Name	Slate
Type	Metamorphic
Type link	Metamorphic rock
Composition	quartz, muscovite/illite
Composition secondary	biotite, chlorite, hematite, pyrite }}

Slate is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism. The result is a foliated rock in which the foliation may not correspond to the original sedimentary layering. When expertly "cut" by striking with a specialized tool in the quarry, many slates will form smooth flat sheets of stone which have long been used for roofing and floor tiles and other purposes. Slate is frequently grey in color, especially when seen, en masse, covering roofs. However, slate occurs in a variety of colors even from a single locality; for example, slate from North Wales can be found in many shades of grey, from pale to dark, and may also be purple, green or cyan. Slate is not to be confused with shale, from which it may be formed, or schist. Ninety percent of Europe's natural slate used for roofing originates from Spain.

The word "slate" is also used for some objects made from slate. It may mean a single roofing slate, or a writing slate, traditionally a small piece of slate, often framed in wood, used with chalk as a notepad or noticeboard etc., and especially for recording charges in pubs and inns. The phrase "clean slate" or "blank slate" comes from this use.

Historical mining terminology

Before the mid-19th century, the terms ''slate'', ''shale'' and ''schist'' were not sharply distinguished. In the context of underground coal mining, the term slate was commonly used to refer to shale well into the 20th century. For example, ''roof slate'' refers to shale above a coal seam, and ''draw slate'' refers to roof slate (shale) that falls from the mine roof as the coal is removed.

Mineral composition

Slate is mainly composed of quartz and muscovite or illite, often along with biotite, chlorite, hematite, and pyrite and, less frequently, apatite, graphite, kaolin, magnetite, tourmaline, or zircon as well as feldspar. Occasionally, as in the purple slates of North Wales, ferrous reduction spheres form around iron nuclei, leaving a light green spotted texture. These spheres are sometimes deformed by a subsequent applied stress field to ovoids, which appear as ellipses when viewed on a cleavage plane of the specimen.

Uses

Slate in buildings

Slate can be made into roofing slates, also called ''roofing shingles'', installed by a slater. Slate has two lines of breakability: cleavage and grain, which make it possible to split the stone into thin sheets. When broken, slate retains a natural appearance while remaining relatively flat and easily stackable.

Slate is particularly suitable as a roofing material as it has an extremely low water absorption index of less than 0.4%. Its low tendency to absorb water also makes it very resistant to frost damage and breakage due to freezing.

Slate roof tiles are usually fixed using either nail fixing, or the hook fixing method as is common with Spanish slate. In the UK, nailing is typically done with double nails onto timber battens (England and Wales) or nailed directly onto timber sarking boards (Scotland and Northern Ireland). Nails will traditionally be copper, although modern alloy and stainless steel alternatives are known. Both these methods, if used properly, will provide a long-lasting weathertight roof with a typical lifespan of around 80–100 years.

Some mainland European slate suppliers suggest that using hook fixing means that :-

Areas of weakness on the tile are fewer since no holes have to be drilled

Roofing features such as valleys and domes are easier to create since narrow tiles can be used

Hook fixing is particularly suitable in regions subject to severe weather conditions since there is a greater resistance to wind uplift as the lower edge of the slate is secured.

The metal hooks are, however, visible and may be unsuitable for historic properties.

Slate tiles are often used for interior and exterior flooring, stairs, walkways and wall cladding. Tiles are installed and set on mortar and grouted along the edges. Chemical sealants are often used on tiles to improve durability and appearance, increase stain resistance, reduce efflorescence, and increase or reduce surface smoothness. Tiles are often sold gauged, meaning that the back surface is ground for ease of installation. Slate flooring can be slippery when used in external locations subject to rain. Slate tiles were used in 19th century UK building construction (apart from roofs) and in slate quarrying areas such as Bethesda, Wales there are still many buildings wholly constructed of slate. Slates can also be set into walls to provide a rudimentary damp-proof membrane. Small offcuts are used as shims to level floor joists. In areas where slate is plentiful it is also used in pieces of various sizes for building walls and hedges, sometimes combined with other kinds of stone. In modern homes slate is often used as table coasters.

Other uses

Because it is a good electrical insulator and fireproof, it was used to construct early-20th century electric switchboards and relay controls for large electric motors. Fine slate can also be used as a whetstone to hone knives.

Due to its thermal stability and chemical inertness, slate has been used for laboratory bench tops and for billiard table tops. In 18th- and 19th-century schools, slate was extensively used for blackboards and individual writing slates for which slate or chalk pencils were used.

In areas where it is available, high-quality slate is used for tombstones and commemorative tablets.

Slate extraction

In Eurasia

Slate-producing regions in Europe include Wales (see slate industry in Wales), Cornwall (famously the village of Delabole), Cumbria (see Burlington Slate Quarries, Honister Slate Mine and Skiddaw Slate) in the United Kingdom; parts of France (Anjou, Ardennes, Brittany, Savoie); Belgium (Ardenne); Liguria in northern Italy, especially between the town of Lavagna (which means chalkboard in Italian) and Fontanabuona valley; Portugal especially around Valongo in the north of the country; Germany's (Moselle River-region, Hunsrück, Eifel, Westerwald, Thuringia and north Bavaria); Alta, Norway (actually schist not a true slate) and Galicia. Some of the slate from Wales and Cumbria is colored slate (non-blue): purple and formerly green in Wales and green in Cumbria. China has vast slate deposits; in recent years its export of finished and unfinished slate has increased, it has slate in various colors.

In the Americas

Slate is abundant in Brazil (the second-biggest producer of slate) around Papagaios in Minas Gerais (responsible for 95% of the extraction of slate in Brazil). An independent report by Consultant Geologist J. A. Walsh describes how certain products originating from Brazil on sale in the UK, are not entitled to bear the CE mark.

Other areas known for slate production are the east coast of Newfoundland, the Slate Belt of Eastern Pennsylvania, Buckingham County Virginia (Buckingham Slate), and the Slate Valley of Vermont and New York, where colored slate is mined in the Granville, New York area.

A major slating operation existed in Monson, Maine, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The slate found in Monson is usually a dark purple to blackish color, and many local structures are still roofed with slate tiles. The roof of St. Patrick's Cathedral was made of roofing slate from Monson, as was the headstone of John F. Kennedy.

Slate is also found in the Arctic and was used by the Inuit to make the blades for ulus.

Fossils

Because slate was formed in low heat and pressure, compared to a number of other metamorphic rocks, some fossils can be found in slate; sometimes even microscopic remains of delicate organisms.

See also

List of rock types

Shale

Tile

National Slate Museum

Fell Exhibition Slate Mine

Slate industry in Wales

Slate and stylus

Slate Industry in Spain

References

Page, William (ed.) (1906). ''The Victoria History of the County of Cornwall''; vol. I. (Chapter on quarries.) Westminster: Constable.

Further reading

Hudson, Kenneth (1972). ''Building Materials''; "Chapter 2: Stone and Slate". London: Longman, pp. 14–27. ISBN 0582127912.

External links

Slate Stone—An informative B2B marketplace on Slate Stone. All about slate stones, slate stone products like tiles, slabs, chips, slate stone applications, articles, including information on slate stone wholesalers and manufacturers.

AditNow—Photographic database of mines

Economic History of the Welsh slate industry to 1945

John T F Turner - A Familiar Description of the Old Delabole Slate Quarries, 1864

Granville Slate Museum

''Hower’s Lightning Slate Reckoner'' (1884/1904), by F. M. Hower, Cherryville, Penn., on Stone Quarries and Beyond (PDF/18.95 MB)

Galician and Spanish Slate

Category:Building materials Category:Building stone Category:Dielectrics Category:Metamorphic rocks Category:Natural materials Category:Pavements Category:Stone

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{{infobox scientist |name

Steven Arthur Pinker |image Steven_Pinker_Göttingen_10102010c_crop.JPG |image_size |caption Steven Pinker (''Göttingen, 2010'') |birth_date September 18, 1954 |birth_place Montréal, Québec, Canada |residence United States of America |citizenship Canadian-American |ethnicity Jewish Canadian-American |field evolutionary psychology, experimental psychology, cognitive science, linguistics |work_institution |alma_mater Dawson College, McGill University, Harvard University |doctoral_advisor |doctoral_students |known_for How the Mind Works, The Blank Slate |prizes Troland Award (2003, National Academy of Sciences), Henry Dale Prize (2004, Royal Institution), Walter P. Kistler Book Award (2005), Humanist of the Year award (2006, issued by the AHA), George Miller Prize (2010, Cognitive Neuroscience Society) }}

Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18, 1954) is a Canadian-American experimental psychologist, cognitive scientist, linguist and popular science author. He is a Harvard College Professor and the Johnstone Family Professor in the Department of Psychology at Harvard University and is known for his advocacy of evolutionary psychology and the computational theory of mind.

Pinker’s academic specializations are visual cognition and psycholinguistics. His academic pursuits include experiments on mental imagery, shape recognition, visual attention, children's language development, regular and irregular phenomena in language, the neural bases of words and grammar, and the psychology of innuendo and euphemism. He published two technical books which proposed a general theory of language acquisition and applied it to children's learning of verbs. In his less academic books, he argued that language is an "instinct" or biological adaptation shaped by natural selection. On this point, he opposes Noam Chomsky and others who regard the human capacity for language to be the by-product of other adaptations. He is the author of five books for a general audience, which include ''The Language Instinct'' (1994), ''How the Mind Works'' (1997), ''Words and Rules'' (2000), ''The Blank Slate'' (2002), and ''The Stuff of Thought'' (2007).

Biography

Career

Pinker was born in Montréal, Québec, Canada in 1954, and graduated from Dawson College in 1971. He received a BA degree in psychology at McGill University in 1976, and then went on to earn his PhD degree in experimental psychology at Harvard University in 1979. He did research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for a year, after which he became an assistant professor at Harvard and then Stanford University. From 1982 until 2003, Pinker taught at the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at MIT, and eventually became the director of the Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, taking a one-year sabbatical at the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1995-6. As of 2008, he is the Johnstone Family Professor of Psychology at Harvard. In June 2011 it was announced he would join the professoriate of New College of the Humanities, a private college in London.

Pinker was named one of ''Time Magazine's'' 100 most influential scientists and thinkers in the world in 2004 and one of ''Prospect'' and ''Foreign Policy'''s 100 top public intellectuals in 2005. His research in cognitive psychology has won the Early Career Award (1984) and Boyd McCandless Award (1986) from the American Psychological Association, the Troland Research Award (1993) from the National Academy of Sciences, the Henry Dale Prize (2004) from the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and the George Miller Prize (2010) from the Cognitive Neuroscience Society. He has also received honorary doctorates from the universities of Newcastle, Surrey, Tel Aviv, McGill, and the University of Tromsø, Norway. He was twice a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize, in 1998 and in 2003. In 2010, he was named by ''Foreign Policy'' magazine to its list of top global thinkers.

In January 2005, Pinker defended Lawrence Summers, President of Harvard University, whose comments about a gender gap in mathematics and science angered much of the faculty. Pinker noted that Summers' remarks, properly understood, could form the basis of a testable hypothesis. The remarks, Pinker said, claimed not that men are consistently smarter, but that there are "more idiots, [and] more geniuses" of the male gender.

On May 13, 2006, Pinker received the American Humanist Association's Humanist of the Year award for his contributions to public understanding of human evolution.

In 2009, Pinker wrote a highly critical review of Malcolm Gladwell's analytic methods in the ''New York Times''. Gladwell published a rebuttal in the ''Times'' regarding Pinker's comments about the importance of IQ on teaching performance and by analogy, the effect, if any, of draft order on quarterback performance in the National Football League. Pinker then responded to Gladwell's rebuttal. The exchange prompted Advanced NFL Stats to step in and address the issue statistically, siding with Pinker in that draft order is indeed correlated with quarterback performance.

Pinker also serves on the Advisory Board of Secular Coalition for America and offers advice to Executive Director Sean Faircloth and the entire coalition on the acceptance and inclusion of nontheism in American life.

The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry lists Pinker as one of their fellows.

In February 2010 he was named to the Freedom From Religion Foundation's Honorary Board of distinguished achievers.

Personal

His father, a lawyer, first worked as a manufacturer's representative, while his mother was first a home-maker then a guidance counselor and high-school vice-principal. He has two younger siblings. His brother is a policy analyst for the Canadian government. His sister, Susan Pinker, is a psychologist and writer, author of ''The Sexual Paradox''. Pinker married Nancy Etcoff in 1980 and they divorced 1992; he married Ilavenil Subbiah in 1995 and they too divorced. His current wife is the novelist and philosopher Rebecca Goldstein. He has two stepdaughters: the novelist Yael Goldstein Love and the poet Danielle Blau.

He has said, ''I was never religious in the theological sense... I never outgrew my conversion to atheism at 13, but at various times was a serious cultural Jew.'' As a teenager, he says he considered himself an anarchist until he witnessed civil unrest following a police strike in 1969. He has reported the result of a test of his political orientation that characterized him as ''neither leftist nor rightist, more libertarian than authoritarian''. Pinker confesses to having "experienced a primitive tribal stirring" after his genes were shown to trace back to the Middle East.

Theories of language and mind

Pinker is known within psychology for his theory of language acquisition, his research on the syntax, morphology, and meaning of verbs, and his criticism of connectionist (neural network) models of language. In ''The Language Instinct'' (1994) he popularized Noam Chomsky's work on language as an innate faculty of mind, with the twist that this faculty evolved by natural selection as a Darwinian adaptation for communication, although both ideas remain controversial (see below). He also defends the idea of a complex human nature which comprises many mental faculties that are adaptive (and is an ally of Daniel Dennett and Richard Dawkins in many evolutionary disputes). Another major theme in Pinker's theories is that human cognition works, in part, by combinatorial symbol-manipulation, not just associations among sensory features, as in many connectionist models.

Written work

Pinker's books, ''The Language Instinct'', ''How the Mind Works'', ''Words and Rules'', ''The Blank Slate'', and ''The Stuff of Thought'' combine cognitive science with behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology. ''The Language Instinct'' has been criticized by Geoffrey Sampson in his book, ''The 'Language Instinct' Debate''. The assumptions underlying the nativist view have also been subject to sustained criticism in Jeffrey Elman's ''Rethinking Innateness: A Connectionist Perspective on Development (Neural Networks and Connectionist Modeling)'', which defends the connectionist approach that Pinker has criticized.

Bibliography

Books

''Language Learnability and Language Development'' (1984)

''Visual Cognition'' (1985)

''Connections and Symbols'' (1988)

''Learnability and Cognition: The Acquisition of Argument Structure'' (1989)

''Lexical and Conceptual Semantics'' (1992)

''The Language Instinct'' (1994)

''How the Mind Works'' (1997)

''Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language'' (1999)

''The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature'' (2002)

''The Best American Science and Nature Writing'' (editor and introduction author, 2004)

''Hotheads'' (an extract from ''How the Mind Works'', 2005)

''The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature'' (2007)

''The Better Angels of Our Nature: The Decline of Violence in History and Its Causes'' (2011)

Articles and essays

Pinker, S. (2003) "Language as an adaptation to the cognitive niche" In M. Christiansen & S. Kirby (Eds.), ''Language evolution: States of the Art'' New York: Oxford University Press.

S. Pinker (2007), "In Defense of Dangerous Ideas" ''Chicago Sun-Times'', July 15, 2007

A number of Pinker's articles at Harvard

References

External links

C-SPAN BookTV In Depth video interview with Steven Pinker, 3 hrs.

Language Instinct ?: Gradualistic Natural Selection is not a good enough explanation

Steven Pinker: The stuff of thought TED, July, 2005

Steven Pinker: A brief history of violence TED, March, 2007

Steven Pinker discusses the "Games People Play: Indirect Speech as a Window into Social Relationships"

Steven Pinker discusses the evolutionary psychology of morality in "The Moral Instinct" ''The New York Times'', January 13, 2008

Steven Pinker on The Hour

Steven Pinker 2003 TEDTalk: Chalking it up to the blank slate

;Debates

The Two Steves Debate with Steven Rose

The Science of Gender and Science Debate with Elizabeth Spelke

Radio interview on ''Philosophy Talk''

;Vitae

Steven Pinker's Website

Time magazine page on Pinker

Gen Kuroki's Website about Steven Pinker

Steven Pinker Multimedia. Extensive lists of audio and video files

"Steven Pinker: the mind reader," ''The Guardian'' Profile, November 6, 1999

Live interview with Steven Pinker on ''The Blank Slate''

Online video interview with Pinker

"Basic Instincts" - ''The Guardian'' profile by Oliver Burkeman, September 22, 2007.

Advisory board biography for the Secular Coalition for America

;Reviews

Article on The Language Instinct by Theodore Dalrymple

Louis Menand's critique of The Blank Slate by Steven Pinker, originally published in ''The New Yorker'' magazine

"Meet the Flintstones" by Simon Blackburn, a critique of The Blank Slate.

Biology vs. the Blank Slate ''Reason'' magazine interview with Pinker

Evolutionary Psychology of Religion

"The Blind Programmer", a review of ''How the Mind Works'' by Edward Oakes.

Steven Pinker to speak at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C. on September 17, 2007

Category:1954 births Category:Living people Category:American atheists Category:American linguists Category:American psychologists Category:American science writers Category:Canadian atheists Category:Canadian skeptics Category:Canadian expatriate academics in the United States Category:Jewish Canadian writers Category:McGill University alumni Category:American people of Canadian-Jewish descent Category:Cognitive scientists Category:Harvard University alumni Category:Evolutionary psychologists Category:Harvard University faculty Category:Stanford University faculty Category:Jewish atheists Category:People from Montreal Category:Anglophone Quebec people Category:American humanists Category:Dawson College alumni Category:Canadian linguists Category:Canadian psychologists Category:Canadian science writers

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name	Steve Ballmer
birth date	March 24, 1956
birth place	Detroit, Michigan, U.S.
occupation	CEO, Microsoft
alma mater	Harvard University, Stanford Business School
networth	US$14.5 billion (2011)
salary	$ 1,351,121
website	Staff Bio at microsoft.com
residence	United States
awards	Légion d'honneur }}

Steven Anthony "Steve" Ballmer (born March 24, 1956) is the chief executive officer of Microsoft Corporation, having held that post since January 2000. , his personal wealth is estimated at US$14.5 billion, ranking number 46 on the Forbes list of billionaires.

Early life

Ballmer was born in Detroit, Michigan to a Swiss-American father and a Jewish American mother. He grew up in Farmington Hills, Michigan. In 1973, he graduated from Detroit Country Day School, a private college preparatory school in Beverly Hills, Michigan, and now sits on its board of directors. In 1977, he graduated ''magna cum laude'' from Harvard University with a B.A. in mathematics and economics.

At college, Ballmer managed the football team, worked on ''The Harvard Crimson'' newspaper as well as the ''Harvard Advocate'', and lived down the hall from fellow sophomore Bill Gates. He then worked for two years as an assistant product manager at Procter & Gamble, where he shared an office with Jeffrey R. Immelt, who later became CEO of General Electric. In 1980, he dropped out of the Stanford University Graduate School of Business to join Microsoft.

Microsoft

Steve Ballmer joined Microsoft on June 11, 1980, and became Microsoft's 30th employee, the first business manager hired by Gates.

He was initially offered a salary of $50,000 as well as a percentage of ownership of the company. When Microsoft was incorporated in 1981, Ballmer owned 8 percent of the company. During the subsequent 20 years, Ballmer headed several Microsoft divisions, including operations, operating systems development, and sales and support. In January 2000, he was officially named Chief Executive Officer. As CEO, Ballmer handled company finances, however Gates still retained control of the "technological vision". He served as President of Microsoft from July 1998 to February 2001, having previously served as Executive Vice President, Sales and Support since February 1992. Ballmer led Microsoft's development of the .NET Framework.

In 2003, Ballmer sold 8.3% of his shareholdings, leaving him with a 4% stake in the company. The same year, Ballmer replaced Microsoft's employee stock options program.

In 2009, and for the first time ever since Bill Gates left Microsoft as full-time chairman, he made the opening keynote at CES.

Ballmer has also served as Director of Accenture Ltd. as well as a General Partner of Accenture SCA since October 2001.

Professional conduct

Ballmer is known for his energetic and exuberant persona, which is meant to motivate employees and partners. His flamboyant stage appearances at Microsoft events are widely circulated on the Internet as viral videos. One widely circulated video, captured at a developers' conference, features a perspiring Ballmer chanting the word "developers".

Bill Gates steps down

The ''Wall Street Journal'' has reported that there was tension surrounding the 2000 transition of authority from Bill Gates to Ballmer. Things became so bitter that, on one occasion, Gates stormed out of a meeting in a huff after a shouting match in which Ballmer jumped to the defense of several colleagues, according to an individual present at the time. After the exchange, Ballmer seemed "remorseful", the person said. Once Gates leaves, "I'm not going to need him for anything. That's the principle," Ballmer said. "Use him, yes, need him, no."

On competing companies and software

Apple

Speaking at a conference in NYC in 2009, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer criticized Apple's pricing, saying; 'Now I think the tide has turned back the other direction (against Apple),' Ballmer said. 'The economy is helpful. Paying an extra $500 for a computer in this environment — same piece of hardware — paying $500 more to get a logo on it? I think that's a more challenging proposition for the average person than it used to be.'

Free and open source software

He has referred to the free software Linux kernel as a "cancer that attaches itself in an intellectual property sense to everything it touches." Ballmer used the notion of "viral" licensing terms to express his concern over the fact that the GNU General Public License (GPL) employed by such software requires that all derivative software be under the GPL or a compatible license.

Google

In 2005, Mark Lucovsky alleged in a sworn statement to a Washington state court that Ballmer became enraged upon hearing that Lucovsky was about to leave Microsoft for Google, picked up his chair, and threw it across his office. Referring to Google CEO Eric Schmidt (who previously worked for competitors Sun and Novell), Ballmer vowed to "kill Google" in an expletive-laden tirade then resumed trying to persuade Lucovsky to stay at Microsoft. Ballmer has described characterizations of the incident as a ''"gross exaggeration of what actually took place"''.

Sports

On March 6, 2008, Seattle's Mayor announced that a local ownership group involving Ballmer made a "game changing" commitment to invest $150 million in cash toward a $300 million renovation of Key Arena and were ready to purchase the Seattle SuperSonics in order to keep them in the City of Seattle. However, this initiative failed, and the Sonics have since relocated to Oklahoma City, now performing as Oklahoma City Thunder.

Media portrayals

''Bad Boy Ballmer: The Man Who Rules Microsoft'' (2002), Fredric Alan Maxwell, ISBN 0-06-621014-3 (unauthorized biography)

The 1999 docudrama ''Pirates of Silicon Valley'' features Ballmer as a major character; he is played by actor John DiMaggio.

Wealth

Ballmer was the second person after Roberto Goizueta to become a billionaire in U.S. dollars based on stock options received as an employee of a corporation in which he was neither a founder nor a relative of a founder. Ballmer is the 46th richest person in the world according to Forbes, with an estimated wealth of $14.5 billion. While CEO of Microsoft in 2009, Ballmer earned a total compensation of $1,276,627 which included a base salary of $665,833 a cash bonus of $600,000, no stock or options, and other compensation of $10,794.

References

External links

Corporate biography

Forbes World's Richest People listing

South China Morning Post audio interview

Steve Ballmer Playlist Appearance on WMBR's ''Dinnertime Sampler'' radio show February 23, 2005

Forbes.com's Billionaire List

Category:1956 births Category:Living people Category:American chief executives Category:American people of Swiss descent Category:Microsoft employees Category:American billionaires Category:American Internet personalities Category:The Harvard Crimson people Category:People from Farmington Hills, Michigan Category:Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur

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