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A tribe is viewed, historically or developmentally, as a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states. Many anthropologists used the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups (see clan and kinship).

Some theorists hold that tribes represent a stage in social evolution intermediate between bands and states. Other theorists argue that tribes developed after, and must be understood in terms of their relationship to, states.

It is important to note that the word 'tribe' is a contested term due to its roots in colonial anthropological foundations and the connotations that these hierarchical definitions have.^{[1] [2][3][4]}It is common practice to use alternative terms like 'ethnic group' , or nation.^[5][6][7][8]

Etymology[link]

The English word tribe occurs in 12th-century Middle English literature as referring to one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The word is from Old French tribu, in turn from Latin tribus, referring to the original tripartite ethnic division of the Roman state: Ramnes (Ramnenses), Tities (Titienses), and Luceres, corresponding, according to Varro, to the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans respectively. The Ramnes were named after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Tatius, leader of the Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had assisted the Latins. According to Livy, the three tribes were in fact squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions. The term's ultimate etymology is uncertain, perhaps from the Proto-Indo-European roots *tri- ("three") and *bhew- ("to be").^[9]

In 242–240 BC, the Tribal Assembly (comitia tributa) in the Roman Republic was organized in 35 Tribes (four "Urban Tribes" and 31 "Rural Tribes"). The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle "race, tribe, clan" and ultimately the Hebrew שבט ([ʃevæt]) or "sceptre". In the historical sense, "tribe," "race" and "clan" can be used interchangeably.

The term's origin might be found with the Latin word for three, tres. The dative and ablative case forms of this word are both tribus. The word tribus could therefore mean "from the three" or "for the three."^{[citation needed][dubious – discuss]}

Evolution[link]

Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. This partly stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "natural", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, many believed^[who?] that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions.

Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:

1. Gatherer-hunter bands, which are generally egalitarian.
2. Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige (see Chiefdom).
3. Stratified tribal societies led by chieftains.
4. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.

In his 1975 study, The Notion of the Tribe, anthropologist Morton H. Fried provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic.^[10]

Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership, that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities.

In some countries, such as the United States of America and India, tribes are polities that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state.

Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to coordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus.

See also[link]

• Nomad
• Pantribal sodalities
• Patriclan
• Social group
• Tribal sovereignty
• Tribal chief
• Tribal name
• Tribal warfare
• Tribalism
• Tribe (internet)
• Neocolonialism

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Benveniste, Émile
  • Indo-European Language and Society, translated by Elizabeth Palmer. London: Faber and Faber 1973. ISBN 0-87024-250-4.
  • Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen, 1935.
• Fried, Morton H. The Notion of Tribe. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 0-8465-1548-2
• Helm, June, ed, 1968. Essays on the Problem of Tribe, Proceedings, American Ethnological Society, 1967 (Seattle: University of Washington Press).
• Nagy, Gregory, Greek Mythology and Poetics, Cornell University Press, 1990. In chapter 12, beginning on p. 276, Professor Nagy explores the meaning of the word origin and social context of a tribe in ancient Greece and beyond.
• Sutton,Imre, Indian Land Tenure: Bibliographical Essays and a Guide to the Literature (NY: Clearwater, 1975): tribe—pp. 101–02,180-82, 186-87, 191-93.

External links[link]

Look up tribe or tribal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Chiefdom: Precursor of the Tribe?
• Oldest organization in Asia protecting tribal culture
• Moroccan Tribes

Gigi D'Agostino
Background information
Birth name	Luigino Celestino Di Agostino
Also known as	Dottor Dag, Il Folklorista, Lento Violento Man
Born	(1967-12-17) December 17, 1967 (age 44)
Origin	Turin, Italy
Genres	Italo Dance Eurodance Lento Violento House
Years active	1994–present
Labels	Arista Records, ZYX Music
Associated acts	Luca Noise, DJ Pandolfi
Website	http://www.gigidagostino.com/

Luigino Celestino Di Agostino (born 17 December 1967), better known by his stage name Gigi D'Agostino, is an Italian DJ, remixer and record producer. In 1986, he started his career as a DJ-spinning Italo Disco, and releasing his first mix, titled "Psychodelic".^[1]

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Born in Turin, D'Agostino spent his childhood between his native city of Turin and Brescia, where the Media Records studios are located. As a child, D'Agostino wanted to be someone in the world of disco music. Starting out working as a stonemason and a fitter, he began his musical career as a DJ by organizing parties in clubs. His debut was in a club near Turin called "Woodstock". He was a resident DJ of an Italian disco named Ultimo Impero from 1993 to 1998.

1990s[link]

D'Agostino's first release was Noise Makers Theme, a double-A sided record with a track by Daniele Gas on the other side, which launched the Noise Maker label, under the direction of Italian house producer Gianfranco Bortolotti. D'Agostino would continue working with Gas, as well as Mauro Picotto's production team in the following years. His 1999 single "Bla Bla Bla" became a major hit in Europe. He described the single as "a piece I wrote thinking of all the people who talk and talk without saying anything!"^[2] As a DJ, D'Agostino is known as one of the "pioneers of Mediterranean Progressive Dance,"^[3] consisting of minimalistic sounds and Latin and Mediterranean melodies. As a record producer, D'Agostino's uses the pseudonym "Gigi Dag"; he transforms a piece, originally destined for the discos, into a success for the mainstream public.

After successes like the track "Sweetly", he joined the team of Bortolotti, the general manager of Media Records and suddenly reached the top of the hit parades. His single "FLY", published in 1996 with BXR Noise Maker, the label created by Media Records for the Mediterranea progressive house, reached the top of the sales in Italy. This was followed by his single "Gigi's Violin".

Subsequently, D'Agostino released the song "Angel's Symphony" with R.A.F. by Mauro Picotto, a friend from Media Records. His biggest project was the self-titled album Gigi D'Agostino, consisting of 19 tracks, which sold over 60,000 copies.

After his rise to success, D'Agostino's musical style changed, with his sound becoming more melodic, at midway between house and progressive, with more energetic and melodious sonorities and less obsessive rhythms, also known as Italo dance.

In 1997, he released the single "Gin Lemon", followed by "'Elisir (Your Love)" (1998), "Cuba Libre" (1999), and "Bla Bla Bla" (1999). He later released the album Eurodance Compilation, which contained five unpublished tracks. With this compilation, he earned a platinum disc and was awarded with the "Best Producer in 1999" award at the Italian Dance Awards. In October, D'Agostino released another hit single, entitled "Another Way".

In 1999, his album L'Amour Toujours (released in 2001 in the United States) included 23 tracks on two CDs, with the hit song "L'Amour Toujours" bringing him to the 10th position in the sales parade in Italy; as a result, he earned another Platinum Disc.

2000s[link]

In 2000, his remake of the Nik Kershaw song "The Riddle" sold 1,000,000 copies in Germany and 200,000 copies in France.^{[citation needed]} He also released the albums Tecno Fes (August 2000) and Tecno Fes - EP, Vol. 2 (December 2000).

In 2001, he released L'Amour Toujours EP, consisting of three songs: two new versions of "L'amour Toujours" and "Un Giorno Credi", a single made in collaboration with Edoardo Bennato. "Un Giorno Credi" reached the top of the parades in Italy and became one of the most played songs in the national and international music networks. He was also awarded with "Best DJ-Producer of the Year" at the "Red Bull Awards" in Italy.

In 2001, he also released the hit "Super", as a result of a collaboration with Albertino (an Italian music artist), which won him the awards "Best Dance Producer" at the PIM (Italian Music Award) and "Public Award" at the Danish DJs Award in Copenhagen, Denmark. In December of that year, he released Il Grande Viaggio, a compilation of his favourite songs, including old electronic pieces and new rhythms and melodies. As a result, he was awarded with "Best Dance Producer" at the Italian Dance Awards. D'Agostino stated during an interview with MTV that he enjoys cycling with his pigs in Rome.

In 2003, he released the song "Ripassa" in the EP Underconstruction 1: Silence, a hit which is very important for his next productions. This song helped influence Lento Violento, a subgenre that had yet to be distinguished.

On 15 July 2004, his compilation "Euro Dance" won Platinum certification with 120,000 copies sold in just a few weeks.^{[citation needed]}

D'Agostino has played in some well known clubs throughout Europe, including in Italy, Spain, France, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic at the Karlovy Lázně, Germany, Switzerland, and England (in 1996, he played at the Ministry of Sound in London with Mauro Picotto).

In 2006, he created his own new record label called "Noisemaker Hard" to differentiate the style of music released under his older record label, "Noisemaker".

In 2007, D'Agostino released Lento Violento e Altre Storie, a compilation which contains two CDs and his new 35 Lento Violento songs. The most important hit is "Ginnastica Mentale"^{[citation needed]}

After some months, he released the compilation La musica che pesta under the name "Lento Violento Man", which contains two CDs for a total of 38 unmixed tracks.

From 2005 until January 2010, he had radio programs, on the Italian Radio m2o Musica allo Stato Puro (in English: "Music at the Pure State"), called "Il Cammino di Gigi D'Agostino" and "Quello che mi piace ". They consist of DJ sets played by Gigi, and featured new remixes of his songs and songs by Italian and international artists.

In August 2011, he released a digital single Stay With Me. This was released a few months after he postponed the release of his upcoming album Mondo Reale.

Discography[link]

Studio albums[link]

• A Journey into Space (1994)
• Gigi D'Agostino (1996)
• L'Amour Toujours (1999)
• Tecno Fes Vol. 2 (2000)
• All In One Night (2001)
• L'Amour Toujours II (2004)
• Disco Tanz (2005)
• Per Sempre: The Hits (2005)
• The Greatest Hits (2006)
• Some Experiments (2006)
• Lento Violento ...e altre storie (2007)
• La Musica Che Pesta (as Lento Violento Man) (2007)
• Suono Libero (2008)
• The Essential Gigi D'Agostino (2009 - Austria and Germany only)
• Ieri & Oggi Mix Vol. 1 (2010)
• Ieri & Oggi Mix Vol. 2 (1 December 2010)

EPs[link]

• Le Voyage Estate (1996)
• Gin Lemon (1997)
• Tanzen (1999)
• Tecno Fes EP (2000)
• Il Grande Viaggio EP (2001)
• Underconstruction 1: Silence E.P. (2003)
• Underconstruction 2: Silence Remix (2004)
• Underconstruction 3: Remix (2004)

Compilations[link]

• The Greatest Hits (1996)
• Il Grande Viaggio Di Gigi D'Agostino Vol. 1 (2001)
• Il programmino di Gigi D'agostino (2003)
• Benessere (2004)
• Laboratorio 1 (2004)
• Laboratorio 2 (2005)
• Laboratorio 3 (2005)

Singles[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website