Coordinates	12°58′0″N77°34′0″N
Native name	''''
Conventional long name	German Democratic Republic
Common name	East Germany
Continent	Europe
Region	Germany
Country	Germany
Era	Cold War
Event start	Established
Year start	1949
Date start	7 October
Event end	German reunification
Year end	1990
Date end	3 October
Life span	1949–1990
Event1	Final settlement
Date event1	25 September 1990
P1	Allied-occupied Germany
Flag p1	Flag of Germany (1946-1949).svg
P2	German Economic Commission
S1	Germany
Flag s1	Flag of Germany.svg
Image coat	Coat of arms of East Germany.svg
National anthem	"Auferstanden aus Ruinen"("Risen from Ruins")
National motto	"Proletarier aller Länder, vereinigt Euch!" ("Workers of all nations, unite !")
Capital	East Berlin (proclaimed)
Common languages	Official: German Unofficial minority languages: Sorbian
Government type	Socialist republicCommunist state
Legislature	Volkskammer
Title leader	Chairman of the Council of State
Leader1	Wilhelm Pieck (''President'')
Year leader1	1949–60
Leader2	Walter Ulbricht
Year leader2	1960–73
Leader3	Willi Stoph
Year leader3	1973–76
Leader4	Erich Honecker
Year leader4	1976–89
Leader5	Egon Krenz
Year leader5	1989
Leader6	Manfred Gerlach
Year leader6	1989–90
Leader7	Sabine Bergmann-Pohl
Year leader7	1990
Title deputy	Chairman of the Council of Ministers
Deputy1	Otto Grotewohl
Year deputy1	1949–64
Deputy2	Willi Stoph
Year deputy2	1964–73
Deputy3	Horst Sindermann
Year deputy3	1973–76
Deputy4	Willi Stoph
Year deputy4	1976–89
Deputy5	Hans Modrow
Year deputy5	1989–90
Deputy6	Lothar de Maizière
Year deputy6	1990
Stat area1	108333
Stat pop1	16111000
Stat year1	1990
Currency	Mark der DDR (M) until 30 June 1990, named:1948–64 Deutsche Mark (DM)1964–67 Mark der Deutschen Notenbank (MDN)Deutsche Mark (DM) as of 1 July 1990
Cctld	.dd
Calling code	37|]]
Today
Footnotes	Although .dd was reserved as corresponding ISO code for East Germany, it was not entered to the root before the country was disestablished.
Footnotes2	Country code +37 was withdrawn in 1992; the numbers range was divided into ten new country codes, re-allocated among several post-Soviet states and European microstates. }}

The German Democratic Republic (GDR; German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik or DDR), informally called East Germany (German: Ost-Deutschland) by West Germany and other countries, was the officially Communist state established in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany and in the East Berlin portion of the Allied-occupied capital city. The German Democratic Republic, which consisted geographically of post-WWII northeast Germany rather than all of eastern Germany, had an area of 107,771 km² (41,610 mi²), bordering Czechoslovakia in the south, West Germany (officially: Federal Republic of Germany) in the south and west, the Baltic Sea to the north, and Poland in the east.

In 1989 a non-violent revolution overthrew the Communists. The Soviets refused to intervene, and the country soon reunited with West Germany and is now part of Germany.

At German reunification on October 3, 1990, new ''Länder'' (states) were formed within the area occupied by the former German Democratic Republic. Following historical borders of provinces that existed before 1952, new federal states (in German usually referred to as ''Die Neuen Bundesländer''; Engl. new federal states) were formed and integrated into the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). Moreover, the German Democratic Republic was disestablished after the Communist government, of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), lost the general election on March 18, 1990, and thus its parliamentary majority in the ''Volkskammer'' (People’s Chamber); subsequently, on August 23, 1990, the ''Volkskammer'' re-established the five pre-war states — Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia (disestablished in 1952) — for the reunification of East Germany to West Germany.

Naming conventions

The official name was ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'' (German Democratic Republic), usually abbreviated as ''DDR'' (GDR). Both terms were used in East Germany with an increasing emphasis on the abbreviated name, especially since East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners to be foreigners following the promulgation of its second constitution in 1968.

''Ostzone'' (Eastern Zone) or ''Soviet Zone'' were two surrogate names for East Germany that were often used colloquially. The different names used to describe the German Democratic Republic reflected political positions during the Cold War conflict; for example, many Westerners doubted the political sovereignty and democratic constitution of East Germany. Surrogate name usage for East Germany could thus reveal the political leaning of a person or news source. So the media controlled by the East German government emphasised the use of the official name, DDR, while West Germans, western media and statesmen may have used other names such as Middle Germany, emphasising the location of East Germany in the centre of pre-1937 Germany.

The name, Sowjetische Besatzungszone (Soviet Occupation Zone, often abbreviated to SBZ) was used by those who wanted to indicate that East Germany lacked sovereignty, whereas others used ''Ostzone'' or ''der Osten'' ( or ''the East'') to avoid the actual name of the state. The latter term, because it was based plainly on geographic location, was sometimes also used by East Germans. Some West German media referred to East Germany initially as the ''SBZ'' and later consistently named it the ''so-called "GDR"'' (sogenannte "DDR").

However, over time East Germany's abbreviation ''DDR'' became colloquial also among most West Germans and West German media. ''Ostdeutschland'' (an ambiguous term meaning simultaneously East or Eastern Germany) was not commonly used in East or West German common parlance to refer to the German Democratic Republic, because ''Ostdeutschland'' usually referred to the Former eastern territories of Germany.

The term ''Westdeutschland'' (West Germany) when used by West Germans was almost always a reference to the geographic region of Western Germany but not to the area within the boundaries of the Federal Republic of Germany. However, this usage was not always consistent, as, for example, West Berliners frequently applied the term ''Westdeutschland'' to denote the Federal Republic.

History

Explaining the internal impact of the DDR regime from the perspective of German history in the long-term, historian Gerhard A. Ritter (2002) has argued that the East German state was defined by two dominant forces – Soviet Communism on the one hand, and German traditions filtered through the interwar experiences of German Communists on the other. It always was constrained by the powerful example of the increasingly prosperous West, to which East Germans compared their nation. The changes wrought by the Communists were most apparent in ending capitalism and transforming industry, agriculture, in the militarization the society, and the political thrust of the educational system and the media. On the other hand, there was relatively little change made in the historically independent domains of the sciences, the engineering professions, the Protestant churches, and in many bourgeois life styles. Social policy, says Ritter, became a critical legitimization tool in the last decades and mixed Communist and traditional elements about equally.

Origins

At the Yalta Conference during World War II, the Allies (U.S., Britain, and the Soviet Union) agreed on dividing a defeated Germany into occupation zones, and on dividing Berlin, the German capital, among the Allied powers as well. Initially this meant the construction of three zones of occupation, i.e. American, British, and Soviet. Later, a French zone was carved out of the American and British zones.

GDR created 1949

The ruling Communist party, known as the "Socialist Unity Party" (SED), was formed in April 1946 out of the forced merger between the German Communist Party (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). As Walter Ulbricht noted, everything was made to look democratic while in reality Communists retained control in the background. They were totally loyal to Stalin, and realized their regime would collapse if it lost the backing of the Soviet army—as indeed happened in 1989. Historians debate whether the decision to form a separate country was initiated by Stalin or by the SED.

As West Germany was reorganized and gained independence from the occupation, Stalin established the German Democratic Republic in 1949. The creation of the two states made the 1945 division of Germany permanent.

In 1949 the Soviets turned control of East Germany over to the Communist Party, headed by Wilhelm Pieck (1876–1960), who became president of the GDR and remained officially 'Number One' until his death in 1960, while any real power allowed by the Soviets was assumed by SED General Secretary Walter Ulbricht. The old Socialist Party was taken over by the Communists, and Socialist leader Otto Grotewohl (1894–1964) became prime minister.

West Germany saw itself as the legal successor to the Third Reich, shouldering the burdens of legal responsibility for its crimes. By contrast, East Germany renounced ties to the Nazi past, styling itself the "anti-fascist rampart" and proclaiming itself the first socialist state on German soil. It refused to admit the existence of anti-semitism and refused to recognize Israel or reimburse victims of the Holocaust.

Soviet role

In 1955, the USSR declared the Soviet occupation zone — the historic middle portion of Germany — to be a sovereign state named the ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'' (German Democratic Republic, established in 1949), while the Red Army and the Western Allies' occupation forces remained in place under the tripartite Potsdam Agreement (1945) which established the Allied Occupation of Germany.

The Communist German Democratic Republic was established in the historic "Mitteldeutschland" (Middle Germany). Former German territories east of the Oder and Neisse rivers, mainly the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, East Prussia, West Prussia, Upper Silesia, Lower Silesia, and the eastern Neumark of Brandenburg were thus detached from Germany. To compensate Poland for the USSR's annexation of its eastern provinces, the Allies provisionally established Poland's post-war western border at the Oder-Neisse line at the Yalta Conference (1945). As a result, most of Germany's central territories became the ''Sowjetische Besatzungszone'' (SBZ, Soviet Occupation Zone). All other lands east of the Oder–Neisse line were put under Polish administration, with the exception of historic northern East Prussia, which went to the USSR.

Zones of occupation

In the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the Allies established their joint military occupation and administration of Germany via the Allied Control Council (ACC), a four-power (US, UK, USSR, France) military government effective until the restoration of German sovereignty. In eastern Germany, the Soviet Occupation Zone (SBZ – ''Sowjetische Besatzungszone'') comprised the five states (''Länder'') of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia. Disagreements over the policies to be followed in the occupied zones quickly led to a breakdown in cooperation between the four powers, and the Soviets administered their zone without regard to the policies implemented in the other zones. The Soviets withdrew from the ACC in 1948; subsequently as the other three zones were increasingly unified and granted self-government, the Soviet administration facilitated the development of a separate socialist government in its zone.

Yet, seven years after the Allies’ Potsdam Agreement to a unified Germany, the USSR via the Stalin Note (March 10, 1952) proposed German reunification and superpower disengagement from Central Europe, which the three Western Allies (US, France, UK) rejected. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, a communist proponent of reunification, was dead by March 1953. Similarly, Lavrenty Beria, the First Deputy Prime Minister of the USSR, pursued German reunification, but an internal (Party) ''coup d’étât'' deposed him from government in mid-1953, before he could act on the matter. His successor, Nikita Khrushchev, rejected reunification as equivalent to returning East Germany for annexation to the West; hence reunification went unconsidered until the German Democratic Republic collapsed in 1989.

East Germany and the Eastern Bloc diplomatically recognised East Berlin as the capital city of the German Democratic Republic, but the Western Allies disputed said recognition, considering the entire city of Berlin an occupied territory governed by the martial law of the Allied Control Council. In practice, the ACC’s authority was rendered moot by the Cold War, and the East German government ignored the legal restrictions on integration of East Berlin into the GDR.

Abetted by ACC’s weakness, Cold War political conflicts among the Allies over the status of West Berlin provoked the Berlin Blockade (June 24, 1948 – May 12, 1949), in which the Soviet army stopped all Allied rail, road, and water traffic to and from West Berlin. The Allies countered the Soviets with the Berlin Airlift (1948–49) of food, fuel, and supplies to keep West Berlin alive.

Partition

In 1946, the Communist Party of Germany (''Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands'' — KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (''Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands'' — SPD) merged to form the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED — ''Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands'') (April 21, 1945), which then won the elections of 1946, held under the oversight of the Soviet army. Being a Marxist-Leninist political party, the SED's government nationalised infrastructure and industrial plants.

In 1948, the German Economic Commission (Deutsche Wirtschaftskomission—DWK) under its chairman Heinrich Rau assumed administrative authority in the Soviet occupation zone, thus becoming the predecessor of an East German government.

On October 7, 1949, the SED established the ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'' (German Democratic Republic — GDR), based on a socialist political constitution establishing its control of the anti-fascist National Front of the German Democratic Republic (NF — ''Nationale Front der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik''), an omnibus alliance of every party and mass organisation in East Germany. The NF was established to stand for election to the ''Volkskammer'' ("People's Chamber"), the East German parliament. The first (and only) President of the German Democratic Republic was Wilhelm Pieck. However, after 1950, the true ruler of East Germany was Walter Ulbricht, the First Secretary of the SED.

On June 16, 1953, workers constructing the new ''Stalinallee'' boulevard in East Berlin rioted against a 10% production quota increase. Initially a labour protest, it soon included the general populace, who added their anti-Soviet discontent to the workers' civil disobedience, and on June 17 similar protests occurred throughout the GDR, with more than a million people striking in some 700 cities and towns. Fearing anti-communist counter-revolution on June 18, 1953, the government of the GDR enlisted the Soviet Occupation Forces to aid the ''Volkspolizei'' ("People's Police") in suppressing the rioters; some fifty people were killed and some 10,000 were jailed. (See Uprising of 1953 in East Germany.)

The German war reparations owed to the USSR impoverished the Soviet Zone of Occupation and severely weakened the East German economy. In the 1945–46 period, the Soviets confiscated and transported to the USSR approximately 33% of the industrial plant and by the early 1950s had extracted some 10 billion dollars in reparations in agricultural and industrial products.

The poverty of East Germany induced by reparations provoked the ''Republikflucht'' ("flight from the republic") to West Germany, aggravating the emigration, continual since the 1940s, from the Soviet zone of Germany to the Western Allied zones, further weakening the GDR's economy. Western economic opportunities and lack of political freedom in East Germany induced a brain drain. In response, the GDR closed the Inner German Border, and on the night of August 12–13, 1961, East German soldiers began erecting the Berlin Wall which prevented anyone from escaping.

In 1971, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev had Ulbricht removed; Erich Honecker replaced him. While the Ulbricht government had experimented with liberal reform, the Honecker government increased controls upon the populace of the GDR. The new government introduced a new East German Constitution which defined the German Democratic Republic as a "republic of workers and peasants" and hardly mentioned the word "German".

Initially, East Germany maintained that it was the only lawful government of Germany. However, from the 1960s onward, East Germany held itself out as a separate country from West Germany, and shared the legacy of the united German state of 1871–1945. West Germany, in contrast, claimed an exclusive mandate for all of Germany. From 1949 to the early 1970s, West Germany maintained that East Germany was an illegally constituted state. It argued that the GDR was a Soviet puppet regime and thus illegitimate. According to the Hallstein Doctrine (1955), it also did not diplomatically recognise any country — except the USSR — that recognised East German sovereignty.

But in the early 1970s, the ''Ostpolitik'' ("Eastern Policy") of "Change Through Rapprochement" of the pragmatic government of FRG Chancellor Willy Brandt, established normal diplomatic relations with the East Bloc states and the GDR. In the event, the Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) established normal relations between the Germanies, later allowing their integration to the United Nations.

During this time, West Germany adopted the line of "two German states in one German nation". While it respected East Germany's independence, it formally maintained that the GDR was merely a ''de facto'' government within a single German nation of which the FRG was the sole representative. For instance, it did not treat East Germans as foreigners.

The ''Wende''

In 1989, following widespread public anger over the results of local government elections that spring, many citizens applied for exit visas or left the country illegally. In August 1989 Hungary removed its border restrictions and unsealed its border, and more than 13,000 people left East Germany by crossing the "green" border via Czechoslovakia into Hungary and then on to Austria and West Germany. Many others demonstrated against the ruling party, especially in the city of Leipzig. Kurt Masur, the conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, led local negotiations with the government and held town meetings in the concert hall. The demonstrations eventually led Erich Honecker to resign in October, and he was replaced by a slightly more moderate communist, Egon Krenz.

On November 9, 1989, a few sections of the Berlin Wall were opened, resulting in thousands of East Germans crossing into West Berlin and West Germany for the first time. Krenz resigned a few days later, and the SED abandoned power shortly afterward. Although there were some limited attempts to create a permanent democratic East Germany, these were soon overwhelmed by calls for unification with West Germany.

East Germany held its first (and last) legitimate elections in March 1990. The winner was a coalition headed by the East German branch of West Germany's Christian Democratic Union, which advocated speedy reunification. After some negotiations (2+4 Talks) were held involving the two German states and the former Allied Powers which led to agreement on the conditions for German unification. The five original East German states that had been abolished in 1952 were recreated. On 3 October 1990, the five states officially joined the Federal Republic of Germany, while East and West Berlin united as a third city-state (in the same manner as Bremen and Hamburg). The great economic and socio-political inequalities between the former Germanies required government subsidy for the full integration of East Germany to the Federal German Republic.

Politics

There were four periods in East German political history. These included: 1949–1961, which saw the building of socialism; 1961–1970 after the Berlin Wall closed off escape was a period of stability and consolidation; 1971–1985 was termed the Honecker Era, and saw closer ties with West Germany; and 1985–1989 saw the decline and extinction of East Germany.

Organization

The ruling political party in East Germany was the ''Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands'' (Socialist Unity Party of Germany, SED). It was created in 1946 through the Soviet-directed merger of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet controlled zone.

The Potsdam Agreement committed the Soviets to supporting a democratic form of government in Germany, and unlike in most Warsaw Pact countries, other non-communist political parties were allowed. Nevertheless, every political party in the GDR had to register with the National Front of Democratic Germany, an alliance of parties and mass political organisations, including:

''Christlich-Demokratische Union Deutschlands'' (Christian Democratic Union of Germany, CDU), merged with the West-German CDU after reunification

''Demokratische Bauernpartei Deutschlands'' (Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany, DBD). This party was of special importance because of farmers' role in the economy. The party merged with the West German CDU after reunification.

''Liberal-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands'' (Liberal Democratic Party of Germany, LDPD), merged with the West German FDP after reunification.

''Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands'' (National Democratic Party of Germany, NDPD), merged with the West German FDP after reunification.

Elections took place at the ''Volkskammer'' but were effectively controlled by the SED/state hierarchy, as Hans Modrow has noted. Elections were held in less-than-secret conditions, with voters given the choice of approving or rejecting "unity lists" put forward by the National Front and predetermining the distribution of seats given to the different parties and mass organisations. As was the case in most communist countries, approval rates of 90% or more were routine.

Voting in East Germany was relatively simple. To vote yes, a voter simply took the ballot paper, which contained only one name—that of the approved candidate—and dropped it into the voting box. A voter could vote against the candidate by crossing out his or her name, but had to do so in a separate voting booth without any secrecy. The consequences for such an act of defiance were severe—loss of one's job or expulsion from school, and close surveillance by the Stasi.

The Volkskammer also included representatives from the ''mass organisations'' like the Free German Youth (''Freie Deutsche Jugend'' or ''FDJ''), or the Free German Trade Union Federation. In an attempt to include women in the political life of East Germany, there was a Democratic Women's Federation of Germany, with seats in the Volkskammer.

Important non-parliamentary mass organisations in East German society included the German Gymnastics and Sports Association (''Deutscher Turn- und Sportbund'' or ''DTSB''), and People's Solidarity (''Volkssolidarität'', an organisation for the elderly). Another society of note was the Society for German-Soviet Friendship.

Following German reunification, the SED was renamed the "Party of Democratic Socialism" (PDS) which subsequently merged with the West German WASG to form the Left Party (''Die Linke''). The Left Party continues to be a political force in many parts of Germany, albeit drastically less powerful than the SED.

Military

Because of East Germany's proximity to the West during the Soviet–American Cold War (1945–91), its four-branch military, the ''Nationale Volksarmee'' (National People's Army, NVA) was among the most advanced of the Warsaw Pact; its branches were:

# Army ''(Landstreitkräfte)'' # Navy ''(Volksmarine'' – People's Navy) # Air Force–Air Defence ''(Luftstreitkräfte/Luftverteidigung)'' # GDR Border Troops ''(Grenztruppen der DDR)''

Every man served eighteen months of compulsory military service; for the medically unqualified and the conscientious objector, there were the ''Baueinheiten'' construction units, established in 1964 in response to political pressure by the national Protestant Church upon the GDR’s government. The armed forces of the GDR also possessed paramilitary reserve forces, such as the ''Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse'' (Combat Groups of the Working Class), and from the Stasi, the Ministry for State Security (Mfs —''Ministerium für Staatssicherheit''), the “''Schild und Schwert der Partei''” (Shield and Sword of the Party).

Administrative districts

Until 1952, the GDR comprised the East Berlin capital city and the five German states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (in 1947 renamed: Mecklenburg), Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Saxony, their post-war territorial demarcations approximating the pre-war German demarcations of the Middle German ''Länder'' (states) and ''Provinzen'' (provinces of Prussia). Moreover, the western parts of two provinces, Pomerania and Lower Silesia, although prevailingly annexed by Poland, remained politically integral to the GDR.

The East German Administrative Reform of 1952 disestablished the five states and established 14 ''Bezirke'' (districts), named per their capital cities: (i) Rostock, (ii) Neubrandenburg, (iii) Schwerin, (iv) Potsdam, (v) Frankfurt (Oder), (vi) Magdeburg, (vii) Cottbus, (viii) Halle, (ix) Leipzig, (x) Erfurt, (xi) Dresden, (xii) Karl-Marx-Stadt (Chemnitz until 1953 and again in 1990), (xiii) Gera, and (xiv) Suhl; East Berlin was denominated a ''Bezirk'' (district) in 1961.

The disestablished ''Länder'' (states), demarcated as ''Bezirke'' (districts), were renamed so: the northern ''Land'' (state) Mecklenburg was divided among the ''Bezirke'' Rostock, Schwerin, and Neubrandenburg; Brandenburg (containing Berlin) was divided into the Potsdam, Frankfurt (Oder), and Cottbus districts; Saxony-Anhalt was divided into the Halle and Magdeburg districts; the south-western state of Thuringia was divided into the Erfurt, Gera, and Suhl districts; and the south-eastern state of Saxony was divided among the Leipzig, Dresden, and Karl-Marx-Stadt districts.

East Berlin, the capital city of the German Democratic Republic, formed the ''Bezirk'' Berlin, the country’s fifteenth district, retaining special legal status until 1968, when the residents voted in approving the new (draft) constitution. Regardless of the city's four-occupying-power-status, the ACC, and diplomatic objections of the Allied governments, the GDR administered the ''Bezirk'' Berlin as sovereign territory.

Major cities (1988 populations)

Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR (''English:'' Berlin, Capital of the GDR) (1,200,000)

Leipzig^* (556,000)

Dresden^* (520,000)

Karl-Marx-Stadt^* (317,000) (Name now reverted to Chemnitz)

Magdeburg^* (290,000)

Rostock^* (250,000)

Halle (Saale)^* (236,000)

Erfurt^* (215,000)

Potsdam^* (140,000)

Gera^* (131,000)

Schwerin^* (130,000)

Cottbus^* (125,000)

Zwickau (120,000)

Jena (107,000)

Dessau (105,000)

^* ''"Bezirksstadt" (centre of district)''

Population

The East German population declined by three million people throughout its forty-one year history, from 19 million in 1948 to 16 million in 1990; of the 1948 population, some 4 million were deported from the lands east of the Oder-Neisse line. This was primarily a result of emigration — about one quarter of East Germans left the country before the Berlin Wall was completed in 1961, and after that time, East Germany had very low birth rates. But in the years before reunification the birth rate in East Germany was much higher than in West Germany, and in general the birth rate per woman was never much lower than in West Germany. This compares starkly with Poland, which increased during that time from 24 million in 1950 (a little more than East Germany) to 38 million (more than twice East Germany's population).

Economy

The East German economy began poorly because of the devastation caused by the war, the loss of so many young soldiers, the disruption of business and transportation, the presence of so many refugees, and finally reparations owed to the USSR. The Red Army dismantled and transported to Russia the infrastructure and industrial plants of the Soviet Zone of Occupation. By the early 1950s, the reparations were paid in agricultural and industrial products; and Lower Silesia, with its coal mines and Szczecin, an important natural port, were given to Poland by the decision of Stalin.

The socialist centrally planned economy of the German Democratic Republic was like that of the USSR. In 1950, the GDR joined the COMECON trade bloc. In 1985, collective (state) enterprises earned 96.7% of the net national income. To ensure stable prices for goods and services, the state paid 80% of basic supply costs. The estimated 1984 per capita income was $9,800 ($21,000 in 2008 dollars). In 1976, the average annual growth of the GDP was approximately five percent.

Notable East German exports were photographic cameras, under the Praktica brand; automobiles under the Trabant, Wartburg, and the IFA brands; hunting rifles, sextants, and wristwatches.

Until the 1960s, East Germans endured shortages of basic foodstuffs such as sugar and coffee. East Germans with friends or relatives in the West (or any access to a hard currency) and the necessary Staatsbank foreign currency account, could afford Western products and export-quality East German products via Intershop. Consumer goods also were available, by post, from the Danish Jauerfood, and Genex companies.

The government used money and prices as political devices, providing highly subsidised prices for a wide range of basic goods and services, in what was known as "the second pay packet". The economic results were highly negative, and created an increasing differential with the prosperity in West Germany. At the production level, artificial prices made for an inefficient, backward system of semi-barter and resource-hoarding. For the consumer, it led to the substitution of GDR money with time, barter, and hard-currencies. Ironically, the socialist economy became steadily more dependent on financial infusions from hard-currency loans from West Germany. East Germans, meanwhile, came to see their soft-currency as worthless relative to the Deutsche Mark (DM).

Consumption and jobs

The existence of two German states created questions of legitimacy for both states, particularly in the 1950s when the outcome of the Cold War and the future of Germany remained much in doubt. Both German states used consumerism to promote their unique visions of ''Germanness'' (''Deutschtum''). For West Germany, the resumption of prewar patterns of consumption would signify a return to normality. This meant not only an end to the difficult shortages of the "hungry years," but also the curtailing of female employment outside the home.

In East Germany, people who were disgruntled resorted to nasty jokes at the expense of the oppressive regime; their names were recorded, and too many jokes would land a man in prison.

Throughout its history the main criterion for getting a good job was unblinking loyalty to the Communist party bosses. Even in the electronics industry, a relatively modern and competitive sector of the GDR's economy, the criteria of professionalism were secondary to political criteria in personnel recruitment and development. Dubious loyalty meant exclusion from the university and from good jobs.

With a very low birth rate and a high rate of exodus, East Germany was losing workers. The solution was to import low-skilled workers from other Communist countries. Beginning in 1963 with a series of secret international agreements, East Germany recruited workers from Poland, Hungary, Cuba, Albania, Mozambique, Angola and (North) Vietnam. They numbered more than 100,000 by 1989. Their working conditions were bleak, and although they were officially equal to their German counterparts, the foreign workers remained at the bottom of the social ladder with almost no rights.

Religion

Religion was contested ground in the GDR, with the Communists promoting atheism, although some people were loyal to Christian communities.

Atheism

At the beginning, the Communist party had asserted the compatibility of Christianity and Marxism and sought Christian participation in the building of socialism. At first the question of atheism received little official attention. In the mid-1950s, as the Cold War heated up, atheism became suddenly a topic of major interest for the regime for propaganda purposes, both domestic and foreign. University chairs and departments devoted to the study of 'scientific atheism' were founded and much literature (scholarly and popular) on the subject was produced. Then this activity rather quickly subsided in the late 1960s amid perceptions that atheistic propaganda was becoming counterproductive; but official and scholarly attention to atheism was renewed beginning in 1973, though this time there was more emphasis on scholarship and the training of cadre than propaganda. Throughout, attention paid to atheism in East Germany always reflected politics and was never intended to jeopardise the cooperation that was desired from those East Germans who were religious.

Protestants

East Germany historically was about 90% Protestant. Between 1956 and 1971 the leadership of the East German Lutheran Church changed its relations with the state from hostility to cooperation. From the founding of the GDR in 1949, the Communist Party tried to weaken the influence of the church on the rising generation. The church therefore adopted an attitude of confrontation and distance regarding the Communist authorities. Around 1956 this firm stand against the regime began to wither in favour of a more neutral stance and conditional loyalty. The regime was no longer regarded as illegitimate; instead, the church leaders started viewing the authorities as installed by God and, therefore, deserving of obedience by Christians. But on matters where the state demanded something which was not in accordance with the will of God, the church reserved its right to say no. There were both structural and intentional causes behind this development. Structural causes included the hardening of Cold War tensions in Europe in the mid-1950s, which took away the temporary character of the East German state. The loss of church members and discrimination against young Christians also made it clear to the leaders of the church that they had to come into some kind of dialogue with the authorities. The intentions behind the change of attitude varied from a traditional Lutheran acceptance of secular power to a positive attitude toward socialist ideas. There was also a will to cooperate in order to have the ability to criticise from within a position of loyalty.

Manfred Stolpe (b. 1936) became a lawyer for the Protestant church in 1959 before taking up a position at church headquarters in Berlin. In 1969 he helped found the Bund der Evangelischen Kirchen in der DDR, where he negotiated with the Communist government while at the same time working within the truly democratic system of the church's institutions. The international outlook he gained through the church's ecumenical activities helped him in his new job after winning the regional elections for the state of Brandenburg at the head of the SPD list in 1990. Despite accusations of having colluded with the Communist government, Stolpe, cleared of the charges, remained at the head of the Brandenburg government until he joined the federal government in 2002.

Catholics

The smaller Roman Catholic Church had a fully functioning episcopal hierarchy that was in full accord with the Vatican. During the early postwar years, tensions were high. The Catholic Church as a whole and particularly the bishops were resistant to both the regime and Marxist ideology, and the state allowed the bishops to lodge protests, which they did on issues such as abortion. The bishops were, however, closely observed by the Stasi. East Germans accepted hip hop as more than just a music form. The entire street culture surrounding rap entered the region and became an outlet for oppressed youth.

Dissident singer/songwriter Wolf Biermann, although professing to be a dedicated Communist, was not permitted to perform in public, and was deprived of his East German citizenship in 1976, while visiting West Germany. He was not allowed to return to East Germany until 1989.

Singer Nina Hagen, who is the stepdaughter of Biermann, was exiled at the same time.

Governmental support of classical music maintained some fifty symphony orchestras, such as Gewandhausorchester and Thomanerchor in Leipzig; Sächsische Staatskapelle in Dresden; and Berliner Sinfonie Orchester and Staatsoper Unter den Linden in Berlin.

The birth place of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Eisenach, was rendered as a museum about him, featuring more than three hundred instruments, which, in 1980, received some 70,000 visitors. In Leipzig, the Bach archive contains his compositions and correspondence and recordings of his music.

Theatre

East German theatre was originally dominated by Bertolt Brecht, who brought back many artists out of exile and reopened the ''Theater am Schiffbauerdamm'' with his Berliner Ensemble. Alternatively, other influences tried to establish a "Working Class Theatre", played for the working class by the working class.

After Brecht's death, conflicts began to arise between his family (around Helene Weigel) and other artists about Brecht's heritage. Heinz Kahlau, Slatan Dudow, Erwin Geschonneck, Erwin Strittmatter, Peter Hacks, Benno Besson, Peter Palitzsch and Ekkehard Schall were considered to be among Bertolt Brecht's scholars and followers.

In the 1950s the Swiss director Benno Besson with the Deutsches Theater successfully toured Europe and Asia including Japan with ''The Dragon'' by Jewgenij Schwarz. In the 1960s, he became the Intendant of the Volksbühne often working with Heiner Müller.

After 1975 many artists left the GDR because of increasing censorship. A parallel theatre scene sprung up, creating theatre "outside of Berlin" in which artists played at provincial theatres. For example Peter Sodann founded the Neues Theater in Halle/Saale and Frank Castorf at the theater Anklam.

Theatre and cabaret had high status in the GDR, which allowed it to be very pro-active. This often brought it into confrontation with the state. Benno Besson once said, "In contrast to artists in the west, they took us seriously, we had a bearing."

Important theatres include: Berliner Ensemble; – Deutsches Theater; Maxim Gorki Theater; and Volksbühne

Cinema

The prolific cinema of East Germany was headed by the DEFA, ''Deutsche Film AG'', which was subdivided in different local groups, for example ''Gruppe Berlin'', ''Gruppe Babelsberg'' or ''Gruppe Johannisthal'', where the local teams shot and produced films. Besides folksy movies, the movie-industry became known worldwide for its productions, especially children's movies (''Das kalte Herz'', film versions of the Brothers Grimm fairy tales and modern productions such as ''Das Schulgespenst'').

Frank Beyer's ''Jakob der Lügner'' (Jacob the Liar), about persecution of Jews in the Third Reich, and ''Fünf Patronenhülsen'' (Five Cartridges), about resistance against fascism, became internationally famous.

Films about quotidian life, such as ''Die Legende von Paul und Paula'', by Heiner Carow, and ''Solo Sunny'', directed by Konrad Wolf and Wolfgang Kohlhaase, were very popular.

The film industry was remarkable for its production of ''Ostern'', or Western-like movies. Indians in these films often took the role of displaced people who fight for their rights, in contrast to the American westerns of the time, where Indians were often either not mentioned at all or are portrayed as the villains. Yugoslavians were often cast as the Indians because of the small number of American Indians in eastern Europe. Gojko Mitić was well known in these roles, often playing the righteous, kindhearted and charming chief (''Die Söhne der großen Bärin'' directed by Josef Mach). He became an honorary Sioux chief when he visited the United States in the 1990s, and the television crew accompanying him showed the tribe one of his movies. American actor and singer Dean Reed, an expatriate who lived in East Germany, also starred in several films. These films were part of the phenomenon of Europe producing alternative films about the colonization of America.

Because of censorship a certain number of very remarkable movies were forbidden at this time and reissued after the ''Wende'' in 1990. Examples are ''Spur der Steine'' (directed by Frank Beyer) and ''Der geteilte Himmel'' (directed by Konrad Wolf).

Cinemas in the GDR also showed foreign films. Czechoslovak and Polish productions were more common, but certain western movies were shown, though the numbers of these were limited because it cost foreign exchange to buy the licences. Further, movies representing or glorifying capitalistic ideology were not bought. Comedies enjoyed great popularity, such as the Danish ''Olsen Gang'' or movies with the French comedian Louis de Funès.

Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, several movies depicting life in the GDR have been critically acclaimed. Some of the most notable were ''Good Bye Lenin!'' by Wolfgang Becker, ''Das Leben der Anderen'' (The Lives of Others) by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck (won the Academy Award for best Film in a Foreign Language) in 2006, ''Alles auf Zucker!'' (Go for Zucker) by Dani Levi. Each film is heavily infused with cultural nuances unique to life in the GDR.

Sport

East Germany was very successful in the sports of bicycling, weight-lifting, swimming, gymnastics, track and field, boxing, ice skating, and winter sports. The success is attributed to the leadership of Dr. Manfred Hoeppner which started in the late 1960s.

Another supporting reason was doping in East Germany, especially with anabolic steroids, the most detected doping substances in IOC-accredited laboratories for many years. The development and implementation of a state-supported sports doping program helped East Germany, with its small population, to become a world leader in sport during the 1970s and 1980s, winning a large number of Olympic and world gold medals and records.

Another factor for success was the furtherance-system for young people in GDR. Sport-teachers at school were encouraged to look for certain talents in children ages 6 to 10 years old. For older pupils it was possible to attend grammar-schools with a focus on sports (for example sailing, football and swimming). This policy was also used for talented pupils with regard to music or mathematics.

Sports clubs were highly subsidized, especially sports in which it was possible to get international fame. For example, the major leagues for ice hockey and basketball just included each 2 teams (excluding the school and university sport), though a lack of popular interest in both ice hockey and basketball was and is common across the whole of Europe, whether communist or not. Football (soccer) was the most popular sport. Club football teams such as Dynamo Dresden, 1. FC Magdeburg, FC Carl Zeiss Jena, 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and BFC Dynamo had successes in European competition. Many East German players such as Matthias Sammer and Ulf Kirsten became integral parts of the reunified national football team. Other sports enjoyed great popularity like figure skating, especially because of sportspeople like Katarina Witt. ;Successful athletes:

Waldemar Cierpinski, athlete

Ernst Degner, racing motorcyclist

Heike Drechsler, athlete

Maxi Gnauck, gymnast

Lutz Heßlich, track cyclist

Falk Hoffmann, diver

Jan Hoffmann, ice skater

Karin Janz, gymnast

Karin Kania, speed skater

Marita Koch, athlete

Christa Luding-Rothenburger, speed skater and track cyclist

Olaf Ludwig, road cyclist

Henry Maske, boxer

Heinz Melkus, auto racing driver

Peter Muecke, rally driver

Meinhard Nehmer, bobsledder

Frank-Peter Roetsch, biathlete

Gustav-Adolf Schur, road cyclist

Gaby Seyfert, ice skater

Jürgen Sparwasser, footballer

Jens Weißflog, ski jumper

Fred Williamowski, rallying motorcyclist

;Track-suit diplomacy The East and the West also competed via sport; GDR athletes dominated several Olympic sports. Of special interest was the only football match between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, a first-round match during the 1974 FIFA World Cup, which the East won 1–0, although West Germany, the host, was the eventual champion.

Television and radio

Television and radio in East Germany were state controlled; the ''Rundfunk der DDR'' was the official radio broadcasting organisation from 1952 until German reunification. The organization was based in the ''Funkhaus Nalepastraße'' in East Berlin. ''Deutscher Fernsehfunk'' (DFF), from 1972–1990 known as ''Fernsehen der DDR'' or DDR-FS, was the state television broadcaster from 1952. Reception of Western radio (and even television) broadcasts was widespread.

Telecommunications

By the mid-1980s, East Germany possessed a well-developed communications system. There were approximately 3.6 million telephones in usage (21.8 for every 100 inhabitants), and 16,476 Telex stations. Both of these networks were run by the Deutsche Post der DDR (East German Post Office). East Germany was assigned telephone country code 37; in 1991, several months after reunification, East German telephone exchanges were incorporated into country code 49.

An unusual feature of the telephone network was that in most cases, direct dialing for long distance calls was not possible. Although area codes were assigned to all major towns and cities, they were only used for switching international calls. Instead, each location had its own list of dialing codes with shorter codes for local calls and longer codes for long distance calls. After reunification, the existing network was largely replaced, and area codes and dialing became standardised.

In 1976 East Germany inaugurated the operation of a ground-based radio station at Fürstenwalde for the purpose of relaying and receiving communications from Soviet satellites and to serve as a participant in the international telecommunications organization established by the Soviet government, Intersputnik.

Holidays

Date	English Name	German Name	Remarks
1 January	New Year's Day	Neujahr
''Moveable feast''	Good Friday	Karfreitag
''Moveable feast''	Easter Sunday	Ostersonntag
''Moveable feast''	Easter Monday	Ostermontag	Was not an official holiday after 1967.
1 May	May Day	Tag der Arbeit	International Workers' Day
8 May	Victory in Europe Day	Tag der Befreiung	The translation means "Day of Liberation"
''Moveable feast''	Father's Day / Ascension Day	Vatertag / Christi Himmelfahrt	Thursday after the 5th Sunday after Easter. Was not an official holiday after 1967.
''Moveable feast''		Pfingstmontag	50 days after Easter Sunday
7 October	Republic Day	Tag der Republik	National holiday
''Moveable feast''		Buß- und Bettag	Penultimate Wednesday before the fourth Sunday before December 25. Was not an official holiday after 1967.
25 December		1. Weihnachtsfeiertag
26 December		2. Weihnachtsfeiertag

Ostalgie

The end of the Cold War division of Germany and unification in 1990 inspired initial euphoria.

But for many East Germans, this joy quickly turned to dismay. West Germans often acted as if they had "won" and East Germans had "lost" in unification, leading many East Germans (''Ossis'') to resent West Germans (''Wessis''). Additionally, the dislocations associated with the end of Communism, the disappearance of East Germany and German unification were hardest for East Germany, where unemployment skyrocketed and many East German professionals quickly fled for better jobs in West Germany.

These and other effects of unification led many East Germans to begin to think of themselves more strongly as "East" Germans rather than as simply as "Germans". This produced in many former GDR citizens a longing for certain aspects of the former East Germany, such as full employment and other perceived benefits of the GDR state, termed "Ostalgie" (a blend of "east" and "nostalgia") and depicted in the Wolfgang Becker film ''Goodbye Lenin!''.

Danish historian Feiwel Kupferberg (2002) argues that the real difficulty in German reunification was the discrepancy in the ways the West Germans and East Germans have viewed their Nazi past. The West Germans grimly faced it, atoned for it, and transformed their half of the country into a prosperous, free democracy that valued both individual freedom and responsibility, by contrast, the East Germans absorbed the Soviet-made myth that East Germany was the "victor of history" that successfully resisted the fascists. They blamed their western compatriots for the Nazi atrocities because West Germany had a capitalist economy, which had created Hitler; without capitalism, East Germany was now pure. This attitude, Kupferberg argues, allowed middle classes that had supported Hitler to retain powerful roles in East Germany and there was no radical break with the Nazi regime.

See also

Germany

Berlin

* Berlin Wall

* East Berlin

* West Berlin

History of East Germany

History of Germany since 1945

Inner German border

Iron Curtain

Leaders of East Germany

Ministerrat

West Germany

Armed Forces

Conscientious objection in East Germany

Grenztruppen

Landstreitkräfte

Luftstreitkräfte

National People's Army

Stasi

Volksmarine

Volkspolizei

Media

''Aktuelle Kamera'', GDR's main TV news show

Broadcasting in East Germany

''Der Tunnel'', a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel

''Good Bye, Lenin!'', a tragicomedy film about the German reunification

Radio Berlin International

Transport

Barkas

Deutsche Reichsbahn – The railway company of the GDR

Interflug – The airline of the GDR

Trabant

Transport in the German Democratic Republic

Wartburg

Other

Education in the German Democratic Republic

Fichtelberg, highest point (1214.6m)

Index of East Germany-related articles

GDR jokes

Ostalgie (Nostalgia, missing the old days.)

Palast der Republik

Dean Reed

Sportvereinigung (SV) Dynamo

Tourism in East Germany

Omoiyari Yosan (DDR government→USSR Forces）

Notes

References and bibliography

Allinson, Mark. ''Politics and Popular Opinion in East Germany 1945–68'' (2000)

Augustine, Dolores. ''Red Prometheus: Engineering and Dictatorship in East Germany, 1945–1990.'' (2007) 411pp

Baylis, Thomas A., David H Childs and Marilyn Rueschemeyer, eds.; East Germany in Comparative Perspective, Routledge. 1989

Childs, David H.. ''The Fall of the GDR,'' Longman Personed.co.uk, 2001. ISBN13:9780582315693, ISBN10: 0582315697

Childs, David H.. & Richard Popplewell. ''The Stasi: East German Intelligence and Security Service,'' Palgrave Macmillan Palgrave.com,Amazon.co.uk 1996.

Childs, David H.. ''The GDR: Moscow's German Ally,'' George Allen & Unwin, 1983. ISBN 0-04-354029-5, 9780043540299.

Childs, David H.. ''The Two Red Flags: European Social Democracy & Soviet Communism Since 1945,'' Routledge, 2000. Informaworld.com

Fulbrook, Mary. The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker Yale University Press, 2005. 352 pp. ISBN 0-300-10884-2.

Fulbrook; Mary. Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949–1989 Oxford University Press, 1995

Gray, William Glenn. ''Germany's Cold War: The Global Campaign to Isolate East Germany, 1949–1969'' University of North Carolina Press. 2003

Grix, Jonathan. ''The Role of the Masses in the Collapse of the GDR'' Macmillan, 2000

Jarausch, Konrad H., and Eve Duffy; ''Dictatorship as Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR'' Berghahn Books, 1999

Kupferberg, Feiwel. ''The Rise and Fall of the German Democratic Republic'' (2002) 228pp; online review

Naimark, Norman M. ''The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949'' (1997) excerpt and text search

Port, Andrew I. ''Conflict and Stability in the German Democratic Republic'' Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Pritchard, Gareth, ''The Making of the GDR 1945–53: From Antifascism to Stalinism'' (2000)

Ritter, Gerhard A. "Die DDR in der Deutschen Geschichte," [The GDR in German history] ''Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte,'' Apr 2002, Vol. 50 Issue 2, pp 171–200

Steiner, André. ''The Plans That Failed: An Economic History of East Germany, 1945–1989'' (2010)

Spilker, Dirk. ''The East German Leadership and the Division of Germany: Patriotism and Propaganda 1945–1953.'' (2006). online review

Stokes, Raymond G. ''Constructing Socialism: Technology and Change in East Germany, 1945–1990'' (2000)

Zatlin, Jonathan R. ''The Currency of Socialism: Money and Political Culture in East Germany.'' (2007). 377 pp. online review

External links

AHF – Nationale Volksarmee (NVA)

''Auferstanden aus Ruinen'' ''That was the GDR (in German)''

Translations of propaganda materials from the GDR.

Geschichte des ostdeutschen Designs – history of east German design

DDR Museum Berlin – Culture of the GDR

East Berlin, Past and Present

Pictures of the GDR 1949–1973

RFE/RL East German Subject Files Open Society Archives, Budapest

Stamps Catalog of the German Democratic Republic

East German anthem with English and German lyrics

Countries of the world Europe |before = Allied Occupation Zones in Germanyand theGerman Economic Commission(1948–1949) |after = Federal Republic of Germany |years = 1949–1990 }}

Category:Communism in Germany Germany, East Germany, East Category:Eastern Bloc Category:Former polities of the Cold War Germany, East Germany, East Germany, East Germany, East Germany, East Category:German-speaking ex-regions

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Coordinates	12°58′0″N77°34′0″N
Native name	''République Démocratique du Congo''
Conventional long name	Democratic Republic of the Congo
Common name	the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Image coat	Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg
Symbol type	Coat of Arms
National drink	Um Bongo
National motto	''Justice – Paix – Travail''(French: Justice – Peace – Work)
National anthem	''"Debout Congolais"''(French:"Arise, Congolese")
Official languages	French
National languages	Lingala, Kikongo, Swahili, Tshiluba
Demonym	Congolese
Capital	Kinshasa |latd4 |latm19 |latNSS |longd15 |longm19 |longEWE
Largest city	capital
Government type	Semi-presidential republic
Leader title1	President
Leader name1	Joseph Kabila
Leader title2	Prime Minister
Leader name2	Adolphe Muzito
Area km2	2,345,409
Area sq mi	905,355
Area rank	11th
Area magnitude	1 E+12
Percent water	4.3
Population estimate	71,712,867
Population estimate year	2011
Population estimate rank	19th
Population census	29,673,000
Population census year	1984
Population density km2	29.3
Population density sq mi	75.9
Population density rank	182nd
Gdp ppp year	2010
Gdp ppp	$23.117 billion
Gdp ppp per capita	$328
Gdp nominal year	2010
Gdp nominal	$13.125 billion
Gdp nominal per capita	$186
Hdi year	2010
Hdi	0.239
Hdi rank	168th
Hdi category	low
Sovereignty type	Independence
Established event1	from Belgium
Established date1	30 June 1960
Currency	Congolese franc
Currency code	CDF
Time zone	WAT, CAT
Utc offset	+1 to +2
Time zone dst	''not observed''
Utc offset dst	+1 to +2
Drives on	right
Iso3166code	CD
Cctld	.cd
Calling code	243
Footnotes	a Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates. }}

The Democratic Republic of the Congo () is a state located in Central Africa. It is the second largest country in Africa by area and the eleventh largest in the world. With a population of nearly 71 million, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the eighteenth most populous nation in the world, and the fourth most populous nation in Africa, as well as the most populous officially Francophone country.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo is often referred to as Congo. However, in order to distinguish it from the neighbouring Republic of the Congo to the west, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is sometimes referred to as DR Congo, DRC, or RDC (from its French abbreviation), or is called Congo-Kinshasa after the capital of Kinshasa (in contrast to Congo-Brazzaville for its neighbour). It also borders the Central African Republic and South Sudan to the north; Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi in the east; Zambia and Angola to the south; the Atlantic Ocean to the west; and is separated from Tanzania by Lake Tanganyika in the east. The country has access to the ocean through a stretch of Atlantic coastline at Muanda and the roughly 9 km wide mouth of the Congo River which opens into the Gulf of Guinea.

The Second Congo War, beginning in 1998, devastated the country, involved seven foreign armies and is sometimes referred to as the "African World War". Despite the signing of peace accords in 2003, fighting continues in the east of the country. In eastern Congo, the prevalence of rape and other sexual violence is described as the worst in the world. The war is the world's deadliest conflict since World War II, killing 5.4 million people.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo was formerly, in chronological order, the Congo Free State, Belgian Congo, Congo-Léopoldville, Congo-Kinshasa, and Zaire (''Zaïre'' in French). Though it is located in the Central African UN subregion, the nation is also economically and regionally affiliated with Southern Africa as a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).

History

Early history

A wave of early people was identified in the Northern and North-Western parts of Central Africa during the second millennium BC. They produced food (pearl millet), maintained domestic livestock and developed a kind of arboriculture mainly based on the oil palm. From BC to BC, starting from a nucleus area in South Cameroon on both banks of the Sanaga River, the first Neolithic peopling of northern and western Central Africa can be followed south-eastwards and southwards.

In D.R. Congo, the first villages in the vicinity of Mbandaka and the Lake Tumba are known as the 'Imbonga Tradition', from around BC. In Lower Congo, north of the Angolan border, it is the 'Ngovo Tradition' around BC that shows the arrival of the Neolithic wave of advance.

In Kivu, across the country to the east, the 'Urewe Tradition' villages first appeared about BC. The few archaeological sites known in Congo are a western extension of the 'Urewe' Culture which has been found chiefly in Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Western Kenya and Tanzania. From the start of this tradition, the people knew iron smelting, as is evidenced by several iron-smelting furnaces excavated in Rwanda and Burundi.

The earliest evidence further to the west is known in Cameroon and near to the small town of Bouar in Central Africa. Though further studies are needed to establish a better chronology for the start of iron production in Central Africa, the Cameroonian data places iron smelting north of the Equatorial Forest around BC to BC. This technology developed independently from the previous Neolithic expansion, some 900 years later. As fieldwork done by a German team shows, the Congo River network was slowly settled by food-producing villagers going upstream in the forest. Work from a Spanish project in the Ituri area further east suggests villages reached there only around BC.

The supposedly Bantu-speaking Neolithic and then iron-producing villagers added to and displaced the indigenous Pygmy populations (also known in the region as the "Batwa" or "Twa") into secondary parts of the country. Subsequent migrations from the Darfur and Kordofan regions of Sudan into the north-east, as well as East Africans migrating into the eastern Congo, added to the mix of ethnic groups. The Bantu-speakers imported a mixed economy made up of agriculture, small-stock raising, fishing, fruit collecting, hunting and arboriculture before BP; iron-working techniques, possibly from West Africa, a much later addition. The villagers established the Bantu language family as the primary set of tongues for the Congolese.

The process in which the original Upemba society transitioned into the Kingdom of Luba was gradual and complex. This transition ran without interruption, with several distinct societies developing out of the Upemba culture prior to the genesis of the Luba. Each of these kingdoms became very wealthy due mainly to the region's mineral wealth, especially in ores. The civilization began to develop and implement iron and copper technology, in addition to trading in ivory and other goods. The Luba established a strong commercial demand for their metal technologies and were able to institute a long-range commercial net (the business connections extended over 1,500 kilometres (930 mi), all the way to the Indian Ocean). By the 16th century, the kingdom had an established strong central government based on chieftainship. The Eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slave raiding, mainly from Arab/Zanzibari slave traders such as the infamous Tippu Tip.

The African Congo Free State (1877–1908)

European exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s. It was first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who undertook his explorations under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony. In a succession of negotiations, Leopold – professing humanitarian objectives in his capacity as chairman of the ''Association Internationale Africaine'' – played one European rival against another.

Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and made the land his private property and named it the Congo Free State. Leopold's regime began various infrastructure projects, such as construction of the railway that ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville (now Kinshasa). It took years to complete. Nearly all such projects were aimed at increasing the capital which Leopold and his associates could extract from the colony, leading to exploitation of Africans.

In the Free State, colonists brutalized the local population to produce rubber, for which the spread of automobiles and development of rubber tires created a growing international market. The sale of rubber made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels and Ostend to honor himself and his country. To enforce the rubber quotas, the army, the ''Force Publique'' (FP), was called in. The Force Publique made the practice of cutting off the limbs of the natives as a means of enforcing rubber quotas a matter of policy; this practice was widespread. During the period of 1885–1908, millions of Congolese died as a consequence of exploitation and disease. In some areas the population declined dramatically, it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River. A government commission later concluded that the population of the Congo had been "reduced by half" during this period, but determining precisely how many people died is impossible as no accurate records exist.

The actions of the Free State's administration sparked international protests led by British reporter Edmund Dene Morel and British diplomat/Irish rebel Roger Casement, whose 1904 report on the Congo condemned the practice. Famous writers such as Mark Twain and Arthur Conan Doyle also protested, and Joseph Conrad's novella ''Heart of Darkness'' was set in Congo Free State.

Belgian Congo (1908–1960)

In 1908, the Belgian parliament, despite initial reluctance, bowed to international pressure (especially that from Great Britain) and took over the Free State as a Belgian colony from the king. From then on, it was called the Belgian Congo and was under the rule of the elected Belgian government. The government improved significantly and a considerable economic and social progress was achieved. The white colonial rulers laid, however, generally a condescending, patronizing attitude on the day against the indigenous peoples, which led to bitter resentment.

During World War II, the Congolese army achieved several victories against the Italians in North Africa.

Political crisis (1960–1965)

In May 1960, a growing nationalist movement, the ''Mouvement National Congolais'' or MNC Party, led by Patrice Lumumba, won the parliamentary elections. The party appointed Lumumba as Prime Minister. The parliament elected Joseph Kasavubu, of the ''Alliance des Bakongo'' (ABAKO) party as President. Other parties that emerged included the ''Parti Solidaire Africain'' (or PSA) led by Antoine Gizenga, and the ''Parti National du Peuple'' (or PNP) led by Albert Delvaux and Laurent Mbariko. (Congo 1960, dossiers du CRISP, Belgium) The Belgian Congo achieved independence on 30 June 1960 under the name ''République du Congo'' ("Republic of Congo" or "Republic of the Congo" in English). Shortly after independence, the provinces of Katanga (led by Moise Tshombe) and South Kasai engaged in secessionist struggles against the new leadership. Most of the 100,000 Europeans who had remained behind after independence fled the country, opening the way for Congolese to replace the European military and administrative elite. As the French colony of Middle Congo (Moyen Congo) also chose the name "Republic of Congo" upon achieving its independence, the two countries were more commonly known as "Congo-Léopoldville" and "Congo-Brazzaville", after their capital cities. Another way they were often distinguished during the 1960s, such as in newspaper articles, was that "Congo-Léopoldville" was called “The Congo” and "Congo-Brazzaville" was called simply “Congo.”

On 5 September 1960, Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba from office. Lumumba declared Kasavubu's action "unconstitutional" and a crisis between the two leaders developed. (cf. ''Sécession au Katanga'' – J.Gerald-Libois -Brussels- CRISP) Lumumba had previously appointed Joseph Mobutu chief of staff of the new Congo army, ''Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC)''. Taking advantage of the leadership crisis between Kasavubu and Lumumba, Mobutu garnered enough support within the army to create mutiny. With financial support from the United States and Belgium, Mobutu paid his soldiers privately. The aversion of Western powers to communism and leftist ideology influenced their decision to finance Mobutu's quest to maintain "order" in the new state by neutralizing Kasavubu and Lumumba in a coup by proxy. A constitutional referendum after Mobutu's coup of 1965 resulted in the country's official name being changed to the "Democratic Republic of the Congo." In 1971 it was changed again to "Republic of Zaïre."

On 17 January 1961, Katangan forces and Belgian paratroops – supported by the United States' and Belgium's intent on copper and diamond mines in Katanga and South Kasai – kidnapped and executed Patrice Lumumba. Amidst widespread confusion and chaos, a temporary government was led by technicians (Collège des Commissaires) with Evariste Kimba. The Katanga secession was ended in January 1963 with the assistance of UN forces. Several short-lived governments, of Joseph Ileo, Cyrille Adoula, and Moise Tshombe, took over in quick succession.

Zaire (1971–1997)

The new president Mobutu Sese Seko had the support of the United States because of his staunch opposition to Communism. Western powers appeared to believe this would make him a roadblock to Communist schemes in Africa.

A one-party system was established, and Mobutu declared himself head of state. He periodically held elections in which he was the only candidate. Relative peace and stability was achieved; however, Mobutu's government was guilty of severe human rights violations, political repression, a cult of personality and corruption. (Mobutu demanded every Congolese bank note printed with his image, hanging of his portrait in all public buildings, most businesses, and on billboards; and it was common for ordinary people to wear his likeness on their clothing.)

Corruption became so prevalent the term "le mal Zairois" or "Zairean Sickness" was coined, reportedly by Mobutu himself. By 1984, Mobutu was said to have $4 billion (USD), an amount close to the country's national debt, deposited in a personal Swiss bank account. International aid, most often in the form of loans, enriched Mobutu while he allowed national infrastructure such as roads to deteriorate to as little as one-quarter of what had existed in 1960. With the embezzlement of government funds by Mobutu and his associates, Zaire became a "kleptocracy". In a campaign to identify himself with African nationalism, starting on 1 June 1966, Mobutu renamed the nation's cities: Léopoldville became Kinshasa [the country was now Democratic Republic of The Congo – Kinshasa], Stanleyville became Kisangani, Elisabethville became Lubumbashi, and Coquihatville became Mbandaka. This renaming campaign was completed in the 1970s.

In 1971, Mobutu renamed the country the ''Republic of Zaire'', its fourth name change in 11 years and its sixth overall. The Congo River was renamed the Zaire River. In 1972, Mobutu renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (roughly translated as The Great Unstoppable Warrior who goes from Victory to Victory, Leaving Fire in his Trail.)

During the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu was invited to visit the United States on several occasions, meeting with U.S. Presidents Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. In June 1989, Mobutu was the first African head of state invited for a state visit with newly elected President Bush. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, however, U.S. relations with Mobutu cooled, as he was no longer deemed necessary as a Cold War ally.

Opponents within Zaire stepped up demands for reform. This atmosphere contributed to Mobutu's declaring the Third Republic in 1990, whose constitution was supposed to pave the way for democratic reform. The reforms turned out to be largely cosmetic. Mobutu continued in power until the conflict forced him to flee Zaire in 1997. Thereafter, the nation chose to reclaim its name of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, since the name ''Zaire'' carried such strong connections to the rule of Mobutu.

Rwandan/Ugandan invasions and civil wars

By 1996, tensions from the neighbouring Rwandan Civil War and Rwandan Genocide had spilled over to Zaire. Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a Tutsi-led government, had been using Hutu refugees camps in eastern Zaire as a basis for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire.

In turn, a coalition of Rwandan and Ugandan armies invaded Zaire under the cover of a small group of Tutsi militia to fight the Hutu militia, overthrow the government of Mobutu, and ultimately control the mineral resources of Zaire. They were soon joined by various Zairean politicians, who had been unsuccessfully opposing the dictatorship of Mobutu for many years, and now saw an opportunity for them in the invasion of Zaire by two of the region's strongest military forces.

This new expanded coalition of two foreign armies and some longtime opposition figures, led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL). They were seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu and controlling his country's wealth. In May 1997, Mobutu fled the country and Kabila marched into Kinshasa, naming himself president and reverting the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. thumb|upright|Civilians waiting to cross the DRC-Rwanda border (2001). By 2008 the Second Congo War and its aftermath had killed 5.4 million people. A few months later, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila thanked all the foreign military forces that helped him to overthrow Mobutu, and asked them to return back to their countries because he was very fearful and concerned that the Rwandan military officers who were running his army were plotting a coup d'état against him in order to give the presidency to a Tutsi who would report directly to the President of Rwanda, Paul Kagame. This move was not well received by the Rwandan and Ugandan governments, who wanted to control their big neighbour.

Consequently, Rwandan troops in DRC retreated to Goma and launched a new militia group or rebel movement called the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Democratie (RCD), led by Tutsis, to fight against their former ally, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila. To counterbalance the power and influence of Rwanda in DRC, the Ugandan troops instigated the creation of another rebel movement called the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by the Congolese warlord Jean-Pierre Bemba, son of Congolese billionaire Bemba Saolona. The two rebel movements started the second war by attacking the DRC's still fragile army in 1998, backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops. Angola, Zimbabwe and Namibia became involved militarily on the side of the government to defend a fellow SADC member.

Kabila was assassinated in 2001 and was succeeded by his son Joseph, who upon taking office called for multilateral peace talks to end the war. In February 2001 a peace deal was brokered between Kabila, Rwanda and Uganda, leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops. UN peacekeepers, MONUC, arrived in April 2001. The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast, and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops. Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders led to the signing of a peace accord in which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003 all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. Much of the conflict was focused on gaining control of substantial natural resources in the country, including diamonds, copper, zinc, and coltan.

DR Congo had a transitional government until the election was over. A constitution was approved by voters, and on 30 July 2006 the Congo held its first multi-party elections since independence in 1960. After this Joseph Kabila took 45% of the votes and his opponent, Jean-Pierre Bemba took 20%. The disputed results of this election turned into an all-out battle between the supporters of the two parties in the streets of the capital, Kinshasa, from 20–22 August 2006 . Sixteen people died before police and the UN mission MONUC took control of the city. A new election was held on 29 October 2006, which Kabila won with 70% of the vote. Bemba made multiple public statements saying the election had "irregularities," despite the fact that every neutral observer praised the elections. On 6 December 2006 the Transitional Government came to an end as Joseph Kabila was sworn in as President.

The fragility of the state government has allowed continued conflict and human rights abuses. In the ongoing Kivu conflict, the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) continues to threaten the Rwandan border and the Banyamulenge; Rwanda supports RCD-Goma rebels against Kinshasa; a rebel offensive at the end of October 2008 caused a refugee crisis in Ituri, where MONUC has proved unable to contain the numerous militia and groups driving the Ituri conflict. In the northeast, Joseph Kony's LRA moved from their original bases in Uganda (where they have fought a 20-year rebellion) and South Sudan to DR Congo in 2005 and set up camps in the Garamba National Park. In northern Katanga, the Mai-Mai created by Laurent Kabila slipped out of the control of Kinshasa. The war is the world's deadliest conflict since World War II, killing 5.4 million people.

Impact of armed conflict on civilians

In 2009, people in the Congo may still be dying at a rate of an estimated 45,000 per month, and estimates of the number who have died from the long conflict range from 900,000 to 5,400,000. The death toll is due to widespread disease and famine; reports indicate that almost half of the individuals who have died are children under the age of 5. This death rate has prevailed since efforts at rebuilding the nation began in 2004.

The long and brutal conflict in the DRC has caused massive suffering for civilians, with estimates of millions dead either directly or indirectly as a result of the fighting. There have been frequent reports of weapon bearers killing civilians, destroying property, committing widespread sexual violence, causing hundreds of thousands of people to flee their homes or otherwise breaching humanitarian and human rights law. An estimated 200,000 women have been raped.

Few people in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) have been unaffected by the armed conflict. A survey conducted in 2009 by the ICRC and Ipsos shows that three quarters (76%) of the people interviewed have been affected in some way–either personally or due to the wider consequences of armed conflict.

In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the war, his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. In neighbouring North Kivu province there has been cannibalism by a group known as ''Les Effaceurs'' ("the erasers") who wanted to clear the land of people to open it up for mineral exploitation. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers.

International Community Response

The response of the international community has been incommensurate with the scale of the disaster resulting from the war in the Congo. Its support for political and diplomatic efforts to end the war has been relatively consistent, but it has taken no effective steps to abide by repeated pledges to demand accountability for the war crimes and crimes against humanity that were routinely committed in Congo. United Nations Security Council and the U.N. Secretary-General have frequently denounced human rights abuses and the humanitarian disaster that the war unleashed on the local population. But they had shown little will to tackle the responsibility of occupying powers for the atrocities taking place in areas under their control, areas where the worst violence in the country took place. Hence Rwanda, like Uganda, has escaped any significant sanction for its role.

Geography

The Congo is situated at the heart of sub-Saharan Africa and is bounded by (clockwise from the southwest) Angola, the South Atlantic Ocean, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania across Lake Tanganyika, and Zambia. The country lies between latitudes 6°N and 14°S, and longitudes 12° and 32°E. It straddles the Equator, with one-third to the North and two-thirds to the South. The size of Congo, , is slightly greater than the combined areas of Spain, France, Germany, Sweden, and Norway.

As a result of its equatorial location, the Congo experiences high precipitation and has the highest frequency of thunderstorms in the world. The annual rainfall can total upwards of in some places, and the area sustains the Congo Rainforest, the second largest rain forest in the world (after that of the Amazon). This massive expanse of lush jungle covers most of the vast, low-lying central basin of the river, which slopes toward the Atlantic Ocean in the West. This area is surrounded by plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest, by mountainous terraces in the west, and dense grasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. High, glaciated mountains are found in the extreme eastern region. The tropical climate has also produced the Congo River system which dominates the region topographically along with the rainforest it flows through, though they are not mutually exclusive. The name for the Congo state is derived in part from the river. The river basin (meaning the Congo River and all of its myriad tributaries) occupies nearly the entire country and an area of nearly . The river and its tributaries (major offshoots include the Kasai, Sangha, Ubangi, Aruwimi, and Lulonga) form the backbone of Congolese economics and transportation. They have a dramatic impact on the daily lives of the people.

The sources of the Congo are in the highlands and mountains of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru. The river flows generally west from Kisangani just below Boyoma Falls, then gradually bends southwest, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River, and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Kinshasa and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool (see NASA image).

Then the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons (collectively known as the Livingstone Falls), and then running past Boma into the Atlantic Ocean. The river also has the second-largest flow and the second-largest watershed of any river in the world (trailing the Amazon in both respects). The river and a 45 km wide strip of land on its north bank provide the country's only outlet to the Atlantic.

The previously mentioned Great Rift Valley, in particular the Eastern Rift, plays a key role in shaping the Congo's geography. Not only is the northeastern section of the country much more mountainous, but due to the rift's tectonic activities, this area also experiences volcanic activity, occasionally with loss of life. The geologic activity in this area also created the famous African Great Lakes, three of which lie on the Congo's eastern frontier: Lake Albert (known previously as Lake Mobutu), Lake Edward, and Lake Tanganyika.

The Rift Valley has exposed an enormous amount of mineral wealth throughout the south and east of the Congo, making it accessible to mining. Cobalt, copper, cadmium, industrial and gem-quality diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, germanium, uranium, radium, bauxite, iron ore, and coal are all found in plentiful supply, especially in the Congo's southeastern Katanga region. On 17 January 2002 Mount Nyiragongo erupted in Congo, with the lava running out at and wide. One of the three streams of extremely fluid lava flowed through the nearby city of Goma, killing 45 and leaving 120,000 homeless. Four hundred thousand people were evacuated from the city during the eruption. The lava poisoned the water of Lake Kivu, killing fish. Only two planes left the local airport because of the possibility of the explosion of stored petrol. The lava passed the airport but ruined the runway, entrapping several airplanes. Six months after the 2002 eruption, nearby Mount Nyamulagira also erupted. Mount Nyamulagira also erupted in 2006 and again in January 2010. Both of these active volcanos are located within the boundaries of Virunga National Park.

World Wildlife Fund ecoregions located in the Congo include:

Central Congolian lowland forests – home to the rare bonobo primate

The Eastern Congolian swamp forests along the Congo River

The Northeastern Congolian lowland forests, with one of the richest concentrations of primates in the world

Southern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic

A large section of the Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands

The Albertine Rift montane forests region of high forest runs along the eastern borders of the country.

World Heritage Sites located in Democratic Republic of Congo are: Virunga National Park (1979), Garamba National Park (1980), Kahuzi-Biega National Park (1980), Salonga National Park (1984) and Okapi Wildlife Reserve (1996).

Provinces

The country is divided into 10 provinces and one city-province:

{| style="background:none;" |- | | # Bandundu # Bas-Congo # Équateur # Kasai-Occidental # Kasai-Oriental # Katanga # Kinshasa (city-province) # Maniema # Nord-Kivu # Orientale # Sud-Kivu

''An Ituri Interim Administration also exists in the Ituri region of Orientale Province''

|}

The provinces are subdivided into Districts which are divided into territories.

;Population of major cities (2008)

!City	!Population (2008)
Kinshasa	7,500,000
Mbuji-Mayi	2,500,000
Lubumbashi	1,700,000
Kananga	1,400,000
Kisangani	1,200,000
Kolwezi	1,100,000
Mbandaka	850,000
Likasi	600,000
	600,000

Government

After a four-year interim between two constitutions that established new political institutions at the various levels of all branches of government, as well as new administrative divisions for the provinces throughout the country, politics in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have finally settled into a stable presidential democratic republic. The 2003 transitional constitution established a system composed of a bicameral legislature with a Senate and a National Assembly. The Senate had, among other things, the charge of drafting the new constitution of the country. The executive branch was vested in a 60-member cabinet, headed by a pentarchy of a President, and four vice presidents. The President was also the Commander-in Chief of the Armed forces. The unusual organization of the executive  — considering the large number of vice presidents  — had earned it the very official nickname of "The 1 + 4".

The transition constitution also established a relatively independent judiciary, headed by a Supreme Court with constitutional interpretation powers.

The 2006 constitution, also known as the ''Constitution of the Third Republic,'' came into effect in February 2006. It had concurrent authority, however, with the transitional constitution until the inauguration of the elected officials who emerged from the July 2006 elections. Under the new constitution, the legislature remained bicameral; the executive was concomitantly undertaken by a President and the government, led by a Prime Minister, appointed from the party with the majority at the National Assembly. The government  – not the President  – is responsible to the Parliament.

The new constitution also granted new powers to the provincial governments with the creation of provincial parliaments, which have oversight over the Governor, head of the provincial government, whom they elect.

The new constitution also saw the disappearance of the Supreme Court, which was divided into three new institutions. The constitutional interpretation prerogative of the Supreme Court is now held by the Constitutional Court.

Corruption

Mobutu Sese Seko ruled Zaire from 1965 to 1997. A relative explained how the government illicitly collected revenue: "Mobutu would ask one of us to go to the bank and take out a million. We'd go to an intermediary and tell him to get five million. He would go to the bank with Mobutu's authority, and take out ten. Mobutu got one, and we took the other nine." Mobutu institutionalized corruption to prevent political rivals from challenging his control, leading to an economic collapse in 1996. Mobutu allegedly stole up to US$4 billion while in office; in July 2009, a Swiss court determined that the statute of limitations had run out on an international asset recovery case of about $6.7 million of deposits of Mobutu's in a Swiss bank, and therefore the assets should be returned to Mobutu's family.

President Joseph Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001.

;Corruption Perception Index {|class="wikitable" |- style="font-weight:bold; vertical-align:bottom;" | style="width:93.75; height:11.25;"| Year | style="width:93.75;"| Ranking | style="width:92.25;"| Countries ranked | style="width:92.25;"| Rating |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" | style="height:11.25;"| 2004 | 133 | 145 | 2.0 | – |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" | style="height:11.25;"| 2005 | 144 | 158 | 2.1 | – |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" | style="height:11.25;"| 2006 | 156 | 163 | 2.0 | – |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" | style="height:11.25;"| 2007 | 168 | 179 | 1.9 | – |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" | style="height:11.25;"| 2008 | 171 | 180 | 1.7 | – |}

In 2006 Transparency International ranked the Democratic Republic of the Congo 156 out of 163 countries in the Corruption Perception Index, tying Bangladesh, Chad, and Sudan with a 2.0 rating.

Foreign relations and military

''See also: Foreign relations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo''

The global growth in demand for scarce raw materials and the industrial surges in China, India, Russia, Brazil and other developing countries require that developed countries employ new, integrated and responsive strategies for identifying and ensuring, on a continual basis, an adequate supply of strategic and critical materials required for their security needs. Highlighting the DR Congo's importance to US national security, the effort to establish an elite Congolese unit is the latest push by the U.S. to professionalize armed forces in this strategically important region.

There are economic and strategic incentives to bringing more security to the Congo, which is rich in natural resources such as cobalt. Cobalt is a strategic and critical metal used in many diverse industrial and military applications. The largest use of cobalt is in superalloys, which are used to make jet engine parts. Cobalt is also used in magnetic alloys and in cutting and wear-resistant materials such as cemented carbides. The chemical industry consumes significant quantities of cobalt in a variety of applications including catalysts for petroleum and chemical processing; drying agents for paints and inks; ground coats for porcelain enamels; decolorizers for ceramics and glass; and pigments for ceramics, paints, and plastics. The country contains 80 percent of the world’s cobalt reserves.

Economy

Although citizens of the DRC are among the poorest in the world, having the second lowest nominal GDP per capita, the Democratic Republic of Congo is widely considered to be the richest country in the world regarding natural resources; its untapped deposits of raw minerals are estimated to be worth in excess of US$ 24 trillion.

The economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a nation endowed with resources of vast potential wealth, has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. At the time of its independence in 1960, DRC was the second most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa, it boasted a thriving mining sector and its agriculture sector was relatively productive. The two recent conflicts (the First and Second Congo Wars), which began in 1996, have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, have increased external debt, and have resulted in deaths of more than five million people from war, and associated famine and disease. Malnutrition affects approximately two thirds of the country's population.

Foreign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict, lack of infrastructure, and the difficult operating environment. The war has intensified the impact of such basic problems as an uncertain legal framework, corruption, inflation, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations.

Conditions improved in late 2002 with the withdrawal of a large portion of the invading foreign troops. A number of International Monetary Fund and World Bank missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Joseph Kabila has begun implementing reforms. Much economic activity lies outside the GDP data. A United Nations Human Development Index report shows human development to be one of the worst in decades. The economy of the third largest country in Africa relies heavily on mining. However, the smaller-scale economic activity occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data. The largest mines in the Congo are located in the Shaba province, in the South. The Congo is the world's largest producer of cobalt ore, and a major producer of copper and industrial diamonds, the latter coming from the Kasai province in the West. The Congo has 70% of the world’s coltan, and more than 30% of the world’s diamond reserves., mostly in the form of small, industrial diamonds. The coltan is a major source of tantalum, which is used in the fabrication of electronic components in computers and mobile phones. In 2002, tin was discovered in the east of the country, but, to date, mining has been on a small scale. Smuggling of the conflict minerals, coltan and cassiterite (ores of tantalum and tin, respectively), has helped fuel the war in the Eastern Congo. Katanga Mining Limited, a Swiss-owned company, owns the Luilu Metallurgical Plant, which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year, making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world. After a major rehabilitation program, the company restarted copper production in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008. The Democratic Republic of Congo also possesses 50 percent of Africa’s forests and a river system that could provide hydro-electric power to the entire continent, according to a U.N. report on the country’s strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa. It has one of the twenty last ranks among the countries on the Corruption Perception Index.

In 2007, The World Bank decided to grant the Democratic Republic of Congo up to $1.3 billion in assistance funds over the next three years.

The Democratic Republic of Congo is in the process of becoming a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).

Demographics

The United Nations 2007 estimated the population at 62.6 million people, having increased rapidly despite the war from 46.7 million in 1997. As many as 250 ethnic groups have been identified and named. The most numerous people are the Kongo, Luba, and Mongo. About 600,000 Pygmies are the aboriginal people of the DR Congo. Although several hundred local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by widespread use of French and intermediary languages such as Kongo, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala.

Migration

Given the situation in the country and the condition of state structures, it is extremely difficult to obtain reliable data. However, evidence suggests that DRC continues to be a destination country for immigrants in spite of recent declines. Immigration is seen to be very diverse in nature, with refugees and asylum-seekers – products of the numerous and violent conflicts in the Great Lakes Region – constituting an important subset of the population in the country. Additionally, the country’s large mine operations attract migrant workers from Africa and beyond and there is considerable migration for commercial activities from other African countries and the rest of the world, but these movements are not well studied. Transit migration towards South Africa and Europe also plays a role. Immigration in the DRC has decreased steadily over the past two decades, most likely as a result of the armed violence that the country has experienced. According to the International Organization for Migration, the number of immigrants in the DRC has declined from just over 1 million in 1960, to 754,000 in 1990, to 480,000 in 2005, to an estimated 445,000 in 2010. Valid figures are not available on migrant workers in particular, partly due to the predominance of the informal economy in the DRC. Data are also lacking on irregular immigrants, however given neighbouring country ethnic links to nationals of the DRC, irregular migration is assumed to be a significant phenomenon in the country.

Figures on the number of Congolese nationals abroad vary greatly depending on the source, from 3 to 6 million. This discrepancy is due to a lack of official, reliable data. Emigrants from the DRC are above all long-term emigrants, the majority of which live within Africa and to a lesser extent in Europe; 79.7% and 15.3% respectively, according to estimates on 2000 data. New destination countries include South Africa and various points en route to Europe. In addition to being a host country, the DRC has also produced a considerable number of refugees and asylum-seekers located in the region and beyond. These numbers peaked in 2004 when, according to UNHCR, there were more than 460,000 refugees from the DRC; in 2008, Congolese refugees numbered 367,995 in total, 68% of which were living in other African countries.

Status of women

The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women in 2006 expressed concern that in the post-war transition period, the promotion of women’s human rights and gender equality is not seen as a priority.

In eastern Congo, the prevalence and intensity of rape and other sexual violence is described as the worst in the world. A 2006 report by the African Association for the Defence of Human Rights prepared for that committee provides a broad overview of issues confronting women in the DRC in law and in daily life.

The war has made the life of women more precarious. Violence against women seems to be perceived by large sectors of society to be normal. In July 2007, the International Committee of the Red Cross expressed concern about the situation in eastern DRC. A phenomenon of 'pendulum displacement' has developed, where people hasten at night to safety. According to the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence, Yakin Ertürk, who toured eastern Congo in July 2007, violence against women in North and South Kivu included 'unimaginable brutality'. 'Armed groups attack local communities, loot, rape, kidnap women and children, and make them work as sexual slaves,' Ertürk said.

In December 2008 GuardianFilms of The Guardian newspaper released a film documenting the testimony of over 400 women and girls who had been abused by marauding militia.

In June 2010, UK aid group Oxfam reported a dramatic increase in the number of rapes occurring in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. While researchers from Harvard discovered that rapes committed by civilians had increased by seventeenfold.

Religion

{{bar box |title=Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo |titlebar=#ddd |width=260px |left1=religion |right1=percent |float=right |bars= }} Christianity is the majority religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, followed by about 96% of the population. Animism accounts for 0.7%.

Kimbanguism was seen as a threat to the colonial regime and was banned by the Belgians. Kimbanguism, officially "the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet Simon Kimbangu", now has about three million members, primarily among the Bakongo of Bas-Congo and Kinshasa.

The largest concentration of Christians following William Branham is in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it is estimated that there are up to 2,000,000 followers.

Sixty-two of the Protestant denominations in the country are federated under the umbrella of the Church of Christ in Congo or CCC (in French, ''Église du Christ au Congo'' or ECC). It is often simply referred to as 'The Protestant Church', since it covers most of the 35% of the population who are Protestants.

Islam in the Democratic Republic of the Congo accounts for 1.5% of the population. The rest follow traditional beliefs, syncretic sects or Hinduism. Islam was introduced and mainly spread by Arab traders/merchants. Traditional religions embody such concepts as monotheism, animism, vitalism, spirit and ancestor worship, witchcraft, and sorcery and vary widely among ethnic groups. The syncretic sects often merge elements of Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals and are not recognized by mainstream churches as part of Christianity. Under the weight of poverty, superstitious tradition is taken advantage of in the socially acceptable practice of children being accused of witchcraft and sent away from homes and family. The usual term for these children is ''enfants sorciers'' (child witches) or ''enfants dits sorciers'' (children accused of witchcraft) and can lead to physical violence against these children. Non-denominational church organizations have been formed to capitalize on this belief by charging exorbitant fees for exorcisms. Though recently outlawed, children have been subjected to often-violent abuse at the hands of self-proclaimed prophets and priests.

In 2002, USAID funded the production of two short films on the subject, made in Kinshasa by journalists Angela Nicoara and Mike Ormsby.

Languages

French is the official language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is meant to be an ethnically neutral language, to ease communication among the many different ethnic groups of the Congo.

There are an estimated total of 242 languages spoken in the country. Out of these, only four have the status of national languages: Kikongo (Kituba), Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili (most spoken in the DRC).

Lingala was made the official language of the colonial army, the "Force Publique" under Belgian colonial rule. But since the recent rebellions, a good part of the army in the East also uses Swahili where it is prevalent.

When the country was a Belgian colony, it had already instituted teaching and use of the four national languages in primary schools, making it one of the few African nations to have had literacy in local languages during the European colonial period. During the colonial period both Dutch and French were the official languages but French was by far the most important.

About 24,320,000 people of DRC speak French either as a first or second language.

Health

Congo has the world's second-highest rate of infant mortality (after Chad). In Eastern Congo there are still unrest and fighting among tribal and also warlord armies to control diamonds and other minerals. More than a quarter of the 500,000 children under 5 years of ages worldwide (more than 125,000 of them) are Congolese children who die from pneumococcus bacterium. In April 2011, through aid from Global Alliance for Vaccines, a new vaccine to prevent pneumococcal disease was introduced around Kinshasa.

Culture

The culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo reflects the diversity of its hundreds of ethnic groups and their differing ways of life throughout the country  — from the mouth of the River Congo on the coast, upriver through the rainforest and savanna in its centre, to the more densely populated mountains in the far east. Since the late 19th century, traditional ways of life have undergone changes brought about by colonialism, the struggle for independence, the stagnation of the Mobutu era, and most recently, the First and Second Congo Wars. Despite these pressures, the customs and cultures of the Congo have retained much of their individuality. The country's 60 million inhabitants are mainly rural. The 30 percent who live in urban areas have been the most open to Western influences.

Another notable feature in Congo culture is its sui generis music. The DROC has blended its ethnic musical sources with Cuban rumba, and merengue to give birth to soukous. Influential figures of soukous and its offshoots: N'dombolo and Rumba rock, are Grand Kalle, Dr. Nico, Franco Luambo, Tabu Ley, Lutumba Simaro, Papa Wemba,King Kester Emeneya, Tshala Muana Koffi Olomide,JB Mpiana, Werrason, Kanda Bongo, Ray Lema, Mpongo Love, Abeti Masikini, Reddy Amisi, [Pasnas] Pepe Kalle, Fally Ipupa, Awilo Longomba, Gatho Buvens, Ferre Gola and Nyoka Longo.

Other African nations produce music genres that are derived from Congolese soukous. Some of the African bands sing in Lingala, one of the main languages in the DRC. The same Congolese soukous, under the guidance of "le sapeur", Papa Wemba, has set the tone for a generation of young men always dressed up in expensive designers' clothes', they became to be known as the 4th generation of the congolese music and they mostly come from the former well knwon band Wenge Musica.

The Congo is also known for its art. Traditional art includes masks and wooden statues. Notable contemporary artists and fashion designers are Odette Maniema Krempin, Lema Kusa, Henri Kalama Akulez, Nshole, Mavinga, Claudy Khan et Chéri Samba.

Education

In 2001 the literacy rate was estimated to be 67.2% (80.9% male and 54.1% female). The education system in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is governed by three government ministries: the ''Ministère de l’Enseignement Primaire, Secondaire et Professionnel (MEPSP''), the ''Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et Universitaire (MESU)'' and the ''Ministère des Affaires Sociales (MAS)''. The educational system in the DRC is similar to that of Belgium. In 2002, there were over 19,000 primary schools serving 160,000 students; and 8,000 secondary schools serving 110,000 students.

However, primary school education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is neither compulsory, free nor universal, and many children are not able to go to school because parents are unable to pay the enrollment fees. Parents are customarily expected to pay teachers' salaries. In 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the gross primary enrollment rate was 50 percent.

Gross enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. In 2000, 65 percent of children ages 10 to 14 years were attending school. As a result of the 6-year civil war, over 5.2 million children in the country receive no education.

Flora and fauna

The rainforests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo contain great biodiversity, including many rare and endemic species, such as the common chimpanzee and the bonobo (formerly known as the Pygmy Chimpanzee), the forest elephant, mountain gorilla, okapi and white rhino. Five of the country's national parks are listed as World Heritage Sites: the Garumba, Kahuzi-Biega, Salonga and Virunga National Parks, and the Okapi Wildlife Reserve. The civil war and resultant poor economic conditions have endangered much of this biodiversity. Many park wardens were either killed or could not afford to continue their work. All five sites are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage In Danger. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most biodiverse African country. The Democratic Republic of Congo is also home to some cryptids, such as Mokele mbembe

Over the past century or so, the DRC has developed into the center of what has been called the Central African "bushmeat" problem, which is regarded by many as a major environmental, as well as, socio-economic crisis. "Bushmeat" is another word for the meat of wild animals. It is typically obtained through trapping, usually with wire snares, or otherwise with shotguns, poisoned arrows or arms originally intended for use in the DRC's numerous military conflicts.

The "bushmeat crisis" has emerged in the DRC mainly as a result of the poor living conditions of the Congolese people and a lack of education about the dangers of eating it. A rising population combined with deplorable economic conditions has forced many Congolese to become dependent on bushmeat, either as a means of acquiring income (hunting the meat and selling), or are dependent on it for food. Unemployment and urbanization throughout Central Africa have exacerbated the problem further by turning cities like the urban sprawl of Kinshasa into the prime market for commercial bushmeat. This combination has caused not only widespread endangerment of local fauna, but has forced humans to trudge deeper into the wilderness in search of the desired animal meat. This overhunting results in the deaths of more animals and makes resources even more scarce for humans. The hunting has also been facilitated by the extensive logging prevalent throughout the Congo's rainforests (from corporate logging, in addition to farmers clearing out forest for agriculture), which allows hunters much easier access to previously unreachable jungle terrain, while simultaneously eroding away at the habitats of animals. Deforestation is accelerating in Central Africa.

A case that has particularly alarmed conservationists is that of primates. The Congo is inhabited by three distinct great ape species  — the Common chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes''), the bonobo (''Pan paniscus'') and the gorilla. It is the only country in the world in which bonobos are found in the wild. The chimpanzee and bonobo are the closest living evolutionary relatives to humans.

Much concern has been raised about Great ape extinction. Because of hunting and habitat destruction, the chimpanzee and the gorilla, both of whose population once numbered in the millions, have now dwindled down to only about 200,000 gorillas, 100,000 chimpanzees and possibly only about 10,000 bonobos. Gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos are all classified as Endangered by the World Conservation Union, as well as the okapi, which is also native to the area geography.

Transport

Ground transport in the Democratic Republic of Congo has always been difficult. The terrain and climate of the Congo Basin present serious barriers to road and rail construction, and the distances are enormous across this vast country. Furthermore, chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict has led to serious under-investment over many years.

On the other hand, the Democratic Republic of Congo has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways, and traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around approximately two-thirds of the country.

All air carriers certified by the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been banned from European Union airports by the European Commission, because of inadequate safety standards.

See also

References

Further reading

Clark, John F., ''The African Stakes of the Congo War'', 2004

Drummond, Bill and Manning, Mark, ''The Wild Highway'', 2005

Edgerton, Robert, ''The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo.'' St. Martin's Press, December 2002.

Hochschild, Adam, ''King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa'', 1998.

Exenberger, Andreas/Hartmann, Simon. ''The Dark Side of Globalization. The Vicious Cycle of Exploitation from World Market Integration: Lesson from the Congo'', Working Papers in Economics and Statistics 31, University Innsbruck 2007, availability: http://eeecon.uibk.ac.at/wopec2/repec/inn/wpaper/2007-31.pdf.

Exenberger, Andreas/Hartmann, Simon. ''Doomed to Disaster? Long-term Trajectories of Exploitation in the Congo, Paper to be presented at the Workshop “Colonial Extraction in the Netherlands Indies and Belgian Congo: Institutions, Institutional Change and Long Term Consequences”, Utrecht December 3-4, 2010, availability: http://vkc.library.uu.nl/vkc/seh/research/Lists/Events/Attachments/6/Paper.ExenbergerHartmann.pdf.

Joris, Lieve, translated by Waters, Liz, ''The Rebels' Hour'', Atlantic, 2008

Justenhoven, Heinz-Gerhard; Ehrhart, Hans Georg. Intervention im Kongo: eine kritische Analyse der Befriedungspolitik von UN und EU. Stuttgart : Kohlhammer, 2008. (in German) ISBN 978-3-17-020781-3

Kingsolver, Barbara. ''The Poisonwood Bible'' HarperCollins, 1998.

Larémont, Ricardo René, ed. 2005. ''Borders, nationalism and the African state''. Boulder, Colorado and London: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Lemarchand, Reni and Hamilton, Lee; ''Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide.'' Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1994.

Mealer, Bryan: "All Things Must Fight To Live",2008. ISBN 1-59691-345-2

Melvern, Linda, ''Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide and the International Community''. Verso, 2004

Miller, Eric: "The Inability of Peacekeeping to Address the Security Dilemma," 2010. ISBN 978-3-8383-4027-2

Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era'', Third Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, "Chapter Six: Congo in The Sixties: The Bleeding Heart of Africa," pp. 147 – 205, ISBN 978-0-9802534-1-2; Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''Africa and America in The Sixties: A Decade That Changed The Nation and The Destiny of A Continent'', First Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-9802534-2-9.

Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges, ''The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People's History'', 2002

O'Hanlon, Redmond, ''Congo Journey'', 1996

O'Hanlon, Redmond, ''No Mercy: A Journey into the Heart of the Congo'', 1998

Prunier, Gérard, ''Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe'', 2011 (also published as ''From Genocide to Continental War: The Congolese Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa: The Congo Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa'')

Renton, David; Seddon, David; Zeilig, Leo. ''The Congo: Plunder and Resistance'', 2007. ISBN 978-1-84277-485-4

Reyntjens, Filip, ''The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006 '', 2009

Rorison, Sean, ''Bradt Travel Guide: Congo  — Democratic Republic/Republic'', 2008

Schulz, Manfred. ''Entwicklungsträger in der DR Kongo: Entwicklungen in Politik, Wirtschaft, Religion, Zivilgesellschaft und Kultur'', Berlin : Lit, 2008, (in German) ISBN 978-3-8258-0425-1

Stearns, Jason: ''Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: the Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa'', Public Affairs, 2011.

Tayler, Jeffrey, ''Facing the Congo'', 2001.

Turner, Thomas, ''The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality'', 2007

Wrong, Michela, ''In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo''

External links

;Government

Chief of State and Cabinet Members

;General

Country Profile from the BBC News

Democratic Republic of the Congo from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''

Democratic Republic of Congo at WorldWikia

Crisis briefing on Congo from Reuters AlertNet

Humanitarian information coverage on ReliefWeb

The Democratic Republic of Congo from Global Issues

;Tourism

Official Website of Virunga National Park

;Documentaries

Congo Documentary

;News coverage of the conflict

BBC DR Congo: Key facts

BBC Q&A;: DR Congo conflict

BBC Timeline: Democratic Republic of Congo

BBC In pictures: Congo crisis

"Rape of a Nation" by Marcus Bleasdale (VII) on MediaStorm

Maps of Congo before and after independence

;Other

Living in Congo by Myron "Riverman" Buck

}}

Category:Articles with inconsistent citation formats Category:African countries Category:Bantu countries and territories Category:Countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean Category:French-speaking countries Category:Member states of La Francophonie Category:Member states of the African Union Category:Least developed countries Category:Republics Category:Swahili-speaking countries and territories Category:Member states of the United Nations

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Coordinates	12°58′0″N77°34′0″N
Name	Katarina Witt
Country	(1977–1988) (1994)
Birth date	December 03, 1965
Height
Formercoach	Jutta Müller
Skating club	SC Karl-Marx-Stadt
Retired	1988 and 1994
Medaltemplates	}}

| }} Katarina Witt (born December 3, 1965) is a German figure skater and model. In Germany she was commonly called "Kati" in the past, but today her full name is used more often.

She won two Olympic gold medals for East Germany, first in the 1984 Sarajevo Olympics and the second in 1988 at the Calgary Olympics. She won the World Championships four times (in 1984, 1985, 1987, and 1988), and six consecutive European Championships (1983–1988). She won silver medals at both the 1982 and 1986 World Figure Skating Championships. Her competitive record makes her one of the most successful figure skaters of all time.

Life and career

Witt was born in Staaken in then East Germany, just outside of West Berlin, which is today part of Berlin. She went to school in Karl-Marx-Stadt (which today has reverted to its pre-war name of Chemnitz). There she attended a special school for athletically talented children named Kinder- und Jugendsportschule. She represented the club SC Karl-Marx-Stadt for the GDR (East Germany). Jutta Müller began coaching her in 1977.

In 1984, Witt was voted "GDR female athlete of the year" by the readers of the East German newspaper ''Junge Welt''. She narrowly won the 1984 Olympic title over the favoured contender, reigning World champion Rosalynn Sumners of the United States. Witt and Sumners held the top two spots heading into the Olympic free skate, which were worth 50% of the total score. Witt landed three triple jumps in her free skate programme, and the judges left room for Sumners to win the event, but Sumners scaled back two of her jumps, and Witt won the long programme by one tenth of a point on one judge's scorecard.

In 1987, Witt recaptured the World Championship title, which she had lost the previous year to Debi Thomas. Witt only finished fifth in compulsory figures, which meant that Thomas could finish second in both the short and long programmes and still retain the world title. However, a costly error by Thomas in the short programme put the two skaters on a level playing field heading into the free skate. Witt skated the strongest long programme of her career, landing five triple jumps, including a triple loop jump. Although Thomas also skated a strong long programme, Witt was ranked first by the majority of the nine judges and thus reclaimed the world title.

In 1988, Witt won her sixth consecutive European Championship, equalling the achievement of Sonja Henie as the most successful Ladies Skater at the European Championships. While Witt's and Henie's number of European titles have been surpassed since by Irina Slutskaya, she retains the record of most consecutive European titles, sharing it with Henie.

Both Witt and Thomas were favoured contenders in the 1988 Olympic Games. Their rivalry was known as the "Battle of the Carmens", as each woman had independently elected to skate her long programme to music from Bizet's opera ''Carmen''. They held the top two spots after the compulsory figures and the short programme. Witt skated her long programme well, but not spectacularly, landing four triple jumps and downgrading her planned triple loop jump to a double loop. This left room for Thomas to win the long programme, but Thomas skated poorly, missing three of her planned five triple jumps. Canadian skater Elizabeth Manley won the long programme, but Witt retained her Olympic title based on her overall scores (she had finished ahead of Manley in both the compulsory figures and the short programme). Witt became only the second woman in figure skating history (after Sonja Henie) to defend her Olympic title. To honour her and her win in Calgary North Korea issued miniature sheets with three large pictures of Witt on the ice.

After competing

In 1988, Witt started a professional career, which was unusual for East German athletes. She spent three years on tour in the United States with Brian Boitano, also a gold medalist in figure skating. Their show "Witt and Boitano Skating" was so successful that for the first time in ten years, New York's Madison Square Garden was sold out for an ice show. Later she continued at Holiday on Ice in the United States and in Western Europe.

Following the dissolution of East Germany, Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (Stasi) files were found to show that the secret police had worked hard to keep Witt from defecting by giving her cars, accommodations, and permitted travel.

She also became an actress in the film Carmen on Ice (1989), which expanded upon her gold medal freestyle routine at Calgary. In 1990, she received an Emmy Award for her role in this film.

In 1994, she made a comeback to the competitive skating scene. She was again coached by Jutta Müller and qualified for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, where she finished 7th. This was Witt's first international competition for the reunified country of Germany, following 11 years competing for East Germany. Much-noted was her free programme to the music “Sag mir wo die Blumen sind” (an arrangement of the Pete Seeger folksong "Where Have All the Flowers Gone"), considered remarkable for its artistic impression, including a peace message for the people of Sarajevo (the site of her first Olympic victory). She received the Golden Camera for her Olympic comeback. In the same year she published her autobiography ''Meine Jahre zwischen Pflicht und Kür'' (''My Years between Compulsories and Freestyle'').

In 1995, she was inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame.

In 1996, she had a cameo role in the movie ''Jerry Maguire''. She also starred in a German-language movie called "Princess on Ice". Witt provided the vocals for the theme song, "Skate With Me".

Witt appeared as herself in two episodes of the TV comedy series ''Arli$$'' that aired in 1997 and 1998.

In December 1998, Witt posed nude for ''Playboy'' magazine. The issue in which these photos were published was the second ever sold-out issue of the magazine. (The first sold-out issue was the inaugural one including photos of Marilyn Monroe.) Also in 1998, Witt appeared in the movie ''Ronin'' with a small supporting role and several lines of script. Around this time, she also played a villain in an episode of the tongue-in-cheek television series, ''V.I.P.''

Witt has been known for her beauty and sex appeal as well as for her athleticism. ''Time'' magazine called her "the most beautiful face of socialism."

Witt's taste in figure skating costumes sometimes raised eyebrows. At the 1983 European championships she skated her Mozart short programme in knee breeches instead of a skirt. Her blue skirtless feather-trimmed 1988 costume for a showgirl-themed short programme was considered too theatrical and sexy, and led to a change in the ISU regulations which required female skaters to wear more modest clothing, including skirts. In 1994, skating a Robin Hood-themed programme, she again pushed the boundaries of costume regulations by wearing a short tunic over leggings.

In November 2005, she published a novel, ''Only with Passion'', in which she offers advice to a fictional young skater based on her many years of skating. Since October 2006, she has her own TV show at the German station ProSieben ''Stars auf Eis'' (Stars on Ice).

On 7 July 2007, Witt was a compere at the German segment of Live Earth.

Witt was invited to Istanbul as an honoured guest for the skating competition TV show called ''Buzda Dans'' (''Dance on Ice''). The competition took place on February 25, 2007.

Her farewell tour took place in February and March 2008.

Currently Witt is the bid head for Munich's bid to host the Winter Olympics in 2018.

Results

{| class="wikitable" |- ! Event ! 1978–79 ! 1979–80 ! 1980–81 ! 1981–82 ! 1982–83 ! 1983–84 ! 1984–85 ! 1985–86 ! 1986–87 ! 1987–88 ! 1993–94 |- | Winter Olympic Games || || || || || || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || || || || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" | 7th |- | World Championships || || align="center" | 10th || align="center" | 5th || align="center" bgcolor="silver" | 2nd || align="center" | 4th || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="silver" | 2nd || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || |- | European Championships || align="center" | 14th || align="center" | 13th || align="center" | 5th || align="center" bgcolor="silver" | 2nd || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" | 8th |- | East German Championships || align="center" bgcolor="CC9966" | 3rd || align="center" bgcolor="silver" | 2nd || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || |- | German Championships || || || || || || || || || || || align="center" bgcolor="silver" | 2nd |- | Skate Canada International || || || || || || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || || || || || |- | NHK Trophy || || || align="center" bgcolor="silver" | 2nd || || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || || || || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || align="center" bgcolor="gold" | 1st || |}

See also

List of Olympic medalists in figure skating

References

External links

olympic.org Athlete Profile – Witt

Marita Koch|title=East German Sportswoman of the Year|years=1984|after= Marita Koch}}

Category:1965 births Category:Living people Category:People from East Berlin Category:Sportspeople from Berlin Category:German female single skaters Category:Figure skaters at the 1984 Winter Olympics Category:Figure skaters at the 1988 Winter Olympics Category:Figure skaters at the 1994 Winter Olympics Category:Olympic figure skaters of Germany Category:Olympic figure skaters of East Germany Category:Olympic gold medalists for East Germany Category:Figure skating commentators Category:Recipients of the Olympic Order Category:Dancing on Ice participants Category:Olympic medalists in figure skating

az:Katarina Vitt bg:Катарина Вит cs:Katarina Wittová de:Katarina Witt es:Katarina Witt eo:Katarina Witt fr:Katarina Witt ko:카타리나 비트 hr:Katarina Witt it:Katarina Witt hu:Katarina Witt nl:Katarina Witt ja:カタリナ・ヴィット no:Katarina Witt nn:Katarina Witt pl:Katarina Witt pt:Katarina Witt ro:Katarina Witt ru:Витт, Катарина fi:Katarina Witt sv:Katarina Witt tr:Katarina Witt zh:卡特琳娜·维特

The National People’s Army (NPA) (de: ''Nationale Volksarmee - NVA)'' were the armed forces of the German Democratic Republic (GDR).

The NVA was established in 1956 and disestablished in 1990. There were frequent reports of East German advisors with Communist African countries during the Cold War. It did not see any significant combat, though its participation with the Soviet Armed Forces against the Czech interim government during the Prague Spring of 1968 was cancelled at the last minute.

History

The National People’s Army was created on March 1, 1956, six months after the formation of the West German Bundeswehr, from the Kasernierte Volkspolizei (Barracked People's Police). It was preceded by years of preparation during which former Wehrmacht officers and Communist veterans of the Spanish Civil War helped organize and train paramilitary units of the People's Police. With its German appearance—including uniforms and ceremonies patterned after older German military traditions—the doctrine and structure of the NVA were strongly influenced by the Soviet Armed Forces, thus mixing elements of the 20th century's most innovative and successful schools of military in a force which, for its size, was considered one of the most professional and prepared of the world.

During its first year, about 27 percent of the NVA's officer corps had formerly served in the Wehrmacht. Of the 82 highest command positions, 61 were held by ex-Wehrmacht officers. The military knowledge and combat experience of these veterans were indispensable in the NVA's early years, although by the 1960s most of these World War II veterans had been retired. The West German Bundeswehr similarly relied on Wehrmacht veterans who initially comprised the majority of its commissioned ranks.

In its first six years, the NVA was an all-volunteer force. West Germany, in contrast, re-introduced universal military service in 1956. Conscription was finally introduced in 1962, and the NVA's strength was increased to approximately 170,000 troops.

Like the Communist parties of other socialist states, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, or SED, assured control by appointing loyal party members to top positions and organizing intensive political education for all ranks. The proportion of SED members in the officer corps rose steadily after the early 1960s, eventually reaching almost 95 percent of the officer corps.

The NVA described itself as the ''instrument of power of the working class.'' According to its doctrine, the NVA protected peace and secured the achievements of socialism by maintaining a convincing deterrent to imperalist aggression. The NVA's motto, inscribed on its flag, was "For the Protection of the Workers' and Farmers' Power."

The NVA never took part in full-scale combat, although it participated in a support role in the suppression of the Prague Spring of 1968 and NVA officers often served as combat advisers in Africa. When the Soviet Union prepared to occupy Czechoslovakia, the GDR government originally planned to use the 7th Panzer Division and the 11th Motorized Infantry Division to support the intervention, but fear of international reaction to the deployment of German troops outside Germany for the first time since the Second World War caused second thoughts. Instead, the NVA provided logistical help when Soviet troops advanced into Czechoslovakia and stood at the border ready to intervene in the event that the Soviet Army could not quell the uprising.

In the early 1970s the NVA was assigned the wartime mission of capturing Berlin by the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany high command. The NVA plan for the operation was designated 'Operation Centre' and called for some 32,000 troops in two divisions, accompanied by the GSFG's 6th Guards Separate Motor Rifle Brigade. The plan was regularly updated until 1988, when a less ambitious plan that simply aimed at containing Berlin was substituted.

In the autumn of 1981, the NVA stood ready to intervene in Poland in support of a possible Soviet invasion, but the declaration of martial law in Poland averted the crisis.

The NVA was in a state of heightened combat readiness on several occasions, including the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the 1968 Warsaw Pact intervention in Czechoslovakia, and, for the last time, in the autumn of 1989 as protests swept through the country.

Ideology

The NVA was a professional volunteer army until 1962, when conscription was introduced. In 1987, at the peak of its power, the NVA numbered 175,300 troops. Approximately 50% of this number were career soldiers, while the others were short-term conscripts. The armed forces were controlled by the National Defense Council, but the mobile forces were under the Warsaw Pact Unified Command. Political control of the armed forces was through close integration with the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), which vetted all the officers. Popular support for the military establishment was bolstered by military training provided by the school system and through the growing militarization of society. From a Leninist perspective, the NVA stood as a symbol of Soviet-East German solidarity and became the model Communist institution--ideological, hierarchical, and disciplined. The NVA synthesized Communist and Germanic symbolism, naming its officers' academy after Karl Marx's coauthor Friedrich Engels, and its highest medal after Prussian General Gerhard von Scharnhorst.

At the critical moment in its history in November 1989, the NVA rallied to its Germanic heritage and rejected the SED, refusing to battle the demonstrators protesting the regime. Mikhail Gorbachev refused to let Soviet troops become engaged, and so, not just the leadership but the entire single party system in East Germany collapsed, and the country was soon absorbed into West Germany.

Post-Unification

The NVA was disbanded in 1990. Its facilities and equipment were handed over to the Bundeswehr. Most facilities were closed, and equipment was either sold or given to other countries. Most of the NVA's 36,000 officers and NCOs were let go, including all officers above the rank of lieutenant colonel. Only 3,200 were retained by the Bundeswehr after a demotion of one rank. In addition, all female soldiers and all soldiers over the age of 55 were also discharged.

Until March 1, 2005, time served in the NVA was listed as time “served in a foreign military”. Service in the NVA did not count for points towards federal pensions in the unified Germany. Retired NVA soldiers and officers received only minimal pensions after unification: a thirty-year veteran would receive a pension smaller than a graduate student stipend. After the reform, service in the NVA is known as “served outside of the Bundeswehr”.

Many former NVA officers feel bitter about their treatment after unification. While receiving only minimal pensions, few have been able to find jobs except as laborers or security guards. Former NVA officers are not permitted to append their NVA rank to their name as a professional title; no such prohibition applies to rank attained in the Wehrmacht or Waffen-SS during the Nazi era.

Former Wehrmacht soldiers in the NVA

The following list includes the NVA generals and admirals who were awarded the German Cross in the Wehrmacht during the Second World War with the date of the awards as well as the rank held at the time listed after the name.

Generalmajor Rudolf Bamler (12 Mar 1942 as Oberst)

Generalmajor Bernhard Bechler (28 Jan 1943 as Major)

Generalmajor Dr. rer. pol. Otto Korfes (11 Jan 1942 as Oberst)

Generalmajor Arno von Lenski (21 Jan 1943 as Generalmajor)

Generalleutnant Vincenz Müller (26 Jan 1942 as Oberst i.G.)

Generalmajor Hans Wulz (25 Jan 1943 as Generalmajor)

The following list includes the NVA generals and admirals who were awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross in the Wehrmacht during the Second World War with the date of the awards as well as the rank held at the time listed after the name.

Generalmajor Wilhelm Adam (17 Dec 1942 as Oberst)

Generalmajor Dr. rer. pol. Otto Korfes (22 Jan 1943 as Generalmajor)

Generalleutnant Vincenz Müller (7 Apr 1944 as Generalleutnant)

Utilization of former NVA materiel after 1991

The NVA was, in relation to its equipment and training, one of the strongest armies in the Warsaw Pact. It was outfitted with a large number of modern weapons systems, most of Soviet origin, from which a small portion were given back to the Soviet Union in 1990.

The remaining equipment and materials was very substantial. Large quantites of replacement parts, medical supplies, atomic, biological and chemical warfare equipment, training devices and simulators, etc. had to be disposed of.

One of the first measures taken after reunification was a survey and securing of weapons and devices by former members of the NVA. The federally operated ''Material Depot Service Gesellschaft'' (MDSG) was charged with taking custody of and warehousing this equipment. The MDSG employed 1,820 people who were primarily taken from the Bundeswehr. The MDSG was privatised in 1994. Unless the defense material was given free of charge to beneficiaries in the new federal states or other departments, to museums, or to friendly nations in the context of aid supplies in third world nations, it was destroyed.

Left behind were:

767 aircraft (helicopters, fixed wing aircraft), 24 of which were MiG-29s

208 ships

2,761 tanks

133,900 wheeled vehicles

2,199 artillery pieces

1,376,650 firearms

303,690 tons of ammunition

14,335 tons of fuel and cleaning materials

Recruitment and conscientious objection

Before the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, military service in the GDR was voluntary, though the Free German Youth and public schools mounted intensive recruitment drives and service in the NVA was often a prerequisite for career advancement. Compulsory service had been introduced earlier in West Germany (1956)—one year after the Federal Armed Forces were established—but the GDR held back from this step until 1962. The reason was partly that the authorities feared that conscription would swell the ranks of GDR citizens fleeing to the West. The situation changed when the border was sealed in August 1961, and five months later the government announced a mandatory service term of 18 months for men.

There was, at first, no alternative service for conscientious objectors. This changed in 1964 when, under pressure from the national Protestant church, the GDR's National Defense Council authorized the formation of ''Baueinheiten'' (construction units) for men of draft age who "refuse military service with weapons on the grounds of religious viewpoints or for similar reasons".

The construction soldiers wore uniforms and lived in barracks under military discipline, but were not required to bear arms and received no combat training. In theory, they were to be used only for civilian construction projects. The GDR therefore became the only Warsaw Pact country to provide a non-combat alternative for conscientious objectors. However, fearing that other soldiers would be contaminated by pacifist ideas, the government took care to segregate the construction units from regular conscripts. Moreover, conscripts who chose the alternative service option often faced discrimination later in life, including denial of opportunities for higher education.

Organization

The NVA had four main branches:

The ''Landstreitkräfte'' (Ground Forces) with a strength of 180,000.

The ''Volksmarine'' (People's Navy) with a strength of 18,300.

The ''Luftstreitkräfte''/''Luftverteidigung'' (Air Forces/Air Defence) with a strength of 58,000.

The ''Grenztruppen der DDR'' (Border troops of the GDR), consisting of 50,000 border guards.

In wartime, mobilization of the NVA's reserves would have nearly doubled its strength. GDR authorities also had at their disposal the internal security troops of the Ministry of the Interior (the ''Kasernierte Volkspolizei'' or ''garrisoned People's Police'') and the Ministry for State Security (the Felix Dzerzhinsky Watch Regiment) along with the 210,000 strong party auxiliary "Combat Groups of the Working Class" (''Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse''), who were available in times of war.

The highest level of leadership for the NVA was the Ministry for National Defense (''Ministerium für Nationale Verteidigung'') headquartered in Strausberg near East Berlin. NVA administration was divided into the following commands:

the ''Kommando Landstreitkräfte (KdoLaSK)'' based in Geltow near Potsdam.

the ''Kommando Luftstreitkräfte und Luftverteidigungskräfte (KdoLSK/LV)'' based in Strausberg.

the ''Kommando Volksmarine (KdoVM)'' based in Rostock.

the ''Kommando der Grenztruppen (KdoGT)'' based in Pätz near Berlin.

Equipment

During its existence, the bulk of all the weaponry originated in the Soviet Union with a small amount from other East European/Warsaw Pact countries. East Germany did make modified copies of several weapons and designed and built small ships and trucks.

Small Arms:

Mauser Kar98k. In use by the Combat Groups of the Working Class and remained standard use until the 1960s and continued its service in limited circumstances

Mosin-Nagant. In use by the Combat Groups of the Working Class and remained standard use until the 1960s and continued its service in limited circumstances

SKS semi-automatic carbine

Makarov PM semi-automatic pistol

AKM Assault Rifle. Manufactured by the state arsenal as the MPi-KM (fixed stock, later variants were distinctive stippled plastic) and MPi-KMS-72 (AKMS) with a single strut "coathanger" side-folding stock.

AK-74 Assault Rifle MPi-AK-74N, MPi-AKS-74N, MPi-AKS-74NK variants made by the state arsenal for a short period of time starting in 1983 (withdrawn from service after German reunification)

RPD Light Machine Gun

RPK Light Machine Gun

PPSh 41 Submachine gun

PKM Medium Machine Gun

Dragunov SVD Semi-automatic sniper rifle

RPG-7D light AT-weapon

RPG-18 light AT-weapon

Armored Vehicles:

BMP-1

BMP-2 (tracked IFVs in first-line Panzergrenadier units)

BRDM-1

BRDM-2

BTR-40

BTR-50

BTR-60

BTR-70 (wheeled APCs in mechanized and motorized units)

BTR-152

PT-76

T-34 (only in modified recovery/engineering versions)

T-54 (reserve)

T-55 (upgraded to T-55AM standard)

T-72 (in first-line Panzer units)

Appearance

Uniforms

The first military units of the Central Training Administration (''Hauptverwaltung Ausbildung — HVA'') were dressed in police blue. With the restructuring of the Barracked Police (CIP) in 1952, khaki uniforms similar in shape and color to those of the Soviet Army were introduced. The desire for a separate "German" and "socialist" military tradition, and the consequent founding of the NVA in 1956, introduced new uniforms which strongly resembled those of the Wehrmacht. They were of a similar cut and made of stone gray cloth. The dark high-necked collar were later deleted, except on the coats from 1974-79. The peculiar "gumdrop" army helmet was based on a prototype "B / II" helmet, developed for the Wehrmacht by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Fry and his collaborator Dr. Hansel from the Institute for Defense Technical Materials Science in Berlin, which was in trials since 1943 but was not adopted at the time.

With the exceptions of the People's Navy, whose dark-blue uniforms were consistent with the styles of most navies around the world, and the Combat Groups of the Working Class (''Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse''), who wore their own olive-green fatigue uniforms, all NVA armed services, the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment, the Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic, and the Barracked People's Police (''Kasernierte Volkspolizei'') wore the same basic uniform. Several later modifications were introduced, but the style and cut remain fundamentally the same. There were variety of uniforms worn according to setting (work or social) and season (summer or winter). Most uniforms (service, semidress, and parade) were stone gray, a brownish-gray color that was conspicuously different from the gray-green of the People's Police. Officers' uniforms differed from those of enlisted personnel by better quality and texture cloth. The field and service uniforms were normal attire for most day-to-day functions.

Uniform Categories

Basic categories of uniforms were worn:

Field Service Uniform (''Felddienstuniform'') - The summer field uniform for both officers and enlisted consisted of a jacket and trousers in a dark-brown (later a forest green) raindrop camouflage pattern on a stone-gray background; a field cap, service cap, or steel helmet; high black boots; and a leather belt with vertical web shoulder suspenders. In winter, a quilted stone gray padded suit without a camouflage pattern was worn over the service uniform. Later winter uniforms were also of the same camouflage pattern as the summer variant. The winter uniform also included a fur pile cap or a steel helmet, boots, knitted gray gloves, belt, and suspenders.

Service Uniform (''Dienstuniform'') - The summer service uniform for officers was a bloused jacket worn without a shirt, trousers, and a visored service cap. The winter service uniform featured a jacket with four large buttoned-down patch pockets, a black waist belt, the service cap, breeches, shirt, tie, and pants belt; high boots were reserved for officers and NCOs. A long, heavy, belted greatcoat was also part of the winter uniform.

Semi-Dress/Walking-Out Uniform (Ausgangsuniform) - With a few details, the semi-dress uniform was the same for all ranks and was worn for walking-out purposes (i.e. off-duty and off-post). It consisted of a single-breasted tunic without belt, a silver-gray shirt with dark-gray tie, the service cap, long trousers, and black low-quarter shoes. Officers also wore the tunic with a white shirt. During periods of warm weather, there was the option of omitting the tunic, and furthermore omitting the tie. For a time, a double-breasted jacket was optional for officers and warrant officers.

Parade Uniform (''Paradeuniform'') - The parade uniform for officers was the semi-dress/walking-out tunic with all authorized orders, awards and decorations attached, breeches and riding boots, steel helmet, white shirt, dark-gray necktie, and a ceremonial dagger worn on the left side and fastened to a silver-gray parade belt. Officers in guards of honor carried sabers. In winter, a greatcoat, scarf, and gloves were worn.

Work Uniform (''Arbeitsuniform'') - Seasonal considerations and weather governed the kind of work uniforms worn. Generally, reconditioned articles of service uniforms (field, semi-dress, and padded winter uniforms) were dyed black and issued for all types of fatigue and maintenance details. Coveralls are also used by the lower ranks, especially armor and air force personnel. Officers in technical branches supervising fatigue details wore a laboratory-style smock.

Other Uniforms — High-ranking officers occasionally wore white uniforms (or white jackets), and staff officers were issued distinctive staff service uniforms. Women wore uniforms consisting of jackets, skirts or slacks, blouses, caps, boots or pumps, and other appropriate items according to season and occasion. Personnel such as paratroopers, motorcyclists, and tank troops wore additional items with their uniforms identifying them as such.

Waffenfarben

NVA uniforms initially wore the waffenfarben as worn by the Wehrmacht, but later reverted to white except for generals who wore red.

The uniform of the Border Troops is distinguished from that of the NVA ground force and Air Force/Air Defense Force by a green armband with large silver letters identifying the wearer's affiliation.

Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment uniforms were nearly identical to those of the those of (NVA) and were distinguished primarily by the dark red MfS service color of its insignia and by an honorary cuffband on the left sleeve bearing the regiment's name. Other Stasi officers wore a similar uniform, but without the cuffband.

Rank Insignia

East German armed forces personnel display rank insignia on shoulder boards or shoulder loops on service, semidress, and parade uniforms, and subdued sleeve insignia midway between the shoulder and elbow on the left sleeve of the field uniform, coveralls, or other special uniforms. General officer rank is denoted by five-pointed silver stars mounted on a gold and silver braided shoulder cord set on a bright red base. All other officers and NCOs wear a four-pointed star. Like many of the other Warsaw Pact countries, NVA rank insignia followed the Soviet pattern in the arrangement of stars.

The Volksmarine followed similar insignia for the naval officers and NCOs' except that these were blue colored.

Insignia of the NVA Ground Forces and Air Force

General Officers of the NVA Ground Forces/Air Force
!Marschall der DDR (Marshal of the DDR)	!Armeegeneral (General of the Army)	!Generaloberst (Colonel General)	!Generalleutnant (Lieutenant General)	!Generalmajor (Major General)

Field and Company Grade Officers of the NVA Ground Forces/Air Force
!Oberst (Colonel)	!Oberstleutnant (Lieutenant Colonel)	!Major	Hauptmann (Captain (OF-2)>Captain)	!Oberleutnant (First Lieutenant/Senior Lieutenant)	!Leutnant (Lieutenant)	!Unterleutnant (Sub-Lieutenant/Second Lieutenant)

Officer Candidates/Warrant Officers of the NVA Ground Forces/Air Force
!Stabsoberfähnrich (Chief Staff Ensign)	!Stabsfähnrich (Staff Ensign)	!Oberfähnrich (Senior Ensign)	!Fähnrich (Ensign)

Non Commissioned Officers of the NVA Ground Forces/Air Force
!Stabsfeldwebel (Sergeant Major/Staff Senior Sergeant)	!Oberfeldwebel (Senior Sergeant)	!Feldwebel (Sergeant 1st Class/Sergeant)	!Unterfeldwebel (Sergeant/Junior Sergeant)	!Unteroffizier (Corporal/Under Officer)

Enlisted Ranks of the NVA Ground Forces/Air Force
!Stabsgefreiter (Lance Corporal)	!Gefreiter (Private 1st Class)	!Soldat (Private)

Ranks of the People's Navy Enlisted rates

Matrose - Seaman Recruit

Obermatrose - Seaman Apprentice

Stabsmatrose- Seaman

Maat auf Zeit- Petty Officer 3rd Class

Obermaat aut Zeit- Petty Officer 2nd Class

Maat - Petty Officer 1st Class

Obermaat - Chief Petty Officer

Meister - Senior Petty Officer

Obermeiser - Master Chief Petty Officer

Stabsobermeiser - Staff Master Chief Petty Officer

Officer candidates/Warrant officers

Fähnrich- Midshipman

Oberfahnrich - Senior Midshipman

Stabsfahnrich - Staff Midshipman

Stabsoberfahrich - Senior Staff Midshipman

Officers

Unterleutnant zur See - Sea Under Lieutenant/Ensign

Leutnant zur See - Sea Lieutenant/Lieutenant Junior Grade

Oberleutnant zur See - Sea Senior Lieutenant

Kapitanleutnant - Captain Lieutenant

Korvettekapitan - Lieutenant Commander/Corvette Captain

Fregattenkapitan - Commander/Frigate Captain

Kapitan zur See - Captain/Ship-Of-The-Line Captain

Konteradmiral - Counter Admiral/Rear Admiral

Vizeadmiral - Vice Admiral

Admiral

Flottenadmiral - Admiral of the Fleet

Awards and Decorations

The DDR had some seventy decorations for persons or groups it wishes to recognize, and it bestowed them liberally. Some, such as battle decorations, were specifically set aside for armed forces personnel, many awarded to soldiers and civilians alike, and others, although ordinarily civilian awards, can on occasion be earned by those on military duty. The latter group included decorations for achievement in the arts, literature, production, and work methods. They were awarded to service personnel or specific units that participated in civil production projects or assisted during harvesting.

The Order of Karl Marx, Order of Merit, Star of People's Friendship, Banner of Labor, Order of Scharnhorst, Order of Merit for the Fatherland, and the National Prize were among the more important awards. Some, including the Order of Merit and the Star of People's Friendship, were awarded in three classes. A few were accompanied by substantial monetary premiums. The NVA did not permit military personnel to wear Wehrmacht awards and decorations.

Periodicals

The two main periodicals of the NVA were the weekly newspaper ''Volksarmee'' and the monthly soldier's magazine ''Armeerundschau''.

Relics

The former Nazi holiday complex at Prora, on the island of Rügen, contains a number of museum displays. One of these is devoted to the NVA, which had used part of the complex as a barracks.

See also

Conscientious objection in East Germany

Combat Groups of the Working Class

Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment

Medal of Merit of the National People's Army

Military history of Germany‎

References

Further reading

Bickford Andrew. ''Fallen Elites: The Military Other in Post-Unification Germany'' (Stanford University Press; 2011); 288 pages; An ethnographic study of former East German officers.*Jörg Schönbohm, Two armies and one fatherland: the end of the Nationale Volksarmee, Berghahn Books, 1996, ISBN 1571810692, 9781571810694

Zilian, Jr., Frederick. 'From Confrontation to Cooperation: The Takeover of the National People's (East German) Army by the Bundeswehr,' Praeger, Westport, Conn., 1999, ISBN 0-275-96546-5. Reviewed by Dale R. Herspring in ''The Journal of Military History,'' July 2000, p.912-914

External links

NVA Forum (in German)

Nationale Volksarmee & the GDR Forum

AHF - Nationale Volksarmee (NVA)

kamouflage.net > Europe > Germany, Democratic Republic of

RFE/RL East German Subject Files: Armed Forces Open Society Archives, Budapest

Category:Military of East Germany National People's Army (East Germany) National People's Army (East Germany) Category:Disbanded armies Category:1956 establishments in East Germany

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