The word error entails different meanings and usages relative to how it is conceptually applied. The concrete meaning of the Latin word "error" is "wandering" or "straying". Unlike an illusion, an error or a mistake can sometimes be dispelled through knowledge (knowing that one is looking at a mirage and not at real water does not make the mirage disappear). For example, a person who uses too much of an ingredient in a recipe and has a failed product can learn the right amount to use and avoid repeating the mistake. However, some errors can occur even when individuals have the required knowledge to perform a task correctly. Examples include forgetting to collect change after buying chocolate from a vending machine, forgetting the original document after making photocopies, and forgetting to turn the gas off after cooking a meal. Some errors occur when an individual is distracted by something else.

Human behavior

One reference differentiates between "error" and "mistake" as follows:

In human behavior the norms or expectations for behavior or its consequences can be derived from the intention of the actor or from the expectations of other individuals or of a social grouping or from social norms. (See deviance.) Gaffes and faux pas can be labels for certain instances of this kind of error. More serious departures from social norms carry labels such as misbehavior and labels from the legal system, such as misdemeanor and crime. Departures from norms connected to religion can have other labels, such as sin.

Oral and written language

An individual language user's deviations from standard language norms in grammar, syntax, pronunciation and punctuation are sometimes referred to as errors. However in light of the role of language usage in everyday social class distinctions, many feel that linguistics should be descriptive rather than prescriptive to avoid reinforcing dominant class value judgments about what linguistic forms should and should not be used. See also Error analysis.

=== Gaffe === A gaffe is a verbal mistake, usually made in a social environment. The mistake may come from saying something that is true, but inappropriate. It may also be an erroneous attempt to reveal a truth. Finally, gaffes can be malapropisms, grammatical errors or other verbal and gestural weaknesses or revelations through body language. Actually revealing factual or social truth through words or body language, however, can commonly result in embarrassment or, when the gaffe has negative connotations, friction between people involved.

As used by some journalists, particularly sportswriters, "gaffe" becomes an imagined synonym for any kind of mistake, e.g., a dropped ball by a player in a baseball game. Philosophers and psychologists interested in the nature of the gaffe include Freud and Gilles Deleuze. Deleuze, in his ''Logic of Sense'', places the gaffe in a developmental process that can culminate in stuttering.

Medicine

See medical error for a description of error in medicine.

Science and engineering

In statistics, an error (or ''residual'') is not a "mistake" but rather a difference between a computed, estimated, or measured value and the accepted true, specified, or theoretically correct value. See also Observational error.

In science and engineering in general an error is defined as a difference between the desired and actual performance or behavior of a system or object. This definition is the basis of operation for many types of Control systems, in which error is defined as the difference between a set point and the process value. An example of this would be the thermostat in a home heating system—the operation of the heating equipment is controlled by the difference (the error) between the thermostat setting and the sensed air temperature.

Engineers seek to design devices, machines and systems and in such a way as to mitigate or preferably avoid the effects of error, whether unintentional or not. Such errors in a system can be latent design errors that may go unnoticed for years, until the right set of circumstances arises that cause them to become active. Other errors in engineered systems can arise due to human error, which includes cognitive bias. Human factors engineering is often applied to designs in an attempt to minimize this type of error by making systems more forgiving or error-tolerant.

(In computational mechanics, when solving a system such as ''Ax'' = ''b'' there is a distinction between the "error" — the inaccuracy in ''x'' — and residual—the inaccuracy in ''Ax''.)

Cybernetics

The word ''cybernetics'' stems from the Greek Κυβερνήτης (''kybernētēs'', steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder — the same root as government). In applying corrections to the trajectory or course being steered cybernetics can be seen as the most general approach to error and its correction for the achievement of any goal. The term was suggested by Norbert Wiener to describe a new science of control and information in the animal and the machine. Wiener's early work was on noise.

The cybernetician Gordon Pask held that the error that drives a servomechanism can be seen as a difference between a pair of analogous concepts in a servomechanism: the current state and the goal state. Later he suggested error can also be seen as an innovation or a contradiction depending on the context and perspective of interacting (observer) participants. The founder of management cybernetics, Stafford Beer, applied these ideas most notably in his Viable System Model.

Biology

In biology, an error is said to occur when perfect fidelity is lost in the copying of information. For example, in an asexually reproducing species, an error (or mutation) has occurred for each DNA nucleotide that differs between the child and the parent. Many of these mutations can be harmful, but unlike other types of errors, some are neutral or even beneficial. Mutations are an important force driving evolution. Mutations that make organisms more adapted to their environment increase in the population through natural selection as organisms with favorable mutations have more offspring.

Philately

In philately, an error refers to a postage stamp or piece of postal stationery that exhibits a printing or production mistake that differentiates it from a normal specimen or from the intended result. Examples are stamps printed in the wrong color or missing one or more colors, printed with a vignette inverted in relation to its frame, produced without any perforations on one or more sides when the normal stamps are perforated, or printed on the wrong type of paper. Legitimate errors must always be produced and sold unintentionally. Such errors may or may not be scarce or rare. A design error may refer to a mistake in the design of the stamp, such as a mislabeled subject, even if there are no printing or production mistakes.

Governmental policy

Within United States government intelligence agencies, such as Central Intelligence Agency agencies, error refers to intelligence error, as previous assumptions that used to exist at a senior intelligence level within senior intelligence agencies, but has since been disproven, and is sometimes eventually listed as unclassified, and therefore more available to the American public and citizenry of the United States. The Freedom of information act provides American citizenry with a means to read intelligence reports that were mired in error. Per United States Central Intelligence Agency's website (as of August, 2008) intelligence error is described as:

"Intelligence errors are factual inaccuracies in analysis resulting from poor or missing data; intelligence failure is systemic organizational surprise resulting from incorrect, missing, discarded, or inadequate hypotheses."

Numismatics

In numismatics, an error refers to a coin or medal that has a minting mistake, similar to errors found in philately. Because the U.S. Bureau of the Mint keeps a careful eye on all potential errors, errors on U.S. coins are very few and usually very scarce. Examples of numismatic errors: extra metal attached to a coin, a clipped coin caused by the coin stamp machine stamping a second coin too early, double stamping of a coin. A coin that has been overdated, e.g.: 1942/41, is considered an error.

Error correction

Norman (1986, 1988) argued that because error is inevitable, ‘designers’ should minimize the causes of error, make it possible to undo erroneous actions and make it easier to discover and correct errors. Edmondson’s research focuses on pinpointing specific conditions on group levels which can influence the degree of errors caught and corrected. Although her study was in a specific sector (medicine) some of her conditions can be generalized: a) Unit Leader behaviours. b) Unit performance outcomes c) Unit shared beliefs.

Unit leader behaviours are crucial in creating a culture in which openness of discussing errors, through their open and stimulating behaviour, are used as an example for the others. The unit performance outcomes consist of factors such as quality of interpersonal relations, unit performance and detected error rates. The leader behaviour and the performance outcomes result in shared beliefs. The shared beliefs of error report that first of all, everybody should accept that making mistakes is normal and that it will not be used against one (Helmreich, 1988). Further, the more errors are reported and discussed, the bigger the incentive should be to report and solve other errors.

Jones (1999) adds that technocratic movements have a positive influence on error correction due improved communication. Technological improvements stimulate collaborate thinking and striving for optimalization of systems. Through this, error correction is maximalized. Tsuvijek (1988) implies how technology on one hand can improve error correction, but on the other hand cause more errors due to decreased human intervention.

In mathematics, computer science, telecommunication, and information theory, error correction has a very precise meaning discussed in the article about error detection and correction.

See also

Anomaly in software

Blooper

Blunder

Error analysis

Kinsley gaffe – Politician inadvertently speaking the unspeakable truth

Observational error

Popular errors

Refractive error

Trial and error

Uncertainty

;Psychology of error

Absent-mindedness

Freudian slip

Lapsus

;Error in reasoning

Cognitive bias

Fallacy

;Errors in language

Faux pas

Malapropism

Spoonerism

Typographical error

;Errors on the Web

Custom error page

;Error diagnosis and prevention

Forensic engineering

Root cause

Root cause analysis

Spell checking

Swiss Cheese model of accident causation in human systems

;Production quality terminology

Defect

Fault

Flaw

Nonconformity

References

External links

Errors contained in reference books – Internet Accuracy Project

Category:Human communication Category:Measurement

de:Fehler hi:त्रुटि he:שגיאה kk:Машиналық қате lt:Klaida nl:Fout ja:エラー pt:Erro kbd:Къуаншэ ru:Ошибка sq:Gabimi scn:Erruri simple:Error sk:Chyba sl:Napaka sv:Fel tr:Hata (bilimde ve matematikte) zh:錯誤

Name	Tim Harford
Birth date	1973 (Age 37 or 38)
Citizenship	UK
Workplaces	Financial Times BBC
Alma mater	Brasenose College, Oxford
Academic advisors	Paul Klemperer
Known for	The Undercover Economist
Awards	Royal Statistical Society Excellence in Journalism, Bastiat Prize
Signature	}}

Tim Harford (born 1973) is an English economist and journalist, residing in London. He is the author of four economics books, presenter of BBC television series ''Trust Me, I'm an Economist'', and writer of a humorous weekly column called "Dear Economist" for ''The Financial Times'', in which he uses economic theory to attempt to solve readers' personal problems. His other FT column, "The Undercover Economist", is syndicated in Slate magazine.

Harford studied at Aylesbury Grammar School and then at the University of Oxford, gaining a BA and then an MPhil in Economics in 1998. He joined the ''Financial Times'' in 2003 on a fellowship in commemoration of the business columnist Peter Martin. He continued to write his column after joining the International Finance Corporation in 2004, and re-joined the ''Financial Times'' as economics leader writer in April 2006. He is also a member of the newspaper's editorial board.

In October 2007, Harford replaced Andrew Dilnot on the BBC Radio 4 series ''More or Less''. He is a visiting fellow at Nuffield College, Oxford.

Awards

''More or Less'' won the Royal Statistical Society's 2010 award for statistical excellence in broadcast journalism ''More or Less'' won Mensa's award for promoting intelligence in public life Harford was awarded the Bastiat Prize for economic journalism in 2007 (shared with Jamie Whyte) In 2010 he again drew with Whyte, in second place.

Publications

''The Market for Aid'' (2005) with Michael Klein, ISBN 978-0-8213-6229-7

''The Undercover Economist'' (2005), ISBN 978-0-345-49401-6

''The Logic of Life'' (2008), ISBN 978-0-8129-7787-5

''Dear Undercover Economist: Priceless Advice on Money, Work, Sex, Kids, and Life's Other Challenges''. New York, Random House. 2009. ISBN 978-0-8129-8010-3

''Adapt: Why Success Always Starts with Failure''. New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 2011. ISBN 978-0374100964

References

External links

Tim Harford's personal webpage with RSS Feed

Harford's column at the Financial Times with RSS Feed

He was a founder of PSD Blog - The World Bank Group's Private Sector Development Blog

All is fair in love and war and poker - details of the first episode of "Trust me, I'm an economist" (BBC)

More or Less BBC website

Columns at Slate

Blog at the FT, which began October 2007

Video (and audio) of interview of Tim Harford by Will Wilkinson on Bloggingheads.tv

TED TALKS Tim Harford: Trial, error and the God complex

An interview with Tim Harford about ''The Logic of Life'' on ''The Marketplace of Ideas''

An interview with Tim Harford about ''Adapt'' on ''The Marketplace of Ideas''

Category:1973 births Category:Living people Category:English economics writers Category:English economists Category:English journalists Category:Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford Category:Bastiat Prize winners Category:Financial Times people Category:People educated at Aylesbury Grammar School

de:Tim Harford es:Tim Harford ko:팀 하포드 ja:ティム・ハーフォード zh:提姆·哈福德

{{infobox musical artist |name

Paul Kalkbrenner |image Paul Kalkbrenner at Alte Diamantbrauerei.jpg |caption Paul Kalkbrenner at Alte Diamantbrauerei (old diamond brewery), Magdeburg, in 2007 |image_size |birth_name Paul Kalkbrenner |background solo_singer |Born 1977Leipzig, Germany |Married to [Simina Grigoriu] |instrument Turntables, keyboard, Ableton Live |genre Techno Electronica Downbeat |occupation electronic musician, actor |years_active 1999–present |label BPitch Control, Paul Kalkbrenner Musik |website myspace.com/paulkalkbrenner }}

Paul Kalkbrenner () (born 1977 in Leipzig, Germany) is a German electronic musician and actor from Berlin.

History

As of 2010, Paul Kalkbrenner has tallied up more than 15 years of experience as a producer and live act. The early 90s after the Berlin Wall fell were formative years for Paul, and after spending many long and sleepless nights on the dancefloors of E-Werk, Planet and Whale, the dream was born to make music himself. A job as TV editor got him through the mid-90s and financed his first music gear. By this point Paul had already decided that he did not want to be a typical DJ playing other people's records, but rather to play only his own music, live in a club setting. His first tracks as Paul Kalkbrenner were released in 1999 on Berlin-based BPitch Control (the newly founded label from Ellen Allien) as the Friedrichshain EP, titled after his home district in the city's east. A series of further singles and two full-lengths (''Superimpose'' and ''Time'') followed, plus continuous live performances.

Together with Paul Kalkbrenner, BPitch Control gained a strong momentum. Paul's third album ''Self'' (2004) would mark the beginning of a new era. His melodic sound, with its affinity for grand emotional gestures, obeyed the logic of the dancefloor, but Self introduced a narrative aesthetic, serving as a soundtrack to a film that did not exist (at least, not yet). "Gebrünn Gebrünn", released one year later, became a crossover hit.

In early 2006, German director Hannes Stöhr, an avid fan of ''Self'', decided to get in contact with Kalkbrenner. His idea was to produce a film about a Berlin techno musician during the new millennium, and Paul would compose the soundtrack. The two met, traded ideas and experiences, and soon after began working on the screenplay's first draft. In the course of their exchange, Hannes had the realization that Paul should not just contribute the music, but that he would be the perfect choice as the film's star. Without hesitation, Paul accepted the offer. They decided to title the film ''Berlin Calling''.

For the soundtrack's production, Paul and his friend (and Bpitch colleague) Sascha Funke spent half a year in Aix-En-Provence in southern France. One song already had a title: "Sky and Sand" with vocals by brother Fritz Kalkbrenner. Upon Paul's return to Berlin in 2007, the filming began, and the finished work was brought to German theaters in October 2008. ''Berlin Calling'' and Paul's debut acting performance received positive reviews, and the film, thanks to its authentic depiction of the Berlin club scene and drug culture, became a cult classic.

The soundtrack and especially the single "Sky and Sand" broke many sales records. That track in particular went gold in Belgium where it remained in the charts' Top Ten for weeks. The 2009 DVD release of the film brought Paul to a new, much larger audience around the world. By the end of the year, Paul separated with BPitch Control after a decade-long relationship to take the next steps of his career alone. In early 2010 Paul completed a twelve-city live concert tour throughout Europe (with over 50,000 tickets sold within just a few weeks), followed by many headlining appearances at summer festivals.

Kalkbrenner uses software-synthesizers, sequencer (Ableton Live) in combination with midi-controllers, hardware-synthesizers and -drummachines for his live shows.

On April 12, 2011, Kalkbrenner announced the album ''Icke Wieder'', scheduled to be released on June 3, 2011 via his own new label Paul Kalkbrenner Musik. About the album, he stated: "There won't be any singing on the album, no music of tomorrow either, it feels generally more like... well, old times".

Discography

Albums

Zeit (BPitch Control, 2001)

Superimpose (BPitch Control, 2001)

Self (BPitch Control, 2004)

Maximalive (Minimaxima, 2005)

Reworks (BPitch Control, 2006)

Keule (BPitch Control, 2006)

Berlin Calling - The Soundtrack By Paul Kalkbrenner (BPitch Control, 2008)

Icke Wieder (2011)

EP's

DB+ (12") (BPitch Control, 2000)

Chrono (12") (BPitch Control, 2001)

Brennt (12") (BPitch Control, 2002)

F.FWD (12") (BPitch Control, 2003

Steinbeisser (12") (BPitch Control, 2003)

Press On (12") (BPitch Control, 2004)

Tatü-Tata (12") (BPitch Control, 2005)

Keule (12") (BPitch Control, 2006)

Altes Kamuffel (12") (BPitch Control, 2007)

Bingo Bongo (12") (BPitch Control, 2008)

Singles

Sky And Sand (BPitch Control, 2009)

Filmography

Berlin Calling (2008)

Paul Kalkbrenner 2010 - A Live Documentary (2010)

References

External links

Discogs.com - Paul Kalkbrenner

Biography and information at BPitch Control website

Live performance during the Astropolis music festival

Category:German electronic musicians Category:German DJs Category:1977 births Category:Living people

br:Paul Kalkbrenner de:Paul Kalkbrenner es:Paul Kalkbrenner fr:Paul Kalkbrenner it:Paul Kalkbrenner hu:Paul Kalkbrenner pl:Paul Kalkbrenner