument, though flawed, was getting at something very important; she thought that this came out more in the improved version of it that Lewis presented in a subsequent edition of ''Miracles'' – though that version also had 'much to criticise in it'."

Lewis also wrote an autobiography titled ''Surprised by Joy'', which places special emphasis on his own conversion. (It was written before he met his wife, Joy Gresham; the title of the book came from the first line of a poem by William Wordsworth.) His essays and public speeches on Christian belief, many of which were collected in ''God in the Dock'' and ''The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses'', remain popular today.

His most famous works, the ''Chronicles of Narnia'', contain many strong Christian messages and are often considered allegory. Lewis, an expert on the subject of allegory, maintained that the books were not allegory, and preferred to call the Christian aspects of them "suppositional". As Lewis wrote in a letter to a Mrs. Hook in December 1958:

If Aslan represented the immaterial Deity in the same way in which Giant Despair [a character in ''The Pilgrim's Progress''] represents despair, he would be an allegorical figure. In reality however he is an invention giving an imaginary answer to the question, 'What might Christ become like, if there really were a world like Narnia and He chose to be incarnate and die and rise again in that world as He actually has done in ours?' This is not allegory at all.

"Trilemma"

In a much-cited passage from ''Mere Christianity'', Lewis challenged the view that Jesus, although a great moral teacher, was not God. He argued that Jesus made several implicit claims to divinity, which would logically exclude this:

I am trying here to prevent anyone saying the really foolish thing that people often say about Him: 'I’m ready to accept Jesus as a great moral teacher, but I don’t accept his claim to be God.' That is the one thing we must not say. A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic – on the level with the man who says he is a poached egg – or else he would be the Devil of Hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son of God, or else a madman or something worse. You can shut him up for a fool, you can spit at him and kill him as a demon or you can fall at his feet and call him Lord and God, but let us not come with any patronising nonsense about his being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to.

This argument, which Lewis did not invent but developed and popularised, is sometimes referred to as "Lewis's trilemma". It has been used by the Christian apologist Josh McDowell in his book ''More Than a Carpenter'' . Although widely repeated in Christian apologetic literature, it has been largely ignored by professional theologians and biblical scholars and is regarded by some as logically unsound and an example of false dilemma.

Lewis's Christian apologetics, and this argument in particular, have been criticised. Philosopher John Beversluis described Lewis's arguments as "textually careless and theologically unreliable". Pluralist theologian, John Hick argues that New Testament scholarship today does not support the view that Jesus claimed to be God. The Anglican bishop, N. T. Wright, who, unlike Hicks, does believe in Jesus' divinity, comments that Lewis' approach to Jesus' identity, by ignoring his Jewish background, "doesn't work as history, and it backfires dangerously when historical critics question his reading of the gospels."

Lewis used a similar argument in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', when Digory Kirke advises the young heroes that their sister's claims of a magical world must logically be taken as either lies, madness, or truth. and "On the Pains of Animals."

Legacy

Lewis continues to attract a wide readership. In 2008, ''The Times'' ranked him eleventh on their list of "the 50 greatest British writers since 1945". Readers of his fiction are often unaware of what Lewis considered the Christian themes of his works. His Christian apologetics are read and quoted by members of many Christian denominations .

Lewis has been the subject of several biographies, a few of which were written by some of his close friends, such as Roger Lancelyn Green and George Sayer. In 1985 the screenplay ''Shadowlands'' by William Nicholson, dramatising Lewis's life and relationship with Joy Davidman Gresham, was aired on British TV (starring Joss Ackland as Lewis and Claire Bloom as Joy). In 1989 this was staged as a theatre play (starring Nigel Hawthorne) and in 1993 ''Shadowlands'' became a feature film, starring Anthony Hopkins as Lewis and Debra Winger as Joy. In 2005, a one hour made for TV movie entitled ''C. S. Lewis: Beyond Narnia'' (starring Anton Rodgers) provided a general synopsis of Lewis's life.

Many books have been inspired by Lewis, including ''A Severe Mercy'' by his correspondent and friend Sheldon Vanauken. ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' have been particularly influential. Modern children's literature such as Daniel Handler's ''A Series of Unfortunate Events'', Eoin Colfer's ''Artemis Fowl'', Philip Pullman's ''His Dark Materials'', and J. K. Rowling's ''Harry Potter'' have been more or less influenced by Lewis's series . Pullman, an atheist and so fierce a critic of Lewis's work as to be dubbed "the anti-Lewis", considers him a negative influence and has accused Lewis of featuring religious propaganda, misogyny, racism and emotional sadism in his books. Authors of adult fantasy literature such as Tim Powers have also testified to being influenced by Lewis's work.

Most of Lewis’ posthumous work has been edited by his literary executor, Walter Hooper. An independent Lewis scholar, the late Kathryn Lindskoog, argued that Hooper's scholarship is not reliable and that he has made false statements and attributed forged works to Lewis . C. S. Lewis's stepson, Douglas Gresham, denies the forgery claims, saying that "The whole controversy thing was engineered for very personal reasons... Her fanciful theories have been pretty thoroughly discredited." .

A bronze statue of Lewis's character Digory, from ''The Magician's Nephew'', stands in Belfast's Holywood Arches in front of the Holywood Road Library .

Lewis was strongly opposed to the creation of live-action versions of his works. His major concern was that the anthropomorphic animal characters "when taken out of narrative into actual visibility, always turn into buffoonery or nightmare".

Several C. S. Lewis Societies exist around the world, including one which was founded in Oxford in 1982 to discuss papers on the life and works of Lewis and the other Inklings, and generally appreciate all things Lewisian. His name is also used by a variety of Christian organisations, often with a concern for maintaining conservative Christian values in education or literary studies.

The 2005 film adaptation of ''The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe'' was based on the first instalment of the Narnia series. Film adaptations have been made of two other books he wrote: ''Prince Caspian'' (released on 16 May 2008) and ''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' (released on 2 December 2010). A film adaptation of ''The Great Divorce'' is slated for release in 2011.

Lewis is featured as a main character in the Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica series by James A. Owen.

See also

Marion E. Wade Center at Wheaton College (Illinois) – has the world's largest collection of Lewis's works and works about him.

Bibliography

Secondary works

John Beversluis, ''C. S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion''. Eerdmans, 1985. ISBN 0-8028-0046-7

Ronald W. Bresland, ''The Backward Glance: C.S. Lewis and Ireland''. Institute of Irish Studies at Queen's University of Belfast, 1999.

Humphrey Carpenter, ''The Inklings: C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and their friends''. George Allen & Unwin, 1978. ISBN 0-04-809011-5

Joe R. Christopher & Joan K. Ostling, ''C. S. Lewis: An Annotated Checklist of Writings about him and his Works''. Kent State University Press, n.d. (1972). ISBN 0-87338-138-6

David Clare, "C.S. Lewis: An Irish Writer". ''Irish Studies Review'', Volume 18, Issue 1, February 2010, pages 17 – 38.

James Como, ''Branches to Heaven: The Geniuses of C. S. Lewis''. Spence, 1998.

James Como, ''Remembering C. S. Lewis'' (3rd ed. of ''C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table''). Ignatius, 2006

Sean Connolly, ''Inklings of Heaven: C. S. Lewis and Eschatology''. Gracewing, 2007. ISBN 978-0-85244-659-1

Michael Coren, ''The Man Who Created Narnia: The Story of C. S. Lewis''. Eerdmans, reprint edition 1996. ISBN 0-8028-3822-7

Christopher Derrick, ''C. S. Lewis and the Church of Rome: A Study in Proto-Ecumenism''. Ignatius Press, 1981. ISBN 978-9991718507

David C. Downing, ''Into the Region of Awe: Mysticism in C. S. Lewis''. InterVarsity, 2005. ISBN 0-8308-3284-X

David C. Downing, ''Into the Wardrobe: C. S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles''. Jossey-Bass, 2005. ISBN 0-7879-7890-6

David C. Downing, ''The Most Reluctant Convert: C. S. Lewis's Journey to Faith''. InterVarsity, 2002. ISBN 0-8308-3271-8

David C. Downing, ''Planets in Peril: A Critical Study of C. S. Lewis's Ransom Trilogy''. University of Massachusetts Press, 1992. ISBN 0-87023-997-X

Colin Duriez and David Porter, ''The Inklings Handbook: The Lives, Thought and Writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Their Friends''. 2001. ISBN 1-902694-13-9

Colin Duriez, ''Tolkien and C. S. Lewis: The Gift of Friendship''. Paulist Press, 2003. ISBN 1-58768-026-2

Bruce L. Edwards, ''Not a Tame Lion: The Spiritual World of Narnia''. Tyndale, 2005. ISBN 1414303815

Bruce L. Edwards, ''Further Up and Further In: Understanding C. S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe''. Broadman and Holman, 2005. ISBN 0805440704

Bruce L. Edwards (ed.), ''C. S. Lewis: Life, Works, and Legacy''. 4 Vol. Praeger Perspectives, 2007. ISBN 0275991164

Bruce L. Edwards (ed.), ''The Taste of the Pineapple: Essays on C. S. Lewis as Reader, Critic, and Imaginative Writer''. The Popular Press, 1988. ISBN 0879724072

Bruce L. Edwards, ''A Rhetoric of Reading: C. S. Lewis's Defense of Western Literacy''. Center for the Study of Christian Values in Literature, 1986. ISBN 0939555018

Alastair Fowler, "C. S. Lewis: Supervisor", ''Yale Review'', Vol. 91, No. 4 (October 2003).

Helen Gardner, "† Clive Staples Lewis, 1898–1963". Biographical memoir, in ''Proceedings of the British Academy'' 51 (1966), 417-428.

Jocelyn Gibb (ed.), ''Light on C. S. Lewis''. Geoffrey Bles, 1965 & Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. ISBN 0-15-652000-1

Douglas Gilbert & Clyde Kilby, ''C. S. Lewis: Images of His World''. Eerdmans, 1973 & 2005. ISBN 0-8028-2800-0

Diana Glyer ''The Company They Keep: C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien as Writers in Community''. Kent State University Press. Kent Ohio. 2007. ISBN 9780873388900

David Graham (ed.), ''We Remember C. S. Lewis''. Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0805422994

Roger Lancelyn Green & Walter Hooper, ''C. S. Lewis: A Biography''. Fully revised & expanded edition. HarperCollins, 2002. ISBN 0-00-628164-8

Douglas Gresham, ''Jack's Life: A Memory of C. S. Lewis''. Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0-8054-3246-9

Douglas Gresham, ''Lenten Lands: My Childhood with Joy Davidman and C. S. Lewis''. HarperSanFrancisco, 1994. ISBN 0-06-063447-2

William Griffin, ''C. S. Lewis: The Authentic Voice'' (formerly ''C. S. Lewis: A Dramatic Life''). Lion, 2005. ISBN 0-7459-5208-9

Dabney Adams Hart, ''Through the Open Door: A New Look at C. S. Lewis''. University of Alabama Press, 1984. ISBN 0-8173-0187-9

Joel D. Heck, ''Irrigating Deserts: C. S. Lewis on Education''. Concordia Publishing House, 2006. ISBN 0-7586-0044-5

David Hein, "A Note on C. S. Lewis's ''The Screwtape Letters''", ''The Anglican Digest'' 49.2 (Easter 2007), 55–58. Argues that Lewis's portrayal of the activity of the Devil was influenced by contemporary events — in particular, by the threat of a Nazi invasion of Britain in 1940.

David Hein and Edward Henderson (ed.), ''C. S. Lewis and Friends: Faith and the Power of Imagination''. London: SPCK, 2011. Discusses Lewis, Austin Farrer, Rose Macaulay, Charles Williams, J. R. R. Tolkien, and Dorothy L. Sayers. Contributors include Peter Schakel, Ann Loades, Ralph Wood, Charles Hefling, and the editors. Foreword by David Brown.

David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson (ed.), ''Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer''. New York and London: T&T; Clark / Continuum, 2004. A study of Lewis's close friend the theologian Austin Farrer, this book also contains material on Farrer's circle, "the Oxford Christians", including C. S. Lewis.

Walter Hooper, ''C. S. Lewis: A Companion and Guide''. HarperCollins, 1996. ISBN 0006278000

Walter Hooper, ''Through Joy and Beyond: A Pictorial Biography of C. S. Lewis''. Macmillan, 1982. ISBN 0025536702

Alan Jacobs, ''The Narnian: The Life and Imagination of C. S. Lewis''. HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0060766905

Carolyn Keefe, ''C. S. Lewis: Speaker & Teacher''. Zondervan, 1979. ISBN 0-310-26781-1

Jon Kennedy, ''The Everything Guide to C.S. Lewis and Narnia''. Adams Media, 2008. ISBN 0-1-59869-427-8

Clyde S. Kilby, ''The Christian World of C. S. Lewis''. Eerdmans, 1964, 1995. ISBN 0-8028-0871-9

Don W. King, ''C. S. Lewis, Poet: The Legacy of His Poetic Impulse''. Kent State University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-87338-681-7

W.H. Lewis (ed.), ''Letters of C. S. Lewis''. Geoffrey Bles, 1966. ISBN 0-00-242457-6. (Followed in 1988 by an expanded version edited by Walter Hooper, Fount Paperbacks, ISBN 0006273297.)

Kathryn Lindskoog, ''Light in the Shadowlands: Protecting the Real C. S. Lewis''. Multnomah Pub., 1994. ISBN 0-88070-695-3

Susan Lowenberg, ''C. S. Lewis: A Reference Guide 1972–1988''. Hall & Co., 1993. ISBN 0-8161-1846-9

Wayne Mardindale & Jerry Root, ''The Quotable Lewis''. Tyndale House Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8423-5115-9

David Mills (editor) (ed), ''The Pilgrim's Guide: C. S. Lewis and the Art of Witness''. Eerdmans, 1998 ISBN 0-8208-3777-8

Thomas L. Martin (ed.), ''Reading the Classics with C. S. Lewis''. Baker Academic, 2000. ISBN 1-84227-0737

Markus Mühling, ''A Theological Journey into Narnia: An Analysis of the Message beneath the Text'', Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3525604238

Joseph Pearce, ''C. S. Lewis and the Catholic Church''. HarperCollins, 1999; then Ignatius Press, 2003. ISBN 0-89870-979-2

Thomas C. Peters, ''Simply C. S. Lewis. A Beginner's Guide to His Life and Works''. Kingsway Publications, 1998. ISBN 0-85476-762-2

Justin Phillips, ''C. S. Lewis at the BBC: Messages of Hope in the Darkness of War''. Marshall Pickering, 2003. ISBN 0-00-710437-5

Harry Lee Poe & Rebecca Whitten Poe (ed.), ''C. S. Lewis Remembered: Collected Reflections of Students, Friends & Colleagues''. Zondervan, 2006. ISBN 978-0-310-26509-2

Victor Reppert, ''C. S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason''. InterVarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8308-2732-3

George Sayer, ''Jack: C. S. Lewis and His Times''. Macmillan, 1988. ISBN 0-333-43362-9

Peter J. Schakel, ''Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis: Journeying to Narnia and Other Worlds.'' University of Missouri Press, 2002. ISBN 082621407X

Peter J. Schakel. ''Reason and Imagination in C. S. Lewis: A Study of "Till We Have Faces."'' Available online. Eerdmans, 1984. ISBN 0802819982

Peter J. Schakel (ed.), ''The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C. S. Lewis''. Kent State University Press, 1977. ISBN 0873382048

Peter J. Schakel and Charles A. Huttar (ed.), ''Word and Story in C. S. Lewis'.' University of Missouri Press, 1991. ISBN 082620760X

Stephen Schofield. ''In Search of C. S. Lewis''. Bridge Logos Pub. 1983. ISBN 0-88270-544-X

Jeffrey D. Schultz and John G. West, Jr. (eds.), ''The C. S. Lewis Readers' Encyclopedia''. Zondervan Publishing House, 1998. ISBN 0310215382

Sanford Schwartz, ''C. S. Lewis on the Final Frontier: Science and the Supernatural in the Space Trilogy''. Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 9780195374728.

G. B. Tennyson (ed.), ''Owen Barfield on C. S. Lewis''. Wesleyan University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8195-5233-X.

Richard J. Wagner. ''C. S. Lewis and Narnia for Dummies''. For Dummies, 2005. ISBN 0-7645-8381-6

Andrew Walker, Patrick James (ed.), ''Rumours of Heaven: Essays in Celebration of C. S. Lewis'', Guildford: Eagle, 1998, ISBN 0863472508

Chad Walsh, ''C. S. Lewis: Apostle to the Skeptics''. Macmillan, 1949.

Chad Walsh, ''The Literary Legacy of C. S. Lewis''. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979. ISBN 0-15-652785-5.

Michael Ward, ''Planet Narnia''. Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-531387-1.

George Watson (ed.), ''Critical Essays on C. S. Lewis''. Scolar Press, 1992. ISBN 0-85967-853-9

Michael White, ''C. S. Lewis: The Boy Who Chronicled Narnia''. Abacus, 2005. ISBN 0-349-11625-3

Erik J. Wielenberg, ''God and the Reach of Reason''. Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-70710-7

A. N. Wilson, ''C. S. Lewis: A Biography''. W. W. Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-32340-4

Notes

References

Fiddes, Paul (1990), 'C.S. Lewis the myth-maker', in Andrew Walker and James Patrick, ''A Christian for all Christians: essays in honour of C.S. Lewis'' (London: Hodder & Stoughton), pp. 132–55 [reprinted as ''Rumours of Heaven: essays in celebration of C.S. Lewis'' (Guildford: Eagle, 1998)]

External links

Journal of Inklings Studies – British academic journal on C. S. Lewis and his circle

C. S. Lewis Society of California

C. S. Lewis Review

Rare photos of the youthful C.S. Lewis, with his family

Works and archive

The Center for the Study of C.S. Lewis & Friends at Taylor University, Upland, Indiana, Lewis archive.

C.S. Lewis Reading Room, with extensive links to online primary and secondary literature (Tyndale Seminary)

De Descriptione Temporum – Lewis' inaugural Lecture as Chair of Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Cambridge University

Open Directory entry for C. S. Lewis

Audio

Lewis on The George MacDonald Informational Web Has an excerpt of Lewis talking about friend and fellow author: Charles Williams, bottom of page

Lewis's Surviving Broadcast Talks on the BBC BBC page on Lewis with original audio recordings.

Complete text and audio of C. S. Lewis's BBC Radio Broadcast 'Beyond Personality – Mere Men'

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