Nigger is a noun in the English language, most notable for its usage in a pejorative context to refer to black people (generally people of Sub-Saharan African descent), and also as an informal slang term, among other contexts. It is a common ethnic slur. The word originated as a term used in a neutral context to refer to black people, as a variation of the Spanish/Portuguese noun ''negro'', a descendant of the Latin adjective ''niger'', meaning the color "black".

Etymology and history

The variants ''neger'' and ''negar'', derive from the Spanish and Portuguese word (black), and from the pejorative French ''nègre'' (nigger). Etymologically, ''negro'', ''noir'', ''nègre'', and ''nigger'' ultimately derive from ''nigrum'', the stem of the Latin (black) (pronounced which, in every other grammatical case, grammatical gender, and grammatical number besides nominative masculine singular, is ''nigr-'', the ''r'' is trilled).

In the Colonial America of 1619, John Rolfe used ''negars'' in describing the African slaves shipped to the Virginia colony. Later American English spellings, ''neger'' and ''neggar'', prevailed in a northern colony, New York under the Dutch, and in metropolitan Philadelphia’s Moravian and Pennsylvania Dutch communities; the African Burial Ground in New York City originally was known by the Dutch name "Begraafplaats van de Neger" (Cemetery of the Negro); an early US occurrence of ''neger'' in Rhode Island, dates from 1625. An alternative word for African Americans was the English word, "Black", used by Thomas Jefferson in his Notes on the State of Virginia. Among Anglophones, the word ''nigger'' was not always considered derogatory, because it then denoted “black-skinned”, a common Anglophone usage. Nineteenth-century English (language) literature features usages of ''nigger'' without racist connotation, e.g. the Joseph Conrad novella ''The Nigger of the 'Narcissus''' (1897). Moreover, Charles Dickens and Mark Twain created characters who used the word as contemporary usage. Twain, in the autobiographic book ''Life on the Mississippi'' (1883), used the term within quotes, indicating reported usage, but used the term "negro" when speaking in his own narrative persona.

In the United Kingdom and the Anglophone world, ''nigger'' denoted the dark-skinned (non-white) African and Asian (i.e., from India or nearby) peoples colonized into the British Empire, and "dark-skinned foreigners" — in general. In ''A Dictionary of Modern English Usage'' (1926), H. W. Fowler states that applying the word ''nigger'' to "others than full or partial negroes" is "felt as an insult by the person described, & betrays in the speaker, if not deliberate insolence, at least a very arrogant inhumanity"; this anti-racist linguistic prescription was deleted from the later editions of Fowler’s ''Dictionary''.

By the 1900s, ''nigger'' had become a pejorative word. In its stead, the term ''colored'' became the mainstream alternative to ''negro'' and its derived terms. Abolitionists in Boston, Massachusetts, posted warnings to the ''Colored People of Boston and vicinity''. Writing in 1904, journalist Clifton Johnson documented the "opprobrious" character of the word ''nigger'', emphasizing that it was chosen in the South precisely because it was more offensive than "colored." Established as mainstream American English usage, the word ''colored'' features in the organizational title of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, reflecting the members’ racial identity preference at the 1909 foundation. In the Southern United States, the local American English dialect changes the pronunciation of ''negro'' to ''nigra''. Linguistically, in developing American English, in the early editions of ''A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language'' (1806), lexicographer Noah Webster suggested the ''neger'' new spelling in place of ''negro''.

By the late 1960s, the social progress achieved by group in the United States such as the Black Civil Rights Movement (1955–68), had legitimized the racial identity word ''black'' as mainstream American English usage to denote black-skinned Americans of African ancestry. In the 90's, "Black" was later displaced in favor of the compound blanket term ''African American''. Moreover, as a compound word, ''African American'' resembles the vogue word ''Afro-American'', an early-1970s popular usage. Currently, some black Americans continue to use the word ''nigger'', often spelled as ''nigga'' and ''niggah'', without irony, to either neutral effect or as a sign of solidarity.

Usages

British

In the United Kingdom and the Anglophone world, ''nigger'' denoted the dark-skinned (non-white) African and Asian (i.e., from India or nearby) peoples colonized into the British Empire, and "dark-skinned foreigners" — in general. In ''A Dictionary of Modern English Usage'' (1926), H. W. Fowler states that applying the word ''nigger'' to "others than full or partial negroes" is "felt as an insult by the person described, & betrays in the speaker, if not deliberate insolence, at least a very arrogant inhumanity"; this anti-racist linguistic prescription was deleted from the later editions of Fowler’s ''Dictionary''. In British English, ''nigger'' is a derogatory and racist word. Victorian writer Rudyard Kipling used it in 'How the Leopard Got His Spots' and 'A Counting-Out Song' to illustrate the usage of the day. Likewise, P. G. Wodehouse used the phrase “Nigger minstrels” in ''Thank You, Jeeves'' (1934), the first Jeeves–Bertie novel, in admiration of their artistry and musical tradition. As recently as the 1950s, it may have been acceptable British usage to say ''niggers'' when referring to black people, notable in mainstream usages such as ''Nigger Boy''–brand candy cigarettes, and the color ''nigger brown'' or simply ''nigger'' (dark brown); however, by the 1970s the term was generally recognized as racist, offensive and potentially illegal. As recently as 2007, the term ''nigger brown'' reappeared — in the model label of a Chinese-made sofa, presumably regional Chinese usage of an out-dated form of English. Agatha Christie's book '' Ten Little Niggers'' was first published in London in 1939 and continued to appear under that title until the early 1980s, when it became ''And Then There Were None''.

North American

Cultural: Addressing the use of ''nigger'' by black people, Cornel West said, “There’s a certain rhythmic seduction to the word. If you speak in a sentence, and you have to say ''cat'', ''companion'', or ''friend'', as opposed to ''nigger'', then the rhythmic presentation is off. That rhythmic language is a form of historical memory for black people... When Richard Pryor came back from Africa, and decided to stop using the word onstage, he would sometimes start to slip up, because he was so used to speaking that way. It was the right word at the moment to keep the rhythm together in his sentence making.” Contemporarily, the implied racism of the word ''nigger'' has rendered its usages social taboo. In the US, magazines and newspapers often do not use it, instead printing “family-friendly” censored versions, usually “n*gg*r”, “n**ger”, “n——”, and “the N-word”; however, historians and social activists, such as Dick Gregory, criticize the euphemisms and their usage as intellectually dishonest, because using the euphemism “the N-word” instead of ''nigger'' robs younger generations of Americans of the full history of Black people in America.

Political: Louisiana Governor Earl Long used ''nigger'' in advocating full voting rights for Black Americans; in that time, like ''colored'' and ''negro'', it was mainstream usage in the American South. In 1948, the ''Washington Post'' newspaper’s coverage of the presidential campaign of the segregationist politician Strom Thurmond, employed the periphrasis “the less-refined word for black people”. In explaining his refusal to be conscripted to fight the Vietnam War (1965–75), professional boxer Muhammed Ali said, “No Vietcong ever called me nigger”; later, his modified answer was the title ''No Vietnamese Ever Called Me Nigger'' (1968) of a documentary about the front-line lot of the US Army Black soldier in combat in Vietnam. An Ali biographer reports that, when interviewed by Robert Lipsyte in 1966, the boxer actually said, “I ain’t got no quarrel with them Viet Cong”.

On February 28, 2007, the New York City Council symbolically banned, with a formal resolution, the use of the word ''nigger''; however, there is no penalty for using it. The New York City resolution also requires excluding from Grammy Award consideration every song whose lyrics contain the word ''nigger''.

Sport: In the first half of the twentieth century, before Major League Baseball was racially integrated, dark-skinned and dark-complexion players were nicknamed ''Nig''; examples are: Johnny Beazley (1941–49), Joe Berry (1921–22), Bobby Bragan (1940–48), Nig Clarke (1905–20), Nig Cuppy (1892–1901), Nig Fuller (1902), Johnny Grabowski (1923–31), Nig Lipscomb (1937), Charlie Niebergall (1921–24), Nig Perrine (1907), and Frank Smith (1904–15). The 1930s movie ''The Bowery'' with George Raft and Wallace Beery includes a NYC sports-bar named “Nigger Joe’s”.

Denotational extension

The denotations of ''nigger'' also comprehend non-white and racially disadvantaged people; the US politician Ron Dellums said, “... it's time for somebody to lead all of America’s niggers”. Jerry Farber's 1967 protest, The Student as Nigger invoked the word as a metaphor for the victims of an authoritarian society. In 1969, in the UK, in the course of being interviewed by a ''Nova'' magazine reporter, artist Yoko Ono said, “... woman is the nigger of the world”; three years later, her husband, John Lennon, published the song “Woman is the Nigger of the World” (1972) — about the virtually universal exploitation of woman — proved socially and politically controversial to US sensibilities. In 1978, singer Patti Smith used the word in “Rock N Roll Nigger”. In 1979, singer Elvis Costello used ''nigger'' in “Oliver's Army”, a state-of-the-world-today song which referred to people being shot dead trying to circumvent 'Checkpoint Charlie' at the Berlin Wall to escape into West Germany. Later, the producers of the British talent show ''Stars in Their Eyes'' forced a contestant to censor one of its lines, changing “... all it takes is one itchy trigger — One more widow, one less white nigger” to the euphemistic “... one less white figure”. Moreover, in his autobiography, ''White Niggers of America: The Precocious Autobiography of a Quebec “Terrorist”'' (1968), Pierre Vallières, a Front de libération du Québec leader refers to the oppression of the Québécois people in North America.

In his memoir, ''All Souls,'' Michael Patrick MacDonald describes how many white residents of the Old Colony housing project in South Boston used this meaning to degrade the people considered to be of lower status, whether white or black.

Other languages

The pejorative use of the word nigger is typical for the English language and more specifically for the North American culture. Many other languages have words that sound the same as nigger (are homophonic), but do not necessarily have the same meaning, while on the other hand having ethnic slurs dissimilar to 'nigger' but carrying the same meaning. This can cause misunderstandings between native and non-native English speakers, when using 'politically correct' words for 'black people'. Where there is a better understanding of the meaning of the English word nigger, speakers of other languages tend to be more careful with the homophonic words in their own language, or may sometimes adopt the word nigger to have a pejorative word for a 'black person'.

Some examples of how other languages refer to a black person in a neutral and in a pejorative way: Dutch: ''neger'' is neutral, ''zwartje'' (''little black one'') can be amicably or offensively used, ''nikker'' is always pejorative is neutral, is a racist colonial usage. Hungarian: '''' is neutral, ''feka'' (''little black one'') is pejorative Italian: '''' is neutral, ''negro'' is a rather offensive word Latvian: ''nēģeris'' is neutral, ''nigger'' is adopted as racist Portuguese: ''negro'' is neutral, ''preto'' is racist Brazilian Portuguese: ''negro'' and ''preto'' are neutral, nevertheless ''preto'' can be offensively used, is sometimes regarded as 'politically incorrect' and almost never proudly used by afro-Brazilians, ''crioulo'' and ''macaco'' are always extremely pejorative Romanian: ''negru'' is neutral, ''cioroi'' (''little crow'') is pejorative Russian: ''negr'' (“негр”) is neutral, ''chyornyi'' (“чёрный”, ''black'') is a moderately derogatory slur, usually applied against Middle Eastern and Caucasian people, ''chernozhopyi'' (“черножопый”, ''black-assed'') is the harshest generic racist slur for non-white people Yiddish: ''neger'' is neutral, ''shvartzer'' (black man, black woman) is racist

Literary

Historically, ''nigger'' is controversial in literature due to its usage as both a racist insult and a common noun. The white photographer and writer, Carl Van Vechten, a supporter of the Harlem Renaissance (1920s–30s), provoked controversy in the black community with the title of his novel ''Nigger Heaven'' (1926), wherein the usage increased sales; of the controversy, Langston Hughes wrote:

In the US, the recurrent (reading curricula) controversy about the ''vocabulary'' of the novel ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1885), by Mark Twain — American literature (usually) taught in US schools — about the slave South, risks censorship because of 215 (counted) occurrences of the word ''nigger'', most refer to Jim, Huckleberry's escaped-slave raft-mate. Twain's advocates note that the novel is composed in then-contemporary vernacular usage, not racist stereotype, because Jim, the black man, is a sympathetic character in the nineteenth-century ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''. The book was re-published in 2010 with edits removing "the 'N' word" as reported in ''Time'' online. The ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' has been the subject of controversy in Arizona, where a parent group's attempt to have it removed from a required reading list was struck down by the court.

Moreover, unlike the literary escaped slave Jim, antebellum slaves used the artifice of self-deprecation (known as "Uncle Toms"), in pandering to societal racist assumptions about the black man's low intelligence, by advantageously using the word ''nigger'' to escape the violence inherent to slavery. Implicit to "Uncle Tomming" was the unspoken reminder to white folk that a presumably inferior and sub-human person could not, reasonably, be held responsible for poorly realized work, a kitchen fire, or any such catastrophic offense. The artificial self-deprecation deflected responsibility, in hope of escaping the violent wraths of overseer and master. Using ''nigger'' as a self-referential identity term also was a way of avoiding white suspicion, of encountering an intelligent slave, and so put whites at their ease. In context, a slave who referred to himself, or another black man, as a ''nigger'' presumed the master's ''perceiving'' him as a slave who has accepted his societally sub-ordinate role as private property, thus, not (potentially) subversive of the authority of the master's white supremacy.

Originally, ''Ten Little Niggers'' (1939) was the British title of Agatha Christie's novel ''And Then There Were None'', also titled ''Ten Little Indians''. Other late-nineteenth- and early twentieth-century British literary usages suggest neutral usage. The popular Victorian era entertainment, the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta ''The Mikado'' (1885) twice uses the word ''nigger''. In the song ''I have a Little List'', the executioner, Ko-ko, sings of executing the "nigger serenader and the others of his race", personified by black-faced singers singing minstrel songs. In the song ''Let the Punishment fit the Crime'', the Mikado sings of having over-made-up ladies in court, "Blacked like a nigger/With permanent walnut juice"; the lyrics are changed for contemporary performances.

The Reverend W. V. Awdry's ''The Railway Series'' (1945–72) story ''Henry's Sneeze'', originally described soot-covered boys with the phrase "as black as niggers". In 1972, after complaints, the description was edited to "as black as soot", in the subsequent editions. Rev. Awdry is known for Thomas the Tank Engine (1946).

''How the Leopard Got His Spots'', in ''Just So Stories'' (1902), by Rudyard Kipling, tells of an Ethiopian man and a leopard, both originally sand-colored, deciding to camouflage themselves with painted spots, for hunting in tropical forest. The story originally included a scene wherein the leopard (now spotted) asks the Ethiopian man why he does not want spots. In contemporary editions of ''How the Leopard Got His Spots'', the Ethiopian's original reply: "Oh, plain black's best for a nigger", has been edited to, "Oh, plain black’s best for me." Again, Kipling uses the word in ''A Counting-Out Song'' (''Land and Sea Tales for Scouts and Guides'', 1923), the rhyme reads: "Eenie Meenie Mainee, Mo! Catch a nigger by the toe!"

In short story, ''The Basement Room'' (1935), by Graham Greene, the (sympathetic) servant character, Baines, tells the admiring boy, son of his employer, of his African British colony service, "You wouldn't believe it now, but I've had forty niggers under me, doing what I told them to". Replying to the boy’s question: "Did you ever shoot a nigger?" Bains answers: "I never had any call to shoot. Of course I carried a gun. But you didn’t need to treat them bad, that just made them stupid. Why, I loved some of those dammed niggers." The cinematic version of ''The Basement Room'' short story, ''The Fallen Idol'' (1948), directed by Carol Reed, replaced novelist Greene’s ''niggers'' usage with ''natives''.

Popular culture

In the US and the UK, the word ''nigger'' featured in branding and packaging consumer products, e.g. “Nigger Hair Tobacco” and “Niggerhead Oysters”, Brazil nuts were called ''nigger toes'', et cetera. As racism became unacceptable in mainstream culture, the tobacco brand became “Bigger Hare” and the canned goods brand became “Negro Head”. The Chinese Nanhai De Xing Leather Shoes Habiliment Co., Ltd.'s online store describes the color of a model of man’s leather boots as “nigger-brown”.

Cinema

The movie ''Blazing Saddles'' (1974) used ''nigger'' to ridicule US racism. In ''Kentucky Fried Movie'' (1977), the sequence titled “Danger Seekers” features a stuntman effecting the dangerous stunt of shouting "Niggers!" at a group of black people, then fleeing when they chased him.

The movie ''Full Metal Jacket'' (1987) depicts black and white U.S. Marines enduring boot camp and later fighting together in Vietnam. "Nigger" is used by soldiers of both races in jokes and as expressions of bravado ("put a nigger behind the trigger"), with racial differences among the men seen as secondary to their shared exposure to the dangers of combat. As noted by Gunnery Sergeant Hartman (R. Lee Ermey), "There is no racial bigotry here. We do not look down on niggers, kikes, wop or greasers, because here you are all equally worthless."

Literature

Mark Twain's novel ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' has long been the subject of controversy for its racial content, including its use of the word "nigger" as applied to the escaped slave character Jim. ''Huckleberry Finn'' was the fifth most challenged book during the 1990s, according to the American Library Association. In 2011, a new edition of the book published by NewSouth Books replaced the word "nigger" throughout the book with the word "slave" and also removed the word "injun". The change was spearheaded by Twain scholar Alan Gribben in the hope of "countering the 'pre-emptive censorship'" that results from the book's being removed from school curricula over language concerns. The changes sparked outrage from critics and scholars.

Music

Responding to accusations of racism after referring to "niggers" in the lyrics of the Guns N' Roses song, “One in a Million”, Axl Rose stated "I was pissed off about some black people that were trying to rob me. I wanted to insult those particular black people. I didn't want to support racism." The country music artist David Allan Coe used the racial terms "redneck", "white trash", and "nigger" in the songs “If That Ain’t Country, I’ll Kiss Your Ass” and “Nigger Fucker”. In the 1960s, record producer J. D. "Jay" Miller published pro-racial segregation music with the “Reb Rebel” label featuring racist songs by Johnny Rebel and others, demeaning black Americans and the Black Civil Rights movement.

Contemporarily, rap groups such as N.W.A. (Niggaz with Attitudes), re-popularized the usage in their songs.

Television

In ''Saturday Night Live'', comedians Chevy Chase and Richard Pryor say ''nigger'' and ''honky'' to each other in a word-association interview. Comedians such as Pryor, Redd Foxx, Eddie Murphy, Chris Rock, and Lenny Bruce used ''nigger'' in their comedy.

In the multi-part historical drama, the mini-series "Roots" the word was used in historical context on multiple occasions.

The word was used for laughs as late as the 1970s in sitcoms that used race as a basis for their humor, but it was used quite sparingly, and only by Black characters. It was used in at least two episodes of ''Sanford & Son'', and those episodes would later be censored to remove the offending line(s) in syndication ("Here Comes The Bride, There Goes The Bride" and "Fred Sanford, Legal Eagle"). DVD releases of the show do contain the offending lines in question. The word was also said by George Jefferson on ''All In The Family'' in the episode "Lionel's Engagement", and it was said by Louise Jefferson on ''The Jeffersons'' in the episode "Like Father, Like Son".

In episode 20 of the ''Family Matters'' second season, the graffito ''nigger'' was written on Laura Winslow’s school locker, and found a note addressed to her that read: “If you want to learn Black History, Go back to Africa”.

Elsewhere, Dog the Bounty Hunter used ''nigger'' in referring to his son’s girlfriend.

The Boondocks uses the word nigger heavily, which has sparked controversy.

Theatre

The musical ''Show Boat'' (from 1927 until 1946) features the word and "nigger" as originally integral to the lyrics of “Ol' Man River” and “Cotton Blossom”; although deleted from the cinema versions, it is included in the 1988 EMI recording of the original score. Musical theatre historian Miles Kreuger and conductor John McGlinn propose that the word was not an insult, but a blunt illustration of how white people then perceived black people.

Cultural controversy

"Nigger-brown" colored furniture

In April 2007, a dark brown leather sofa set, sold by Vanaik Furniture and Mattress Store in Toronto, Canada, was labelled as “Nigger-brown” color. Investigation determined that the Chinese manufacturer used an outdated version of Kingsoft's Chinese-to-English translation software for writing the tags; it translated the Chinese “dark-brown” characters to “Nigger-brown”, and neither the Canadian supplier nor the store owner had noticed the incorrectly translated tag; subsequently, Kingsoft corrected its translation software. In Hong Kong English, the phrase ''nigger-brown'' was, decades earlier, routinely used in newspapers without racist connotation.

''The Dam Busters'' film

Nigger was the name of a black dog that belonged to Wing Commander Guy Gibson, a Second World War, Royal Air Force hero. The film ''The Dam Busters'' (1955) features Gibson as a main character and his dog is depicted in several scenes. Both in the film and in the real events portrayed, the dog's name was also a radio codeword, used to report that Gibson's squadron had successfully destroyed one of its targets.

Some of the scenes in which the dog's name is uttered were later shown in the 1982 film ''Pink Floyd The Wall''.

In 1999, the British television network ITV broadcast a censored version with each of the twelve utterances of ''Nigger'' deleted. Replying to complaints against its censorship, ITV blamed the regional broadcaster, London Weekend Television, which, in turn, blamed a junior employee as the unauthorised censor. In June 2001, when ITV re-broadcast the censored version of ''The Dam Busters'', the Index on Censorship criticised it as “unnecessary and ridiculous” censorship breaking the continuity of the film and the story. Versions of the film edited for US television have the dog's name altered to "Trigger".

The name has caused some controversy with a new remake of ''The Dam Busters'', produced by Peter Jackson. A 2009 newspaper article suggests that the name will be changed to "Nigsy" in the new film.

Derivations

''Nigger'' as "defect" (a hidden problem), derives from "nigger in the woodpile", a US slave-era phrase denoting escaped slaves hiding in train-transported woodpiles.

In American English: ''nigger lover'' initially applied to abolitionists, then to white folk sympathetic towards black Americans. ''Sand nigger'', an ethnic slur against Arabs, and ''timber nigger'' and ''prairie nigger'', ethnic slurs against Native Americans, are examples of the racist extension of ''nigger'' upon other non-white peoples.

In British English, the maritime term ''niggerhead'' denotes a bollard mooring post, made with an old cannon, partly buried muzzle-up, topped with an over-sized cannonball; it is sailor's jargon for an isolated, navigation-hazard coral outcropping. (see quay).

In the Victorian era, the 1840s ''Morning Chronicle'' newspaper report series ''London Labour and the London Poor'', by Henry Mayhew, records the usages of both ''nigger'' and its false cognate ''niggard'' denoting a false bottom for a grate.

Flora and fauna nomenclatures include the word ''nigger''. The Arizonan nigger-head cactus, ''Echinocactus polycephalus'' is a round, cabbage-sized plant covered with large, crooked thorns. The colloquial names for ''echinacea'' (coneflower) are "Kansas niggerhead" and "Wild niggerhead". In Oceania, the "niggerhead termite" (''Nasutitermes graveolus'') is a native of Australia.

During the Spanish–American War US Army General John J. Pershing's original nickname, ''Nigger Jack'', given to him as an instructor at West Point because of his service with "Buffalo Soldier" units, was euphemized to ''Black Jack'' by reporters.

In 1960, a stand at the stadium in Toowoomba, Australia, was named the "E. S. 'Nigger' Brown Stand" honoring 1920s rugby league player Edward Stanley Brown, so nicknamed since early life because of his ''pale'' white skin; so known all his life, his tombstone is engraved ''Nigger''. Stephen Hagan, a lecturer at the Kumbari/Ngurpai Lag Higher Education Center of the University of Southern Queensland sued the Toowoomba council over the use of ''nigger'' in the stand's name; the district and state courts dismissed his lawsuit. He appealed to the High Court of Australia, who ruled the naming matter beyond federal jurisdiction. At first some local Aborigines did not share Mr Hagan's opposition to ''nigger''. Hagan appealed to the United Nations, winning a committee recommendation to the Australian federal government, that it force the Queensland state government to remove the word ''nigger'' from the "E. S. 'Nigger' Brown Stand" name. The Australian federal government followed the High Court's jurisdiction ruling. In September 2008, the stand was demolished. The Queensland Sports Minister, Judy Spence, said that using ''nigger'' would be unacceptable, for the stand or on any commemorative plaque. The 2005 book ''The N Word: One Man's Stand'' by Hagan includes this episode.

Place names

The word ''nigger'' features in official place-names, such as "Nigger Bill Canyon", "Nigger Hollow", and "Niggertown Marsh". In 1967, the United States Board on Geographic Names changed the word ''nigger'' to ''Negro'' in 143 place names. First changed to "Negrohead Mountain", a peak above Santa Monica, California was renamed on (February 2010) to Ballard Mountain in honor of John Ballard, a black pioneer who settled the area in the 19th Century. "Nigger Head Mountain", at Burnet, Texas, was so named because the forest atop it resembled a black man's hair. In 1966, the US First Lady, Lady Bird Johnson, denounced the racist name, asking the U.S. Board on Geographic Names and the U.S. Forest Service to rename it, becoming "Colored Mountain" in 1968; and in West Texas, "Dead Nigger Creek" was renamed "Dead Negro Draw". "Nigger Nate Grade", near Temecula, California, named for Nate Harrison, an ex-slave and settler, was renamed "Nathan Harrison Grade Road" in 1955, at the request of the NAACP.

In northwestern North America, particularly in Canada and the US, there are places which feature many uses of the word ''nigger''. At Penticton, British Columbia, Canada, "Niggertoe Mountain" was renamed Mount Nkwala. The place-name derived from a 1908 Christmas story about three black men who died in a blizzard; the next day, the bodies of two were found at the foot of the mountain. A point on the Lower Mississippi River, in West Baton Rouge Parish, named "Free Nigger Point" until the late twentieth century, first was renamed "Free Negro Point", but currently is named "Wilkinson Point". "Nigger Head Rock", protruding from a cliff above Highway 421, north of Pennington Gap, Virginia, was renamed "Great Stone Face" in the 1970s.

Derivatives

''The N-word'' euphemism

| source = — Kenneth B. Noble, January 14, 1995 ''The New York Times''|quote = The prosecutor [Christopher Darden], his voice trembling, added that the "N-word" was so vile that he would not utter it. "It's the filthiest, dirtiest, nastiest word in the English language."}}

The euphemism ''the N-word'' became mainstream American English usage during the racially contentious murder trial of ex-footballer O. J. Simpson in 1995.

Key prosecution witness Detective Mark Fuhrman, of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) – who denied using racist language on duty – impeached himself with his prolific use of ''nigger'' in tape recordings about his police work. The recordings, by screenplay writer Laura McKinney, were from a 1985 research session wherein the detective assisted her with a screenplay about LAPD policewomen. Fuhrman excused his use of the word saying he used ''nigger'' in the context of his "bad cop" persona. Linguistically, the popular press reporting and discussing Fuhrman’s testimony substituted ''the N-word'' in place of ''nigger''.

Homophones

occurs in Latinate scientific nomenclature and is the root word for some homophones of ''nigger''; sellers of niger seed (used as bird feed), sometimes use the name ''Nyjer'' seed. The classical Latin pronunciation sounds like the English , occurring in biologic and anatomic names, such as ''Hyoscamus niger'' (black henbane), and even for animals that are not in fact black, such as ''Sciurus niger'' (fox squirrel).

''Nigra'' is the Latin feminine form of ''niger'' (black), used in biologic and anatomic names such as substantia nigra (black substance).

The word ''niggardly'' (miserly) is etymologically unrelated to ''nigger'', derived from the Old Norse word ''nig'' (stingy) and the Middle English word ''nigon''. In the US, this word has been misheard or misread to mean ''nigger'', therefore being taken as offensive. In January 1999, David Howard, a white Washington, D.C. city employee, was compelled to resign after using ''niggardly'' — in a financial context — while speaking with black colleagues, who took umbrage. After reviewing the misunderstanding, Mayor Anthony Williams offered to reinstate Mr Howard, who refused reinstatement for another job elsewhere in the mayor's government.

The portmanteau word ''wigger'' (white + nigger) denotes an adolescent white boy emulating "street black behavior", hoping acceptance to the hip hop, thug, and gangsta sub-cultures.

Intragroup versus intergroup usage

Black hearers often react differently to the term when it is used by white speakers and by black speakers. In the former case, it is regularly understood as an insult; in the latter, it may carry notes of in-group disparagement, or even be understood as neutral or affectionate, a possible instance of reappropriation.

Among the black community, the slur ''nigger'' is almost always rendered as ''nigga'', a pronunciation emphasizing the unique intra-racial dialect of black people. A self-referential pronoun in African American Vernacular English usage popularized by the rap and hip-hop music cultures. In these situations, it is used as in-group lexicon and speech, wherein it is not necessarily derogatory.

According to Arthur K. Spears (Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 2006)

In many African-American neighborhoods, nigga is simply the most common term used to refer to any male, of any race or ethnicity. Increasingly, the term has been applied to any person, male or female. "Where y’all niggas goin?" is said with no self-consciousness or animosity to a group of women, for the routine purpose of obtaining information. The point: Nigga is evaluatively neutral in terms of its inherent meaning; it may express positive, neutral or negative attitudes;

While Kevin Cato observes:

For instance, a show on Black Entertainment Television, a cable network aimed at a black audience, described the word nigger as a "term of endearment." "In the African American community, the word nigga (not nigger) brings out feelings of pride" (Davis 1). Here the word evokes a sense of community and oneness among black people. Many teens I interviewed felt that the word had no power when used amongst friends, but when used among white people the word took on a completely different meaning. In fact, comedian Alex Thomas on BET stated, "I still better not hear no white boy say that to me... I hear a white boy say that to me, it means 'White boy, you gonna get your ass beat.'"

See also

Controversies about the word "niggardly"

Cultural appropriation

Discrimination

''Guilty or Innocent of Using the N Word''

Kaffir (ethnic slur)

List of ethnic group names used as insults

List of ethnic slurs

List of topics related to Black and African people

Nigga

"Niggas vs. Black People"

Profanity

Racism

Reappropriation

Taboo

''The Student as Nigger'' (essay)

Wigger

With Apologies to Jesse Jackson, an episode of an animated comedy series, ''South Park'', in which Stan's dad, Randy becomes a social pariah after saying "niggers" on ''Wheel of Fortune''

Profanity by language

Category of English profanity

Footnotes

References

External links

Analysis of the cultural uses of the word Nigga by Alex Alonso of Street Gangs Magazine

"Nigger and Caricatures," Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, Ferris State University

"Nigger (the word), a brief history!" from the African American Registry

Appropriating a Slur in M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture

"Let's Make a Deal on the N-Word: White folks will stop using it, and black folks will stop pretending that quoting it is saying it," John McWhorter, ''The Root''

Category:American English words Category:Black African people Category:Ethnic and religious slurs Category:Pejorative terms for people Category:Profanity

cy:Nigar da:Nigger de:Nigger id:Nigger nl:Nikker ja:ニガー no:Nigger pl:Nigger ru:Негр simple:Nigger sv:Nigger tr:Nigger zh:黑鬼

Coordinates	3°58′2.96″N122°35′40.92″N
Birth name	David Khari Webber Chappelle
Birth date	August 24, 1973
Birth place	Washington, D.C., U.S.
Medium	Stand-up, television, film
Nationality	American
Religion	Islam
Active	1987–present
Genre	Satire/political satire, improvisational comedy, observational comedy, surreal humor, sketch comedy, black comedy, blue comedy
Subject	Racism, race relations, American politics, African American culture, pop culture, recreational drug use, human sexuality, morality
Influences	Richard Pryor, Eddie Murphy, Mel Blanc, Chris Rock
Signature	Dave Chapelle Signature.svg
Spouse	Elaine Chappelle (2001-present) 3 children
Notable work	Himself and Various in Chappelle's ShowHimself in Dave Chappelle's Block PartyAchoo in Robin Hood: Men in TightsThurgood Jenkins in Half Baked }}

David Khari Webber "Dave" Chappelle (; born August 24, 1973) is an American comedian, screenwriter, television/film producer, actor, and artist. Chappelle began his film career in the film ''Robin Hood: Men in Tights'' in 1993 and continued to star in minor roles in the films ''The Nutty Professor'', ''Con Air'', and ''Blue Streak''. His first lead role in a film was in ''Half Baked'' in 1998. In 2003, he became widely known for his popular sketch comedy television series, ''Chappelle's Show'', which ran until 2006. He is ranked forty-third in Comedy Central Presents: 100 Greatest Stand-Ups of All Time.

Early life

Chappelle was born in Washington D.C. His father, William David Chappelle III, was a professor at Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio. His mother, Yvonne (née Reed), was a professor at Howard University, Prince George's Community College, and the University of Maryland and is also a Unitarian Universalist minister. Chappelle has stated in his stand-up performances that his mother is half-white. Chappelle grew up in Silver Spring, Maryland and attended Woodlin Elementary School. During young Chappelle's formative years, his comic inspiration came from various comedians, particularly Eddie Murphy and Richard Pryor.

After his parents separated, Chappelle stayed in Washington with his mother while spending summers with his father in Ohio. In 1991, he graduated from Washington's Duke Ellington School of the Arts where he studied theatre arts.

2003 - 2006 standup and ''Chappelle's Show''

In 2003, Chappelle debuted his own weekly sketch comedy show on Comedy Central called ''Chappelle's Show''. The show parodied many aspects of American culture including racial stereotypes, politics and pop culture. Along with comedy skits, the show also featured musical performances by mostly hip-hop and soul artists. Chappelle's pointed social and political commentary quickly helped the show garner critical and commercial success as well as controversy. Richard Pryor, one of Chappelle's comedic influences, was a fan of the show and stated that he had "passed the torch" to Chappelle. Chappelle received two Emmy nominations for the show. Additionally, the DVD set became the best-selling DVD of a television show to date, overtaking the previous best-selling, ''The Simpsons'' first season DVD. It had sold over 3 million copies. Due to the show's popularity, Comedy Central's parent company Viacom reportedly offered Chappelle a $55 million contract (giving Chappelle a share of DVD sales) to continue production of ''Chappelle's Show'' for two more years while allowing him to do side projects. Chappelle had stated that sketches are not his favorite form of comedy, and that the characteristics of the show's format were somewhat like short films.

In June 2004, based on the popularity of the "Rick James" sketch, it was announced that Chappelle was in talks to portray Rick James in a biopic from Paramount Pictures (also owned by Viacom). James's estate disagreed with the proposed comical tone of the film and put a halt to the talks.

In 2004, Chappelle recorded his second comedy special, this time airing on Showtime - ''Dave Chappelle: For What It's Worth'', at San Francisco's Fillmore Auditorium.

Season three turbulence

In a June 2004 stand-up performance in Sacramento, California, Chappelle walked off the stage after berating his audience for constantly shouting "I'm Rick James, bitch!," which became a catchphrase from the popular "Rick James" sketch. After a few minutes, Chappelle returned and continued by saying, "The show is ruining my life." He stated that he disliked working "20 hours a day" and that the popularity of the show was making it difficult for him to continue his stand-up career, which was "the most important thing" to him. He also told the audience:

}}

Season 3 was scheduled to air on May 31, 2005, but in that month, Chappelle stunned fans and the entertainment industry when he abruptly left during production of the third season of ''Chappelle's Show'' and took a trip to South Africa. Chappelle has since stated that he was unhappy with the direction the show had taken.

}}

Return

In June 2005, Chappelle performed impromptu stand-up shows in Los Angeles. He then went on a tour that began in Newport, Kentucky, not far from his Ohio home. He also made a surprise appearance on HBO's ''Def Poetry'' where he performed two poems, titled ''Fuck Ashton Kutcher'' and ''How I Got the Lead on "Jeopardy!."'' He was interviewed for ''Inside the Actors Studio'' on December 18, 2005 at Pace University's Michael Schimmel Center for the Arts. The show premiered on February 12, 2006. Chappelle stated that the death of his father in 1998 had an impact on his decision to go to South Africa. By throwing himself into his work, he had not taken a chance to mourn his father's death. He also said the rumors that he was in drug or psychiatric treatment only persuaded him to stay in South Africa.

He continued:

Chappelle also said that he felt some of his sketches were "socially irresponsible." He singled out the "pixie sketch" in which pixies appear to people and encourage them to reinforce stereotypes of their races. In the sketch, Chappelle is wearing blackface and is dressed as a character in a minstrel show. According to Chappelle, during the filming of the sketch, a crew member was laughing in a way that made him feel uncomfortable and made him rethink the show. Chappelle said, "it was the first time I felt that someone was not laughing with me but laughing at me."

During these interviews, Chappelle did not rule out returning to ''Chappelle's Show'' to "finish what we started," but promised that he would not return without changes to the production, such as a better working environment. He also stated he would like to donate half of the DVD sales to charity. Chappelle expressed disdain at the possibility of his material from the unfinished third season being aired, saying that to do so would be "a bully move," and that he would not return to the show if Comedy Central were to air the unfinished material. On July 9, 2006, Comedy Central aired the first episode of ''Chappelle's Show: The Lost Episodes''. An uncensored DVD release of the episodes was made available on July 25.

2006 - ''Dave Chappelle's Block Party''

Chappelle was the star and producer of the Michel Gondry-directed documentary ''Dave Chappelle's Block Party'', which chronicles a Chappelle-hosted concert in the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn on September 18, 2004. Several musical artists, including Kanye West, The Roots, Erykah Badu, Mos Def, Dead Prez and Jill Scott are featured in the movie both performing in the concert and in conversation off-stage. The most surprising highlight of the event was the "last minute" reunion of popular '90s hip hop group The Fugees. Chappelle toured several cities in February and March 2006 to promote the film under the moniker "Block Party All-Stars featuring Dave Chappelle". Universal Pictures' genre division Rogue Pictures released the film in the United States on March 3, 2006.

2007 - present

In April 2007, Chappelle set a stand-up endurance record at the Laugh Factory Sunset Strip comedy club, beating comedian Dane Cook's record of 3 hours and 50 minutes. In December of the same year, Chappelle broke his own record with a time of 6 hours and 12 minutes. Cook took the record again in January 2008, with a time of 7 hours. On November 19, 2009 Chappelle performed at the Laugh Factory in Los Angeles, where it was speculated that he would aim to take back the record. However, he was disqualified according to the club owner, after he left the stage, five hours into his routine.

Chappelle again appeared on ''Inside the Actors Studio'' and in celebration of the show's 200th episode, he humorously interviewed the show's usual host, James Lipton. The episode aired on November 11, 2008.

Personal life

Chappelle lives with his wife Elaine, two sons, Sulayman and Ibrahim, and daughter Sonal, on a farm, just outside Yellow Springs, Ohio. He also owns several houses in Xenia, Ohio. Regarding his home in Yellow Springs, Ohio, Chappelle says, "Turns out you don't need $50 million to live around these parts, just a nice smile and a kind way about you. You guys are the best neighbors ever," he stated at a blues and jazz festival in the town in mid-September 2006. "That's why I came back and that's why I'm staying."

Chappelle is a Muslim, having converted to Islam in 1998. He told ''Time Magazine'' in a May 2005 interview, "I don’t normally talk about my religion publicly because I don’t want people to associate me and my flaws with this beautiful thing. And I believe it is beautiful if you learn it the right way."

Filmography

+ Actor
! Year	! Film	! Role	Notes
1992	''Def Comedy Jam''	Himself
1993	''Robin Hood: Men in Tights''	Ahchoo
1995		Dave	One episode
1996		Reggie Warrington
1997	''Con Air''	Pinball
1998	''Half Baked''	Thurgood Jenkins / Sir Smoke-a-Lot
1998	''You've Got Mail''	Kevin Jackson
1999	''200 Cigarettes''	Disco Cabbie
1999	''Blue Streak''	Tulley
2000	''Screwed''	Rusty P. Hayes
2002	''Undercover Brother''	Conspiracy Brother
2003-2006	''Chappelle's Show''	Himself and others
2005	''Inside the Actor's Studio''	Himself
2006	''Dave Chappelle's Block Party''	Himself	Documentary
2007		Himself	Documentary
2008	''Inside the Actor's Studio''	Himself

Discography

+ Actor
! Year	! Album	! Role	Notes
2000	Killin' Them Softly	Executive Producer	TV Documentary
2004	''For What It's Worth''	Executive Producer	TV Movie/Showtime Special

References

External links

Video of Anderson Cooper 360 Interview

Fresh Air Interview in 2004

Category:1973 births Category:American Muslims Category:African American actors Category:African American comedians Category:African American television actors Category:American buskers Category:American film actors Category:American stand-up comedians Category:American television actors Category:Psychedelic drug advocates Category:American people of Ivorian descent Category:Living people Category:People from Silver Spring, Maryland Category:People from Washington, D.C. Category:People from Yellow Springs, Ohio Category:Converts to Islam from Christianity Category:African American Muslims Category:Converts to Islam Category:African American Muslims

da:Dave Chapelle de:David Chappelle es:Dave Chappelle fr:Dave Chappelle it:Dave Chappelle he:דייב שאפל nl:Dave Chappelle no:David Chappelle pl:Dave Chappelle ru:Шапелл, Дэйв sq:Dave Chappelle fi:Dave Chappelle sv:David Chappelle

Coordinates	3°58′2.96″N122°35′40.92″N
Name	Robert Byrd
Office	President pro tempore of the United States Senate
Term start	January 3, 2007
Term end	June 28, 2010
Leader	Harry Reid
Predecessor	Ted Stevens
Successor	Daniel Inouye
Leader1	Tom Daschle
Term start1	June 6, 2001
Term end1	January 3, 2003
Leader2	Tom Daschle
Predecessor1	Strom Thurmond
Successor1	Ted Stevens
Term start2	January 3, 2001
Term end2	January 20, 2001
Leader3	George Mitchell
Predecessor2	Strom Thurmond
Successor2	Strom Thurmond
Term start3	January 3, 1989
Term end3	January 3, 1995
Predecessor3	John Stennis
Successor3	Strom Thurmond
Order4	President pro tempore emeritus of the United States Senate
Leader4	Bill Frist
Term start4	January 3, 2003
Term end4	January 3, 2007
Predecessor4	Strom Thurmond
Successor4	Ted Stevens
Office5	Senate Majority Leader
Deputy5	Alan Cranston
Term start5	January 3, 1987
Term end5	January 3, 1989
Predecessor5	Bob Dole
Successor5	George Mitchell
Deputy6	Alan Cranston
Term start6	January 3, 1977
Term end6	January 3, 1981
Predecessor6	Mike Mansfield
Successor6	Howard Baker
Office7	Senate Minority Leader
Term start7	January 3, 1981
Term end7	January 3, 1987
Deputy7	Alan Cranston
Predecessor7	Howard Baker
Successor7	Bob Dole
Office8	Senate Majority Whip
Leader8	Mike Mansfield
Term start8	January 3, 1971
Term end8	January 3, 1977
Predecessor8	Ted Kennedy
Successor8	Alan Cranston
Office9	Chairman of the Senate Committee on Appropriations
Term start9	January 3, 2007
Term end9	January 3, 2009
Predecessor9	Thad Cochran
Successor9	Daniel Inouye
Term start0	June 6, 2001
Term end0	January 3, 2003
Predecessor0	Ted Stevens
Successor0	Ted Stevens
Term start11	January 3
Term end11	January 20, 2001
Predecessor11	Ted Stevens
Successor11	Ted Stevens
Term start12	January 3, 1989
Term end12	January 3, 1995
Predecessor12	John C. Stennis
Successor12	Mark Hatfield
Jr/sr13	Senior
State13	West Virginia
Term start13	January 3, 1959
Term end13	June 28, 2010
Predecessor13	Chapman Revercomb
Successor13	Carte Goodwin
State14	West Virginia
District14	6th
Term start14	January 3, 1953
Term end14	January 3, 1959
Predecessor14	Erland Hedrick
Successor14	John Slack
Birth date	November 20, 1917
Birth place	North Wilkesboro,
Death date	June 28, 2010
Death place
Party	Democratic Party
Spouse	Erma James (1937–2006)
Children	MonaMarjorie
Alma mater	Marshall UniversityAmerican University
Profession	Attorney
Religion	Baptist
Signature	Robert C. Byrd Signature.svg }}

Robert Carlyle Byrd (born Cornelius Calvin Sale, Jr.; November 20, 1917 June 28, 2010) was a United States Senator from West Virginia. A member of the Democratic Party, Byrd served as a U.S. Representative from 1953 until 1959 and as a U.S. Senator from 1959 to 2010. He was the longest-serving senator and the longest-serving member in the history of the United States Congress.

Initially elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1952, Byrd served there for six years before being elected to the Senate in 1958. He rose to become one of the Senate's most powerful members, serving as secretary of the Senate Democratic Caucus from 1967 to 1971 and—after defeating his longtime colleague, Ted Kennedy—as Senate Majority Whip from 1971 to 1977. Byrd led the Democratic caucus as Senate Majority Leader from 1977 to 1981 and 1987 to 1989, and as Senate Minority Leader from 1981 to 1987. From 1989 to 2010 he served as the President pro tempore of the United States Senate when the Democratic Party had a majority, and as President pro tempore emeritus during periods of Republican majority beginning in 2001. As President pro tempore, he was third in the line of presidential succession, behind the Vice President and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. He also served as the Chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Appropriations from 1989 to 1995, 2001 to 2003, and 2007 to 2009, giving him extraordinary influence over federal spending.

Byrd's seniority and leadership of the Appropriations Committee enabled him to steer a great deal of federal money toward projects in West Virginia. Critics derided his efforts as pork spending to appeal to his own constituents. He filibustered against the 1964 Civil Rights Act and supported the Vietnam War, but later backed civil rights measures and criticized the Iraq War. He was briefly a member of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1940s, but later left the group and denounced racial intolerance.

Background

Byrd was born Cornelius Calvin Sale, Jr. in North Wilkesboro, North Carolina, on November 20, 1917. When he was one year old, his mother, Ada Mae (née Kirby), died in the 1918 Flu Pandemic. In accordance with his mother's wishes, his father, Cornelius Calvin Sale, dispersed the family children among relatives. Titus and Vlurma Byrd, the infant's uncle and aunt, were given custody, adopted him, renamed him Robert Carlyle Byrd, and raised him in the coal-mining region of southern West Virginia.

Byrd was valedictorian of Mark Twain High School and attended Beckley College, Concord College, Morris Harvey College, and Marshall University, all in West Virginia. He was a member of Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity.

Family

Marriage

Byrd's wife, Erma Ora James (June 12, 1917 – March 25, 2006) was born in Floyd County, Virginia, to Fred James, a coal miner, and Mary James. She had one sister, Beulah Minton. At an early age, she relocated to Raleigh County, West Virginia with her family. There she met Robert Byrd while attending Mark Twain School.

On May 29, 1937, she married Byrd when both were 19 years old. Only their parents attended the small ceremony at the home of Reverend U.G. Nichols.

Erma Byrd was a member of the Senate Wives' Club and was involved in Senate Wives' Red Cross projects. In 1990, she was selected as Daughter of the Year by the West Virginia Society of Washington, D.C. She was later awarded a degree from Alderson–Broaddus College in 1991, and in 1994, Marshall University initiated the Erma Byrd Scholars Program. This recognition was followed by the Loyalty Permanent Endowment Fund of the West Virginia University Alumni Association, which established the Erma Ora Byrd Scholarship.

In October 1997, the Erma Byrd Garden at the Graceland Mansion at Davis and Elkins College was dedicated. Erma Byrd received her Bachelor of Arts degree from Wheeling Jesuit University soon after, which was followed by the dedication of the Erma Ora Byrd Center for Educational Technologies on the campus.

In May 1999, she was named Mother of the Year by the Thunder of the Tygart Foundation at the birthplace of Anna Jarvis, the surmised founder of Mother's Day. In the same month, Erma Byrd received the Graduate of Distinction Award from the Education Alliance in Charleston, West Virginia. In January 2004, the Erma Byrd Gallery at the University of Charleston opened. On March 25, 2006, Erma Byrd died at age 88 after battling a lengthy illness. Robert Byrd dedicated several buildings in honor of his wife, including the Erma Ora Byrd Hall nursing building at Shepherd University (June 2007), and the West Virginia University Erma Byrd Biomedical Research Center (September 2008).

Children

The Byrds had two children, Mona Byrd Fatemi and Marjorie Byrd Moore; two sons-in-law, Mohammad Fatemi and Jon Moore; five living grandchildren, Erik Byrd Fatemi, Mona Byrd Moore Pearson, Darius Fatemi, Mary Anne Moore Clarkson, Fredrik Fatemi, and Jon Michael Moore (deceased); and seven great-grandchildren, Caroline Byrd Fatemi, Emma James Clarkson, Kathryn James Fatemi, Hannah Byrd Clarkson, Michael Yoo Fatemi, Anna Cristina Fatemi, and James Matthew Fatemi.

Ku Klux Klan

In the early 1940s, Byrd recruited 150 of his friends and associates to create a new chapter of the Ku Klux Klan.

According to Byrd, a Klan official told him, "You have a talent for leadership, Bob ... The country needs young men like you in the leadership of the nation." Byrd later recalled, "suddenly lights flashed in my mind! Someone important had recognized my abilities! I was only 23 or 24 years old, and the thought of a political career had never really hit me. But strike me that night, it did." Byrd held the titles ''Kleagle'' (recruiter) and ''Exalted Cyclops''. When it came time to elect the "Exalted Cyclops", the top officer in the local Klan unit, Byrd won unanimously.

In 1944, Byrd wrote to segregationist Mississippi Senator Theodore G. Bilbo:

In 1946 or 1947, Byrd wrote a letter to a Grand Wizard stating, "The Klan is needed today as never before, and I am anxious to see its rebirth here in West Virginia and in every state in the nation." However, when running for the United States House of Representatives in 1952, he announced "After about a year, I became disinterested, quit paying my dues, and dropped my membership in the organization. During the nine years that have followed, I have never been interested in the Klan." He said he had joined the Klan because he felt it offered excitement and was anti-communist.

In 1997, Byrd told an interviewer he would encourage young people to become involved in politics but also: "Be sure you avoid the Ku Klux Klan. Don't get that albatross around your neck. Once you've made that mistake, you inhibit your operations in the political arena." In his last autobiography, Byrd explained that he was a KKK member because he "was sorely afflicted with tunnel vision —a jejune and immature outlook—seeing only what I wanted to see because I thought the Klan could provide an outlet for my talents and ambitions." Byrd also said, in 2005, "I know now I was wrong. Intolerance had no place in America. I apologized a thousand times ... and I don't mind apologizing over and over again. I can't erase what happened."

Early career

Byrd worked as a gas-station attendant, a grocery-store clerk, a shipyard welder during World War II, and a butcher, before he won a seat in the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1946, representing Raleigh County from 1947 to 1950. In 1950, he was elected to the West Virginia Senate, where he served from 1951 to 1952. After being elected to the United States House of Representatives, he began night classes at American University's Washington College of Law in 1953, but did not receive his law degree from the university until a decade later, by which time he was a U.S. Senator. President John F. Kennedy spoke at the commencement ceremony in June 1963 and mentioned Byrd by name. Byrd also studied at The George Washington University Law School but did not receive an undergraduate degree until 1994, when he graduated from Marshall University.

In 1951, then–State Delegate Robert Byrd was among the official witnesses of the execution of Harry Burdette and Fred Painter, which was the first use of the electric chair in West Virginia. In 1965 the state abolished capital punishment, with the last execution having occurred in 1959.

Congressional service

In 1952, Byrd was elected to the United States House of Representatives for West Virginia's 6th Congressional District, succeeding E. H. Hedrick, who retired to run for Governor. Byrd was re-elected to the House twice and served in the body from January 3, 1953, to 1959. Byrd defeated Republican incumbent W. Chapman Revercomb for the United States Senate in 1958. Revercomb's record supporting civil rights had become an issue, playing in Byrd's favor. Byrd was re-elected to the Senate eight times. He was West Virginia's junior senator for his first four terms; his colleague from 1959 to 1985 was Jennings Randolph, who had been elected on the same day as Byrd's first election in a special election to fill the seat of the late Senator Matthew Neely.

While Byrd faced some vigorous Republican opposition in his career, his last serious electoral opposition occurred in 1982 when he was challenged by freshman Congressman Cleve Benedict. Despite his tremendous popularity in the state, Byrd ran unopposed only once, in 1976. On two other occasions – in 1994 and 2000 – he won all 55 of West Virginia's counties. In his re-election bid in 2000, he won all but seven precincts. Shelley Moore Capito, a Congresswoman and the daughter of Byrd's longtime foe, former governor Arch Moore, Jr., briefly considered a challenge to Byrd in 2006 but decided against it.

In the 1960 Democratic presidential election primaries, Byrd – a close Senate ally of Lyndon B. Johnson – endorsed and campaigned for Hubert Humphrey over front-runner John F. Kennedy in the state's crucial primary. However, Kennedy won the state's primary and eventually the general election.

Public service records

Byrd was elected to a record ninth consecutive full Senate term on November 7, 2006. He became the longest-serving senator in American history on June 12, 2006, surpassing Strom Thurmond of South Carolina with 17,327 days of service. On November 18, 2009, Byrd became the longest-serving member in congressional history, with 56 years, 320 days of combined service in the House and Senate, passing Carl Hayden, an Arizona politician. Previously, Byrd had held the record for the longest unbroken tenure in the Senate (Thurmond resigned during his first term and was re-elected seven months later). Including his tenure as a state legislator from 1947 to 1953, Byrd's service on the political front exceeded 60 continuous years. Byrd, who never lost an election, cast his 18,000th vote on June 21, 2007, the most of any senator in history.

Upon the death of former Florida Senator George Smathers on January 20, 2007, Byrd became the last living United States Senator from the 1950s.

Byrd was the last surviving senator to have voted on a bill granting statehood to a U.S. territory. At the time of Byrd's death, fourteen sitting or former members of the Senate had not been born when Byrd's tenure in the Senate began, President Barack Obama among them.

Committee assignments

These are the committee assignments for Sen. Byrd's 9th and final term.

Committee on Appropriations

*Subcommittee on Defense

*Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development

*Subcommittee on Homeland Security (Chairman)

*Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies

*Subcommittee on Military Construction and Veterans Affairs

*Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies

Committee on Armed Services

*Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities

*Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support

*Subcommittee on Strategic Forces

Committee on the Budget

Committee on Rules and Administration

Filibuster of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Byrd joined with other Southern and border-state Democrats to filibuster the Civil Rights Act of 1964, personally filibustering the bill for 14 hours, a move he later said he regretted. Despite an 83-day filibuster in the Senate, both parties in Congress voted overwhelmingly in favor of the Act, and President Johnson signed the bill into law. Byrd also opposed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 but voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1968. In 2005, Byrd told ''The Washington Post'' that his membership in the Baptist church led to a change in his views. In the opinion of one reviewer, Byrd, like other Southern and border-state Democrats, came to realize that he would have to temper "his blatantly segregationist views" and move to the Democratic Party mainstream if he wanted to play a role nationally.

Because of his opposition to desegregation, Byrd was a member of the wing of the Democratic Party that opposed desegregation and civil rights imposed by the federal government. However, despite his early career in the KKK, Byrd was linked to such senators as John C. Stennis, J. William Fulbright and George Smathers, who based their segregationist positions on their view of states' rights in contrast to senators like James Eastland, who held a reputation as a committed racist.

Leadership roles

Byrd served in the Senate Democratic leadership. He was secretary of the Senate Democratic Conference from 1967 to 1971. He served as majority whip, or the second highest-ranking Democrat from 1971 to 1977. From 1977 to 1989 Byrd was the leader of the Senate Democrats, serving as majority leader from 1977 to 1981 and 1987 to 1989, and as minority leader from 1981 to 1987.

In 1976, Byrd was the "favorite son" Presidential candidate in West Virginia's primary. His easy victory gave him control of the delegation to the Democratic national convention. Byrd had the inside track as majority whip but focused most of his time running for majority leader, more so than for re-election to the Senate, as he was virtually unopposed for his fourth term. By the time the vote for majority leader came, his lead was so secure that his lone rival, Minnesota's Hubert Humphrey, withdrew before the balloting took place.

Appropriations Committee

Byrd was well known for steering federal dollars to West Virginia, one of the country's poorest states. He was called the "King of Pork" by Citizens Against Government Waste. After becoming chair of the Appropriations Committee in 1989, Byrd set a goal securing a total of for public works in the state. He passed that mark in 1991, and funds for highways, dams, educational institutions and federal agency offices flowed unabated over the course of his membership. More than 30 existing or pending federal projects bear his name. He commented on his reputation for attaining funds for projects in West Virginia in August 2006, when he called himself "Big Daddy" at the dedication for the Robert C. Byrd Biotechnology Science Center. Examples of this ability to claim funds and projects for his state include the Federal Bureau of Investigation's repository for computerized fingerprint records as well as several United States Coast Guard computing and office facilities.

Parliamentary expertise

Byrd also was known for using his knowledge of parliamentary procedure. Before the "Reagan Revolution", Byrd frustrated Republicans with his encyclopedic knowledge of the inner workings of the Senate. From 1977 to 1979 he was described as "performing a procedural tap dance around the minority, outmaneuvering Republicans with his mastery of the Senate's arcane rules." In 1988, majority leader Byrd moved a call of the Senate, which was adopted by the majority present, in order to have the Sergeant-at-Arms arrest members not in attendance. One member (Robert Packwood, R-Oregon) was escorted back to the chamber by the Sergeant-at-Arms in order to obtain a quorum.

President pro tempore

As the longest-serving Democratic senator, Byrd served as President pro tempore four times when his party was in the majority: from 1989 until the Republicans won control of the Senate in 1995; for 17 days in early 2001, when the Senate was evenly split between parties and outgoing Vice President Al Gore broke the tie in favor of the Democrats; when the Democrats regained the majority in June 2001 after Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party to become an independent; and again from 2007 to his death in 2010, as a result of the 2006 Senate elections. In this capacity, Byrd was third in the line of presidential succession at the time of his death, behind Vice President Joe Biden and House Speaker Nancy Pelosi.

Scholarships and TAH History Grants

In 1969, Byrd launched a Scholastic Recognition Award; he also began to present a savings bond to valedictorians from high schools—public and private—in West Virginia. In 1985 Congress approved the nation's only merit-based scholarship program funded through the U.S. Department of Education, a program which Congress later named in Byrd's honor. The Robert C. Byrd Honors Scholarship Program initially comprised a one-year, $1,500 award to students with "outstanding academic achievement" who had been accepted at a college or university. In 1993, the program began providing four-year scholarships.

In 2002 Byrd secured unanimous approval for a major national initiative to strengthen the teaching of "traditional American history" in K-12 public schools. The Department of Education competitively awards $50 to a year to school districts (in amounts of about $500,000 to ). The money goes to teacher training programs that are geared to improving the knowledge of history teachers and are known as a "TAH Grant".

Senate historian

Television cameras were first introduced to the House of Representatives on March 19, 1979, by C-SPAN. Unsatisfied that Americans only saw Congress as the House of Representatives, Byrd and others pushed to televise Senate proceedings to prevent the Senate from becoming the "invisible branch" of government, succeeding in June 1986.

To help introduce the public to the inner workings of the legislative process, Byrd launched a series of one hundred speeches based on his examination of the Roman Republic and the intent of the Framers. Byrd published a four-volume series on Senate history: ''The Senate: 1789–1989: Addresses on the History of the Senate''. The first volume won the Henry Adams Prize of the Society for History in the Federal Government as "an outstanding contribution to research in the history of the Federal Government." He also published ''The Senate of the Roman Republic: Addresses on the History of Roman Constitutionalism''.

In 2004, Byrd received the American Historical Association's first Theodore Roosevelt-Woodrow Wilson Award for Civil Service; in 2007, Byrd received the Friend of History Award from the Organization of American Historians. Both awards honor individuals outside the academy who have made a significant contribution to the writing and/or presentation of history.

Final-term Senate highlights

On July 19, 2007, Byrd gave a 25-minute speech in the Senate against dog fighting, in response to the indictment of football player Michael Vick. In recognition of the speech, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals named Byrd their ''2007 Person of the Year''.

For 2007, Byrd was deemed the fourteenth-most powerful senator, as well as the twelfth-most powerful Democratic senator.

On May 19, 2008, Byrd endorsed Barack Obama (D-Illinois). One week after the West Virginia Democratic Primary, in which Hillary Clinton defeated Obama by 41 to 32 percent, Byrd said, "Barack Obama is a noble-hearted patriot and humble Christian, and he has my full faith and support." When asked in October 2008 about the possibility that the issue of race would influence West Virginia voters, as Obama is an African-American, Byrd replied, "Those days are gone. Gone!" Obama lost West Virginia (by 13 percent) but won the election.

On January 26, 2009, Byrd was one of three Democrats to vote against the confirmation of Timothy Geithner as United States Secretary of the Treasury (along with Russ Feingold of Wisconsin and Tom Harkin of Iowa).

On February 26, 2009, Byrd was one of two Democrats to vote against the District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act of 2009, which added a voting seat in the United States House of Representatives for the District of Columbia and add a seat for Utah (Democrat Max Baucus of Montana also cast a "nay" vote).

Although his health was poor, Byrd was present for every crucial vote during the December 2009 Senatorial healthcare debate; his vote was necessary so Democrats could obtain cloture to break a Republican filibuster. At the final vote on December 24, 2009, Byrd referenced recently deceased Senator Ted Kennedy, a devoted proponent, when casting his vote: "Mr. President, this is for my friend Ted Kennedy! Aye!"

Political views

Race

Late in his life, Byrd explicitly renounced his earlier views favoring racial segregation. Byrd said that he regretted filibustering and voting against the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and would change it if he had the opportunity. He said joining the KKK was, "the greatest mistake I ever made." Byrd also said that his views changed dramatically after his teenage grandson was killed in a 1982 traffic accident, which put him in a deep emotional valley. "The death of my grandson caused me to stop and think," said Byrd, adding he came to realize that black people love their children as much as he does his.

Byrd was the only senator to vote against both Thurgood Marshall and Clarence Thomas to the United States Supreme Court, the only two African-American nominees. In the former instance, Byrd asked FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover to look into what Byrd believed to be the possibility that Marshall had either connections to communists or had a communist past. In the latter instance, Byrd stated that he was offended by Thomas' use of the phrase "high-tech lynching of uppity blacks" in his defense and that he was "offended by the injection of racism" into the hearing. He called Thomas's comments a "diversionary tactic", and said "I thought we were past that stage." Regarding Anita Hill's sexual harassment charges against Thomas, Byrd supported Hill. Byrd joined 45 other Democrats in opposing Thomas.

For the 2003-2004 session, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) rated Byrd 100 percent compliant with the NAACP's position on the 33 Senate bills they evaluated. 16 other senators received that rating. In June 2005, Byrd proposed an additional in federal funding for the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial in Washington, D.C., remarking that, "With the passage of time, we have come to learn that his Dream was the American Dream, and few ever expressed it more eloquently."

In a March 4, 2001, interview with Tony Snow, Byrd said of race relations:

Byrd's use of the term "white nigger" created immediate controversy. When asked about it, Byrd responded,

Clinton impeachment

Byrd initially said that the impeachment proceedings against Clinton should be taken seriously. Although he harshly criticized any attempt to make light of the allegations, he made the motion to dismiss the charges and effectively end the matter. Even though he voted against both articles of impeachment, he was the sole Democrat to vote to censure Clinton.

Gay rights

He strongly opposed Clinton's 1993 efforts to allow gays to serve in the military and supported efforts to limit gay marriage. In 1996, before the passage of the Defense of Marriage Act, he said, "The drive for same-sex marriage is, in effect, an effort to make a sneak attack on society by encoding this aberrant behavior in legal form before society itself has decided it should be legal. [...] Let us defend the oldest institution, the institution of marriage between male and female as set forth in the Holy Bible."

However, he opposed the Federal Marriage Amendment and argued that it was unnecessary because the states already had the power to ban gay marriages. However, when the amendment came to the Senate floor, he was one of the two Democratic senators who voted in favor of cloture.

Abortion

He was pro-choice and in 1995 voted against a ban on intact dilation and extraction, a late-term abortion procedure typically referred to by its opponents as "partial-birth abortion", but voted for a ban on subsequent occasions. Byrd voted against the Unborn Victims of Violence Act, which recognizes a "child in utero" as a legal victim if he or she is injured or killed during the commission of a crime of violence.

In 2003, Byrd voted for the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, which prohibits intact dilation and extraction.

George W. Bush era

Byrd praised the nomination of Judge John Roberts to fill the vacancy on the Supreme Court created by the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist. Likewise, Byrd supported the confirmation of Samuel Alito to replace retiring Associate Justice Sandra Day O'Connor.

Like most Democrats Byrd opposed Bush's tax cuts and his proposals to change the Social Security program.

Byrd opposed the 2002 law creating the Department of Homeland Security, saying it ceded too much authority to the executive branch.

He also led the opposition to Bush's bid to win back the power to negotiate trade deals that Congress cannot amend, but lost overwhelmingly. In the 108th Congress, however, Byrd won his party's top seat on the new Homeland Security Appropriations Subcommittee.

In July 2004, Byrd released the book ''Losing America: Confronting a Reckless and Arrogant Presidency'' about the Bush presidency and the war in Iraq.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

Byrd led a filibuster against the resolution granting President George W. Bush broad power to wage a "preemptive" war against Iraq, but he could not get even a majority of his own party to vote against cloture.

Byrd was one of the Senate's most outspoken critics of the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

In a speech on March 13, 2003 he stated, }}

On March 19, 2003, when Bush ordered the invasion after receiving U.S. Congress approval, Byrd said,

Byrd also criticized Bush for his speech declaring the "end of major combat operations" in Iraq, which Bush made on the U.S.S. ''Abraham Lincoln''. Byrd stated on the Senate floor,

On October 17, 2003, Byrd delivered a speech expressing his concerns about the future of the nation and his unequivocal antipathy to Bush's policies. Referencing the Hans Christian Andersen children's tale ''The Emperor's New Clothes'', Byrd said of the president: "the emperor has no clothes." Byrd further lamented the "sheep-like" behavior of the "cowed Members of this Senate" and called on them to oppose the continuation of a "war based on falsehoods."

Byrd accused the Bush administration of stifling dissent: —has been rushed through this chamber in just one month. There were just three open hearings by the Senate Appropriations Committee on —$87 for every minute since Jesus Christ was born— without a single outside witness called to challenge the administration's line.}}

Of the more than 18,000 votes he cast as a senator, Byrd said he was proudest of his vote against the Iraq war resolution. Byrd also voted to tie a timetable for troop withdrawal to war funding.

Gang of 14

On May 23, 2005, Byrd was one of 14 senators (who became known as the "Gang of 14") to forge a compromise on the judicial filibuster, thus securing up and down votes for many judicial nominees and ending the threat of the so-called nuclear option that would have eliminated the filibuster entirely. Under the agreement, the senators retained the power to filibuster a judicial nominee in only an "extraordinary circumstance." It ensured that the appellate court nominees (Janice Rogers Brown, Priscilla Owen and William Pryor) would receive votes by the full Senate.

Other votes

Byrd opposed the Flag Desecration Amendment, saying that, while he wanted to protect the American flag, he believed that amending the Constitution "is not the most expeditious way to protect this revered symbol of our Republic." Byrd cosponsored S. 1370, a bill to prohibit destruction or desecration of the flag by anyone trying to incite violence or causing a breach of the peace. It also provides that anyone who steals, damages, or destroys a flag on federal property—whether owned by the federal government or a private group or individual—can be imprisoned, fined or both. In 2009, Byrd was one of three Democrats to oppose the confirmation of Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner. After missing nearly two months while in hospital, Byrd returned to the Senate floor on July 21 to vote against the elimination of funding for the F-22 fighter plane.

Ratings groups

Byrd received a 65-percent vote rating from the League of Conservation Voters for his support of environmentally friendly legislation. Additionally, he received a "liberal" rating of 65.5 percent by the National Journal—higher than six other Democratic senators.

In 2006, Byrd received a 67-percent rating from the American Civil Liberties Union for supporting rights-related legislation.

Health issues and death

Byrd's health declined through 2008, including several hospital admissions.

On January 20, 2009, Senator Ted Kennedy suffered a seizure during Barack Obama's inaugural luncheon and was taken away in an ambulance. Byrd, seated at the same table, became distraught and was himself removed to his office. Byrd's office reported that he was fine. On May 18, Byrd was admitted to the hospital after experiencing a fever due to a "minor infection", prolonged by a staphylococcal infection. Byrd was released on June 30, 2009.

Byrd's final hospital stay began on June 27, 2010 at Inova Fairfax Hospital in Fairfax County, Virginia. Robert Byrd died at approximately EDT the next day at age 92 from natural causes.

Vice President Joe Biden recalled Byrd's standing in the rain with him as Biden buried his daughter when Biden had just been elected to the Senate. He called Byrd "a tough, compassionate, and outspoken leader and dedicated above all else to making life better for the people of the Mountain State." President Barack Obama said, "His profound passion for that body and its role and responsibilities was as evident behind closed doors as it was in the stemwinders he peppered with history. He held the deepest respect of members of both parties, and he was generous with his time and advice, something I appreciated greatly as a young senator." Senator Jay Rockefeller, who had served with Byrd since 1985, said, "I looked up to him, I fought next to him, and I am deeply saddened that he is gone." Former President Jimmy Carter noted, "He was my closest and most valuable adviser while I served as president. I respected him and attempted in every way to remain in his good graces. He was a giant among legislators, and was courageous in espousing controversial issues."

On July 1, 2010 Byrd lay in repose on the Lincoln Catafalque in the Senate chamber of the United States Capitol, becoming the first Senator to do so since his first year in the Senate, 1959. Byrd was then flown to Charleston, West Virginia where he lay in repose in the Lower Rotunda of the West Virginia State Capitol. A funeral was held on July 2, 2010 on the grounds of the State Capitol where Byrd was eulogized by President Barack Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Governor Joe Manchin, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, Speaker of the House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi, Senator Jay Rockefeller, Congressman Nick Rahall, Victoria Reggie Kennedy, and former President Bill Clinton. After the funeral services in Charleston, his body was returned to Arlington, Virginia for funeral services on July 6, 2010 at Memorial Baptist Church. After the funeral in Arlington, Byrd was buried next to his wife Erma at Columbia Gardens Cemetery in Arlington, although family members have stated that both the senator and Mrs. Byrd will be reinterred somewhere in West Virginia once a site is determined.

The song Take Me Home, Country Roads was played at the end of the funeral in a bluegrass fashion as his casket was being carried back up the stairs and into the West Virginia State Capitol Building.

On September 30, 2010 Congress appropriated $193,400 to be paid equally among Sen. Byrd's children and grandchildren, representing the salary he would have earned in the next fiscal year; a common practice when members of Congress die in office.

Reaction to death

Multiple political figures issued statements following Byrd's death:

Vice President of the United States (and therefore President of the Senate) Joe Biden: "A very close friend of mine, one of my mentors, a guy who was there when I was a 29-year-old kid being sworn into the United States Senate. Shortly thereafter, a guy who stood in the rain, in the pouring rain, freezing rain outside a church as I buried my daughter and my wife before I got sworn in ... We lost the dean of the United States Senate, but also the state of West Virginia lost its most fierce advocate and, as I said, I lost a dear friend.

Democratic Senator Chris Dodd: He [Robert Byrd] never stopped growing as a public official, and was a man who learned from his mistakes. He was more than a friend and colleague. He was a mentor to me and literally hundreds of legislators with whom he served over the past five decades.

Republican Senator Lindsey Graham: Senator Byrd was a valuable ally and worthy opponent. He will be viewed by history as one of the giants of the Senate.

Republican Senator Orrin Hatch: On the issues, we were frequent opponents, but he was always gracious both in victory and defeat. This is a man who earned his law degree while serving in the Senate, and who had a prodigious knowledge of ancient and modern history.

President Barack Obama: He [Robert Byrd] was as much a part of the Senate as the marble busts that line its chamber and its corridors. His profound passion for that body and its role and responsibilities was as evident behind closed doors as it was in the stemwinders he peppered with history. He held the deepest respect of members of both parties, and he was generous with his time and advice, something I appreciated greatly as a young senator.

Senate Republican leader Mitch McConell: Senator Byrd combined a devotion to the U.S. Constitution with a deep learning of history to defend the interests of his state and the traditions of the Senate. We will remember him for his fighter's spirit, his abiding faith, and for the many times he recalled the Senate to its purposes.

House Speaker Nancy Pelosi: Throughout his historic career in the House and Senate, he never stopped working to improve the lives of the people of West Virginia. While some simply bore witness to history, Senator Byrd shaped it and strove to build a brighter future for us all.

Fellow Democratic Senator from West Virginia Jay Rockefeller: Senator Byrd came from humble beginnings in the southern coalfields, was raised by hard-working West Virginians, and triumphantly rose to the heights of power in America. But he never forgot where he came from nor who he represented, and he never abused that power for his own gain.

Succession

Despite Byrd's periods of ill health, his succession was not immediately clear. Initially, West Virginia Secretary of State Natalie Tennant announced that there would be no special election to fill the Senate vacancy until 2012. However, after an opinion by West Virginia Attorney General Darrell McGraw that a special election could occur in 2010, the West Virginia Legislature passed a law allowing for an August 2010 special primary election and a November 2, 2010 special general election to fill Byrd's remaining term. In the interim, Governor Joe Manchin appointed former aide and fellow Democrat Carte Goodwin to Byrd's seat. Manchin was elected to the seat on Nov. 2, 2010.

In popular culture

Byrd had a prominent role in the 2008 Warner Bros. documentary ''Body of War'' directed by Phil Donahue. The film chronicles the life of Tomas Young, paralyzed from the chest down after a sniper shot him as he was riding in a vehicle in Iraq. Several long clips of Byrd show him passionately arguing against authorizing the use of force in Iraq. Later in the movie, Byrd has a one-on-one interview with Tomas Young in Byrd's Senate office, followed by a shot of Byrd walking beside the wheelchair-bound Young as they leave the Capitol.

A fictionalized version of Byrd, then the Senate Majority Leader, was a character in the Jeffrey Archer novel ''Shall We Tell the President?''.

Byrd was an avid fiddle player for most of his life, starting in his teens when he played in various square dance bands. Once he entered politics, his fiddling skills attracted attention and won votes. In 1978 when Byrd was Majority Leader, he recorded an album called ''U.S. Senator Robert Byrd: Mountain Fiddler'' (County, 1978). Byrd was accompanied by Country Gentlemen Doyle Lawson, James Bailey, and Spider Gilliam. Most of the LP consists of bluegrass music. Byrd covers "Don't Let Your Sweet Love Die," a Zeke Manners song, and "Will the Circle Be Unbroken". He has performed at the Kennedy Center, on the Grand Ole Opry and on ''Hee Haw''. He occasionally took a break from Senate business to entertain audiences with his fiddle. He stopped playing in 1982 when the symptoms of a benign essential tremor had begun to affect the use of his hands.

Byrd appeared in the Civil War movie ''Gods and Generals'' in 2003 along with former Virginia senator George Allen. Both played Confederate States officers.

The Creekdippers album ''Political Manifest'' features a song entitled 'Senator Byrd Speech' in honor of Senator Robert C. Byrd.

Published writing

1989. ''The Senate, 1789–1989, Vol. 1: Addresses on the History of the United States Senate''. ISBN 0-16-006391-4

1991. ''The Senate, 1789–1989, Vol. 2: Addresses on the History of the United States Senate''. ISBN 0-16-006405-8

1993. ''The Senate, 1789–1989: Historical Statistics, 1789–1992, Vol. 4''. ISBN 0-16-063256-0

1995. ''The Senate, 1789–1989: Classic Speeches, 1830–1993, Vol. 3''. ISBN 0-16-063257-9

1995. ''Senate of the Roman Republic: Addresses on the History of Roman Constitutionalism''. ISBN 0-16-058996-7

2004. ''Losing America: Confronting A Reckless and Arrogant Presidency''. ISBN 0-393-05942-1

2004. ''We Stand Passively Mute: Senator Robert C. Byrd's Iraq Speeches''. ISBN 0-9755749-0-6

2005. ''Robert C. Byrd: Child of the Appalachian Coalfields''. ISBN 1-933202-00-9

2008. ''Letter to a New President: Commonsense Lessons for our Next Leader''. ISBN 0-312-38302-9

See also

List of places named after Robert Byrd

References

External links

Collected news and commentary at ''The New York Times''

Profile at SourceWatch Congresspedia

Robert C. Byrd Honors Scholarship Program

''Booknotes'' interview with Byrd on ''The Senate: 1789-1989'', June 18, 1989.

Byrd gives a speech at Marshall University

Sen. Byrd Remembered for "Principle and Honor" - video by ''Democracy Now!''

Robert Byrd at Findagrave

Archived version of Senate web site, August 2008

;Articles

If This Is the Senate's Soul ... Michael Grunwald, ''The Washington Post'', June 18, 2006

A Senator's Shame Eric Pianin, ''The Washington Post'', June 19, 2005

The United States Senate designates Robert Byrd as President Pro Tempore Emeritus of the United States Senate ''The Library of Congress THOMAS'', January 15, 2003

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Category:1917 births Category:2010 deaths category:Adoptees adopted by relations Category:American adoptees Category:American fiddlers Category:American historians Category:American people of World War II Category:Baptists from the United States Category:Democratic Party United States Senators Category:Historians of the United States Category:Ku Klux Klan members Category:Marshall University alumni Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from West Virginia Category:Members of the West Virginia House of Delegates Category:People from North Wilkesboro, North Carolina Category:People from Raleigh County, West Virginia Category:Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate Category:Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class Category:United States presidential candidates, 1976 Category:United States presidential candidates, 1980 Category:United States Senators from West Virginia Category:Washington College of Law alumni Category:West Virginia Democrats Category:West Virginia State Senators Category:Writers from West Virginia

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Coordinates	3°58′2.96″N122°35′40.92″N
{{infobox film| name	Boss Nigger
director	Jack Arnold
producer	Jack ArnoldFred Williamson
writer	Fred Williamson
starring	Fred WilliamsonD'Urville MartinWilliam SmithR.G. Armstrong
distributor	Dimension Pictures
released	1975
runtime	87 min.
country	USA
language	English
followed by	}}

''Boss Nigger'' is a 1975 blaxploitation film directed by Jack Arnold. It stars former football player Fred Williamson, who both wrote and co-produced the film. ''Boss Nigger'' is the first film for which Williamson was credited as screenwriter or producer.

''Boss Nigger'' was released in some areas under the title ''The Boss'' or ''The Black Bounty Killer''. A DVD release of ''Boss Nigger'', simply titled "''Boss''", was released in 2008.

Plot

Two Black bounty hunters, "Boss Nigger" and Amos (Williamson and D'Urville Martin), ride into a small Western town in pursuit of fugitive Jed Clayton (William Smith). When they discover that the town has no sheriff, "Boss Nigger" takes that position for himself after outsmarting the cowardly white mayor (R.G. Armstrong).

Critical analysis

Initial release

On its initial release, Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'' described ''Boss Nigger'' as "a pleasant surprise if you stumble upon it without warning." Canby characterized Williamson's acting as "an immensely self-assured parody of the ''Man With No Name'' played by Clint Eastwood in Sergio Leone's films."

Canby concluded his review by highlighting what made ''Boss Nigger'' notable among Black Westerns:

: Most black Westerns either ignore race or make it the fundamental point of the movie. ''Boss Nigger'' somehow manages to do both quite successfully.

Later critics

In its review of ''Boss Nigger'', written in 2007, ''Time Out'' suggested that Williamson was parodying the violent roles he had played in other blaxploitation films. The review noted that ''Boss Nigger'' was notable for its "old-fashioned bloodless violence." The film, however, does contain blood as a result of violence.

Writing in 2006, film critic Ryan Diduck described the marketing of ''Boss Nigger'' and other blaxploitation films to black audiences as an example of "empowerment through an overturned representation of long-established agency limitations for black men." Diduck specifically cited the trailer for ''Boss Nigger'' for the manner in which it elicits feelings of black superiority and white hysteria and encourages the audience to identify with the outsider hero who finds himself at odds with the rules of white America.

William Smith on ''Boss Nigger''

In a 1998 interview, Smith spoke of his experience filming ''Boss Nigger''. Smith, who is white, said that he never felt any racial tension, despite the fact that production took place during the height of the Black Power movement. He went on to describe the making of the film:

: I was killed in ... ''Boss Nigger'' by Fred Williamson. We had a great time with our fights. We went down to Arizona to film ''Boss'' with R.G. Armstrong. He had a lot of urban, black kids on the set. They were falling off their horses like Neville Brand did in ''Laredo'' — only they weren't drunk, of course. Fred and I had a great fight scene in that, more than one.

References

External links

Trailer on Youtube

Category:Blaxploitation films Category:1970s Western films Category:Action thriller films Category:1975 films Category:Fictional African-American people Category:Films directed by Jack Arnold

no:Boss Nigger fi:Palkkiometsästäjät

Coordinates	3°58′2.96″N122°35′40.92″N
name	Artie Lange
birth name	Arthur Steven Lange, Jr.
birth date	October 11, 1967
birth place	Livingston, New Jersey, U.S.
medium	Stand-up, television, film, radio
nationality	American
genre	Observational humor, improvisational comedy, sketch comedy, black comedy
active	1987–present
subject	Personal life, self-deprecation, human sexuality, pop culture, Italian American culture, professional sports, recreational drug use, drinking culture
influences	Howard Stern, John Belushi, Richard Pryor, George Carlin, Woody Allen, Bill Murray, Jackie Gleason, Peter Sellers, David Letterman, Richard Lewis
website	www.artie-lange.com
footnotes	}}

Arthur Steven "Artie" Lange, Jr. (born October 11, 1967) is an American actor, comedian and radio personality best known for his tenures with the ''The Howard Stern Show'' and the comedy sketch series ''MADtv''.

Lange performed his first stand-up comedy routine at 19 years of age. He took up work as a longshoreman to help support his family, following the death of his quadriplegic father. In 1995, Lange starred in the first season of ''MADtv'' before leaving halfway through the second due to cocaine abuse and his subsequent arrest. After a period of rehabilitation, Lange featured in ''Dirty Work'' with Norm MacDonald, who brought Lange into the second series of his sitcom, ''The Norm Show''. In 2001, Lange replaced Jackie Martling on ''The Howard Stern Show'' and stayed until late 2009, before a suicide attempt in early 2010 led to an eight-month stay in a psychiatric ward. He returned to the airwaves with Nick DiPaolo in July 2011, and the two plan to start a show on Fox Sports Radio within the year.

Lange has released recordings of comedy performances – ''It's the Whiskey Talkin''' (2004) and ''Jack and Coke'' (2009). He co-wrote, produced and starred in his film ''Artie Lange's Beer League'' in 2006, and published his book ''Too Fat to Fish'' in 2008, which entered ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list at number one.

Early life and education

Lange was born on October 11, 1967 in Livingston Township, New Jersey, United States and was raised in Union Township. His mother Judy (née Caprio) was a housewife while his father, Arthur Sr., was a general contractor. His sister Stacy is a fashion designer. Two weeks after Lange's birth, his father went on trial for counterfeiting money but was spared jail time out of the court's sympathy for his young son. In 2003, after some of the staff on ''The Howard Stern Show'' submitted a sample of their DNA for testing, it was revealed that Lange was approximately 25 per cent American Indian. Lange said that his father's background was a "grey area".

Lange played baseball during his time at Union High School, where he became an all-county third baseman. He spent his free time working with his father, who in October 1985, fell from a ladder and broke his back, becoming quadriplegic. Money soon became an issue within his family, and Lange's mother took a secretary job for income. "We took out a second mortgage. Medicaid paid for a nurse eight hours a day. When my mother got back from being a secretary all day, she had to take care of him. Every night, she set her alarm clock to turn him so he wouldn't get bedsores." The family contacted celebrities asking them to donate items for auction, and Howard Stern was the only one to respond, who sent an autographed K-Rock jacket in 1987. His father died from an infection on February 1, 1990, four-and-a-half years after the accident.

In August 1985, Lange was arrested for attempted bank robbery. He claimed he was trying to flirt with the teller by passing her a note that said he was armed and demanded $50,000. The teller took it seriously, triggering a silent alarm. He was charged with disorderly conduct and entered community service in March 1986. As part of his probation, Lange attended the Connecticut School of Broadcasting from March to June 1987 as well as Seton Hall University for a short time before leaving. On June 12, 1987, at 19 years of age, Lange performed his first stand-up comedy routine at The Improv in Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan. "I bombed for five minutes. Everyone thinks that they can do better. I was unprepared, I mumbled, and I forgot stuff. But I'm proud that I did it." In February 1991, Lange took up work as a longshoreman at Port Newark to help support his family.

Career

Early comedy career and ''MADtv'' (1992–1997)

In 1992, Lange quit his job at Port Newark to focus on his comedy career. While searching for such work, his regular form of employment was driving a taxi in New York City. The flexibility of the job allowed him to perform 20-minute sets at the Comic Strip and resume work afterwards. Within the year Lange landed a role in a dinner theater play, touring restaurants and catering halls in New Jersey. He then co-formed an improv troupe called Live on Tape, which led to the group performing sell-out shows at Caroline's on Broadway in Manhattan. Lange was taken by William Morris Agency, where he first met Peter Principato, his manager of ten years.

In May 1995, Lange flew to Los Angeles to shoot the television pilot for ''MADtv'', a sketch comedy show that was picked up by the Fox network. He landed a role as one of the eight original cast members from 8,000 comics who were screened, and moved to the West Coast in July. Lange attributed his hiring to the fact that he fit the John Belushi "mold" that was popular in sketch comedy. His most popular recurring character on the show was "That's My White Mama". Lange returned for the filming of the second season of ''MADtv'' in August 1996, but his time with the show came to an end when fellow cast and crew members attempted to have an intervention for him after a cocaine binge. Lange fled the studio, running through streets with his co-workers chasing after him. It ended in a supermarket, where he was arrested and sentenced to time served and probation.

In March 1997 the producers persuaded Lange to enter rehabilitation, and he checked into Honesty House, a rehab center in Stirling, New Jersey, for two months. His contract was not renewed for the third season, but Lange would make cameo appearances during the fifth and tenth seasons, including the show's final episode on May 16, 2009. That night he also appeared on ''Saturday Night Live'', ''MADtv''s rival show, in a non-speaking role.

''Dirty Work'' and ''The Norm Show'' (1998–2001)

After Lange served a short jail term and a drug rehabilitation program, comedian Norm MacDonald, impressed by Lange's work on ''Mad TV'', offered him a part in the 1998 movie ''Dirty Work''. Lange credits MacDonald and director Bob Saget with rejuvenating his comedy career, leading to several more film appearances and a lucrative television development deal. He then joined the cast of MacDonald's sitcom ''The Norm Show'' during its second season, staying until its cancellation the following year. Lange has since described this period as a personal high point but a creative low point. He enjoyed being paid $35,000 an episode, sleeping late, and being in healthy physical shape, as well as working with the cast, particularly with MacDonald and Laurie Metcalf; however, he disliked the show itself, referring to the material as "ridiculously lame, easy jokes."

''The Howard Stern Show'' (2001–2009)

Replacing Jackie Martling and ''It's the Whiskey Talkin''' (2001–2004)

Lange was introduced to ''The Howard Stern Show'' by his father in 1982. Following the departure of Jackie Martling, the show's head writer for 15 years, in March 2001, Stern announced a "Win Jackie's Money" contest, in which various comedians would audition for Martling's seat by sitting in during shows. Those who sat in included Craig Gass, Doug Stanhope, Richard Jeni, Jim Florentine and Ron Zimmerman. "There were a lot of great funny guys - guys that were funnier than me...I remember saying to my manager, 'I am not the most talented guy in this group, but I guarantee that I'm the biggest fan of the show." After the cancellation of ''The Norm Show'' in April, Lange sat in for a number of shows between May and October before beginning full time on October 26, 2001. Since Lange joined the show, Stern has often teased him for his eating habits, gambling, drinking, drug use, and sleeping at work. Stern also makes a point to praise Lange's comedic talents. Lange had grown up listening to the show and was a fan to the point of being able to recall obscure details from years before on a regular basis.

Stern and his staff have commented that Lange's life is a sort of perpetual adolescence: His mother delivers food parcels and cleans his apartment while he continually gorges himself on pizza, pancakes, and other fattening foods and goes on drunken binges.

In May 2004, while ''The Howard Stern Show'' aired at the Las Vegas Hard Rock Hotel and Casino, local television station KLAS-TV reported Lange was found dead in his hotel room. The story turned out to be a hoax.

''Beer League'' and substance abuse (2005–2008)

In early June 2005, Lange missed four days of shows, prompting concerns of a possible relapse into substance abuse. The situation climaxed in Lange's behaving strangely and belligerently on the air. On July 27, he infamously sneered at Stern and the staff, "Artie's gotta do what Artie's gotta do!" Lange then missed the next two days, writing off his absence as due to stress from doing the radio show and filming his film ''Artie Lange's Beer League''. The truth for his absence was revealed in a spontaneous revelation on September 21, 2006, in which Lange acknowledged that he had regularly snorted heroin. He discussed past episodes of heroin use beginning when he was a standup comedian and continuing until ''Beer League'' was set to begin shooting. He then detailed his painful withdrawal from the drug, which included side effects of aching, cold sweats, shaking, and vomiting. Lange recalled taking his telephone off the hook to avoid speaking to his mother, who ultimately intervened to help him recover. Lange was threatened with legal action by producers of ''Beer League'' if he failed to show up for the first day of shooting, which led him to secure a home visit from a doctor, who prescribed Subutex to alleviate his dependency.

In the days leading up to Stern's departure from terrestrial radio in December 2005, Lange revealed that he and show producer Gary Dell'Abate were approached by Infinity Broadcasting about replacing Stern with a show of their own. He claimed he was offered roughly $5 million to defect, but he and Dell'Abate claimed never to have given the offer much thought.

On April 10, 2008, Lange walked off the show after an on-air argument and subsequent outburst at his personal assistant, Teddy (during which he mentioned that Teddy embarrassed him by referring to Bloomingdale's as "Bloomie's"), resulting in a physical altercation. Lange expressed his disdain for his assistant of nearly two years because of recent money issues. Later in the broadcast, Lange returned to apologize and tender his resignation, which Stern accepted.

On April 21, 2008, Lange returned to the ''Howard Stern Show'' following a scheduled one-week vacation hiatus for the cast members. He apologized and took full responsibility for his behavior. It was revealed that Sirius was allowing him to continue, but that another infraction would end his employment. Additionally, Lange explained that despite their on-air confrontation, he and Teddy will maintain their working relationship.

''Too Fat to Fish'', USO tour and ''Jack and Coke'' (2008–2009)

In June 2008 Lange embarked on a comedy tour he named "Operation Mirth" with the United Service Organizations to entertain the U.S. troops serving in Afghanistan. He was inspired to travel after viewing the documentary film ''Patriot Act: A Jeffrey Ross Home Movie'' which was about comedian Jeffrey Ross' comedy tour in Iraq. As headliner, Lange picked fellow comedians Jim Florentine, Nick DiPaolo, and Dave Attell to join him, including producer of ''The Howard Stern Show'' Gary Dell'Abate, who served as master of ceremonies on the tour.

On November 11, 2008 Lange's released his first book, ''Too Fat to Fish''. The book is a collection of narrative episodes from Lange's life, from his childhood to his USO trip. The foreword is written by Howard Stern. The book debuted at number one on the New York Times bestseller list under hardcover nonfiction. The softcover edition was released in June 2009 with a change to the back cover from the hardcover edition and includes a bonus chapter.

On November 17, 2009, Lange released his first comedy CD, ''Jack and Coke'', via Shout! Factory. The 80-minute set was recorded live in New York City.

Return to radio (2011–present)

On July 6, 2011, Lange returned to radio for the first time since December 2009, guest hosting in place of Tony Bruno on Fox Sports Radio with comedian Nick DiPaolo. A caller asked Lange about returning to ''The Howard Stern Show'', to which he replied: "That would be the greatest thing ever, but you know listen, I was on the greatest show of all-time for about nine years and I put them in a very awkward situation to say the least. So what am I gonna do? But I love them all and they were great to me." On July 21, Lange announced to comedian Joe Matarese on his podcast of the plans to have him and DiPaolo to host a "sports entertainment comedy show" on Fox Sports Radio in. "It looks like it's a definite. They made an offer," said Lange. "Nothing's been signed yet, but we're gonna do it."

Personal life

Though raised as a Catholic, Lange has expressed doubts about the existence of God but is "afraid" to identify himself as an atheist in the event that he is wrong.

In 2002, Lange began to date his longtime girlfriend Dana Sironi. He announced in 2006 their decision to break up, citing his heroin abuse as the primary reason. However, Lange announced on an early November 2006 ''Stern Show'' that they were again together to some extent, but that the situation was a mystery even to him. The couple broke up in early 2007 but began dating again in December 2007. The couple have since parted ways, though Sironi accompanied Lange to an appearance on ''Late Show with David Letterman'' in March 2009.

His favorite book is ''A Confederacy of Dunces''. He considers George Carlin to be the all-time greatest comedian and said, "It's easy to follow the funniest guy ever" when he appeared after Carlin as a guest during his first talk show appearance, on ''The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn''. He has been critical of the "unbelievably positive press" given to comedians such as Jon Stewart and Ricky Gervais, feeling that their acclaim approaches hyperbole; he acknowledges their talents, however.

He has been asked to appear on ''Celebrity Fit Club'' for each of the show's four seasons but has declined every time because of his commitment to Stern's show.

Political views

Politically, he has said he does not consider himself to be a "liberal," though he is pro-choice, a supporter of gay rights, and a supporter of unions owing to his former career as a longshoreman. He has called President George W. Bush a "dolt" and supported John Kerry in 2004 and Barack Obama in 2008. He initially supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, but has since changed his mind. When documentarian Michael Moore visited ''The Howard Stern Show'' in 2007, Lange told him that he had changed some of his political opinions because of Moore's films. Crumbs Bakery currently offers an "Artie Lange" vanilla and chocolate cupcake, with partial proceeds going toward the Lifebeat HIV/AIDS charity.

Drug and alcohol problems

On August 6, 2008, Lange claimed to have begun an intensive outpatient rehab program after missing the ''Comedy Central Roast of Bob Saget''. On the August 11 airing of the show, Lange admitted to having been back on heroin for the previous seven weeks. He stated that he had gotten drunk playing pool and was offered the heroin by someone at the pool hall. Comedian Richard Lewis recommended a therapist to Lange.

On the December 8, 2008 show, Lange admitted that he lied about intensive outpatient rehab and had only gone to the therapist twice, not even making it through the end of the second session.

On the June 17, 2009, episode of ''The Adam Carolla Podcast'', Lange revealed that he had been sober for two and a half months, had lost 45 pounds, and hoped to lose 45 more. On the August 10, 2009 broadcast of ''The Howard Stern Show'', Stern noticed Lange's weight loss. Lange then confirmed that his current weight was 230 lb. and that he wished to continue in his endeavor to lose more weight.

2010 suicide attempt

On January 2, 2010, Lange attempted suicide by repeatedly stabbing himself in the abdomen with a 13-inch kitchen knife. He was found on the floor of his home by his mother and taken to Jersey City Medical Center, where he underwent surgery. Lange was released the following week. Sirius stated that Lange would be welcomed back onto ''The Howard Stern Show'' following his recovery.

Lange returned to the comedy stage for the first time on September 27, eight months after his suicide attempt, performing two nights at Comedy Cellar in New York. He mentioned being in a psychiatric ward for 8 months since the incident.

Filmography

''Artie Lange: Jack and Coke'' ''Entourage (TV series) ''Rescue Me (TV series) ''Waltzing Anna'' ''Game Over (TV series) ''Elf (film) ''Boat Trip'' ''Gameday (short film) ''The Norm Show'' ''Dirty Work (1998 film) ''Jerry Maguire'' ''MADtv''

Year !! Title !! Role !! Other notes
2010	''Serial Buddies''	Golden Graham
2009	|	Himself	Stand-up comedy DVD
2007	Entourage'' ||	Scott Segil	Ad-libbed Leslie Bibb's ass bite
rowspan="4"	2006	Rescue Me'' ||	Mike – Lou's cousin
''Artie Lange's Beer League''	Artie DeVanzo
Fox Sports (USA)	Fox Sports' 2006 World Series coverage	Himself
''Supertwink''	The Plumber
2005	|	Jacob Kline
rowspan="3"	2004	Game Over'' ||	Turbo	Voice
''Artie Lange: It's the Whiskey Talkin' ''	Himself
''A Piece of My Heart''	Lenny Steinberg
rowspan="3"	2003	Elf'' ||	Fake Santa
''Mail Order Bride (2003 film)	Mail Order Bride''	Tommy
''Old School (film)	Old School''	Booker
2002	|	Brian	Refused to kiss co-star Will Ferrell
rowspan="2"	2001	Gameday'' ||	Artie	Short, featured as extra on ''It's the Whiskey Talkin'''
''Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth''	Swim Coach Hasselhoff
rowspan="6"	1999	|	Artie Henderson	Once smoked pot with Peter Boyle behind ''The West Wing'' set on the Warner Bros. studios lot
''The Bachelor (1999 film)	The Bachelor''	Marco
''Mystery Men''	Big Red
''Lost & Found (1999 film)	Lost & Found''	Wally
''The 4th Floor''	Jerry
''Puppet (film)	Puppet''	Alexie
1998	Dirty Work'' ||	Sam McKenna
1996	|	Sports radio host	Deleted scene; Tom Cruise yelled at him
1995	|	various

Roles lost

Lange auditioned for the role of Milton in Mike Judge's film ''Office Space'', and again for the role of Judge Hank "The Hangman" BMW in Mike Judge's film ''Idiocracy'', he lost both roles to Stephen Root. Lange auditioned for Paul Giamatti's role in ''Man on the Moon''. He also auditioned for the role of Nick Volpe (Wass Stevens was ultimately cast) in the 2008 film ''The Wrestler''. During a December 18, 2008 call to ''The Howard Stern Show,'' director Darren Aronofsky, a stand-up comedy fan, stated he was impressed by Lange's acting but felt his celebrity would be distracting to the audience; Stern, who said it was his favorite movie of the year, agreed with this assessment and Lange joked it was the most flattering reason he'd ever been turned down for a role.

References

Sources

External links

Interviews

Artie Lange interview on Rock 'n Roll Ghost

in 2006 in 2008

Artie Lange interview on the Best Damn Sports Show Podcast

Others

Review of "Too Fat to Fish"

Category:1967 births Category:Living people Category:Actors from New Jersey Category:American agnostics Category:American film actors Category:American radio personalities Category:American stand-up comedians Category:American television actors Category:American television personalities Category:American television writers Category:American people of Native American descent Category:People self-identifying as substance abusers Category:Former Roman Catholics Category:American people of Italian descent Category:People from Hudson County, New Jersey Category:People from Livingston, New Jersey Category:People from Union Township, Union County, New Jersey Category:Survivors of stabbing

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