Walking (also known as ambulation) is one of the main gaits of locomotion among legged animals, and is typically slower than running and other gaits. Walking is defined by an 'inverted pendulum' gait in which the body vaults over the stiff limb or limbs with each step. This applies regardless of the number of limbs - even arthropods with six, eight or more limbs.

The word ''walk'' is descended from the Old English ''wealcan'' "to roll". In humans and other bipeds, walking is generally distinguished from running in that only one foot at a time leaves contact with the ground and there is a period of double-support. In contrast, running begins when both feet are off the ground with each step. This distinction has the status of a formal requirement in competitive walking events. For quadrupedal species, there are numerous gaits which may be termed walking or running, and distinctions based upon the presence or absence of a suspended phase or the number of feet in contact any time do not yield mechanically correct classification. The most effective method to distinguish walking from running is measurement via a force plate, but definitions based on the percent of the stride in which a foot is in contact with the ground (averaged across all feet) of greater than 50% contact corresponds well with identification of 'inverted pendulum' mechanics via force plate measurements for animals with any number of limbs.

Although walking speeds can vary greatly depending on factors such as height, weight, age, terrain, surface, load, culture, effort, and fitness, the average human walking speed is about 5 kilometres per hour (km/h), or about 3.1 miles per hour (mph). Specific studies have found pedestrian walking speeds ranging from 4.51 km/h to 4.75 km/h for older individuals to 5.32 km/h to 5.43 km/h for younger individuals. An average human child achieves independent walking ability around 11 months old.

A pedestrian is a person who is walking on a road, pavement or path.

Health benefits of walking

Sustained walking sessions for a minimum period of thirty to sixty minutes a day, five days a week, with the correct walking posture, reduces health risks and has various overall health benefits, such as reducing the chances of cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, anxiety and depression. Life expectancy is also increased even for individuals suffering from obesity or high blood pressure. Walking also increases bone health, especially strengthening the hip bone, and lowering the more harmful bad low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and raises the more useful good high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol.

Studies have found that walking can also prevent dementia and Alzheimer's.

Paleoanthropology and ambulation

Judging from footprints discovered on a former shore in Kenya, it is thought possible that ancestors of modern humans were walking in ways very similar to the present activity as much as 1.5 million years ago.

Variants of walking

While not strictly bipedal, several ''primarily'' bipedal human gaits (where the long bones of the arms support at most a small fraction of the body's weight) are generally regarded as variants of walking. These include:

Hand walking; an unusual form of locomotion, in which the walker moves primarily using their hands.

Walking on crutches (with a variety of possible gaits);

Walking with one or two walking stick(s) or trekking poles (reducing the load on one or both legs, or supplementing the body's normal balancing mechanisms by also pushing against the ground through at least one arm that holds a long object);

Walking while holding on to a walker, a framework to aid with balance; and

Scrambling, using the arms (and hands or some other extension to the arms) not just as a backup to normal balance, but, as when walking on talus, to achieve states of balance that would be impossible or unstable when supported solely by the legs.

Nordic walking, walking with ski poles in both hands, this form of walking simulataneously mobilises all motor organs and hence produces a greater cardio vascular workout than most walking styles.

Biomechanics

Human walking is accomplished with a strategy called the double pendulum. During forward motion, the leg that leaves the ground swings forward from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. The process of walking recovers approximately sixty per cent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamics and ground reaction force.

Walking differs from a running gait in a number of ways. The most obvious is that during walking one leg always stays on the ground while the other is swinging. In running there is typically a ballistic phase where the runner is airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals).

Another difference concerns the movement of the center of mass of the body. In walking the body "vaults" over the leg on the ground, raising the center of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running where the center of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy.

There is an absolute limit on an individual's speed of walking (without special techniques such as those employed in speed walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the center of mass during a stride - if it's greater than the acceleration due to gravity the person will become airborne as they vault over the leg on the ground. Typically however, animals switch to a run at a lower speed than this due to energy efficiencies.

As a leisure activity

Many people walk as a hobby, and in our post-industrial age it is often enjoyed as one of the best forms of exercise.

Fitness walkers and others may use a pedometer to count their steps. The types of walking include bushwalking, racewalking, weight-walking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking and hiking on long-distance paths. Sometimes people prefer to walk indoors using a treadmill. In some countries walking as a hobby is known as hiking (the typical North American term), rambling (a somewhat dated British expression, but remaining in use because it is enshrined in the title of the important Ramblers), or tramping. Hiking is a subtype of walking, generally used to mean walking in nature areas on specially designated routes or trails, as opposed to in urban environments; however, hiking can also refer to any long-distance walk. More obscure terms for walking include "to go by Marrow-bone stage", "to take one's daily constitutional", "to ride Shanks' pony", "to ride Shanks' mare", or "to go by Walker's bus". Among search and rescue responders, those responders who walk (rather than ride, drive, fly, climb, or sit in a communications trailer) often are known as "ground pounders".

The Walking the Way to Health Initiative is the largest volunteer led walking scheme in the United Kingdom. Volunteers are trained to lead free Health Walks from community venues such as libraries and GP surgeries. The scheme has trained over 35,000 volunteers and have over 500 schemes operating across the UK, with thousands of people walking every week.

Professionals working to increase the number of people walking more usually come from 6 sectors: health, transport, environment, schools, sport & recreation and urban design. A new organization called Walk England launched a web site on the 18th June 2008 to provide these professionals with evidence, advice and examples of success stories of how to encourage communities to walk more. The site has a social networking aspect to allow professionals and the public to ask questions, discuss, post news and events and communicate with others in their area about walking, as well as a "walk now" option to find out what walks are available in each region.

The world's largest registration walking event is the International Four Days Marches Nijmegen. The annual Labor Day walk on Mackinac Bridge draws over sixty thousand participants. The Chesapeake Bay Bridge walk annually draws over fifty thousand participants. Walks are often organized as charity events with walkers seeking sponsors to raise money for a specific cause. Charity walks range in length from two mile (3 km) or five km walks to as far as fifty miles (eighty km). The MS Challenge Walk is an example of a fifty mile walk which raises money to fight multiple sclerosis. The Oxfam Trailwalker is a one hundred km event.

In Britain, the Ramblers is the biggest organization that looks after the interests of walkers. A registered charity, it has 139,000 members. The Ramblers’ run Get Walking Keep Walking project provides free routes, led walks and information specifically designed for people new to walking.

Regular, brisk cycling or walking can improve confidence, stamina, energy, weight control, life expectancy and reduce stress. It can also reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood pressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Modern scientific studies have shown that walking, besides its physical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind — improving memory skills, learning ability, concentration and abstract reasoning, as well as reducing stress and uplifting one's spirits.

As a form of tourism there are many options for walking. The most famous one would be "walking tours" normally offered in different cities by paid guide tours. However, there are some volunteers that can drive walking tours for tourists and do not charge for it, but just ask for a small tip at the end of the walk.

As transportation

Walking is the most basic and common mode of transportation and is recommended for a healthy lifestyle, and has numerous environmental benefits. However people are walking less in the UK, a Department of Transport report found that between 1995/97 and 2005 the average number of walk trips per person fell by 16%, from 292 to 245 per year. Many professionals in local authorities and the NHS are employed to halt this decline by ensuring that the built environment allows people to walk and that there are walking opportunities available to them.

"Walking is convenient, it needs no special equipment, is self-regulating and inherently safe. Walking is as natural as breathing." John Butcher, Founder Walk21, 1999

On roads with no sidewalks, pedestrians should always walk facing the oncoming traffic for their own and other people's safety.

When distances are too great to be convenient, walking can be combined with other modes of transportation, such as cycling, public transport, car sharing, carpooling, hitchhiking, ride sharing, car rentals and taxis. These methods may be more efficient or desirable than private car ownership, being a healthy means of physical exercise.

Walkability

There has been a recent focus among urban planners in some communities to create pedestrian-friendly areas and roads, allowing commuting, shopping and recreation to be done on foot. The concept of walkability has arisen as a measure of the degree to which an area is friendly to walking. Some communities are at least partially car-free, making them particularly supportive of walking and other modes of transportation. In the United States, the Active Living network is an example of a concerted effort to develop communities more friendly to walking and other physical activities.

Walking is also considered to be a clear example of a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and/or relatively shorter distances. Non-motorised transport modes such as walking, but also cycling, small-wheeled transport (skates, skateboards, push scooters and hand carts) or wheelchair travel are often key elements of successfully encouraging clean urban transport. A large variety of case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate walking as a means of transportation in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport.

The development of specific rights of way with appropriate infrastructure can promote increased participation and enjoyment of walking. Examples of types of investment include pedestrian malls, and foreshoreways such as oceanways and riverwalks.

In robotics

The first successful attempts at walking robots tended to have six legs. The number of legs was reduced as microprocessor technology advanced, and there are now a number of robots that can walk on two legs. One for example, is ASIMO. Although robots have taken great strides in advancement, they still don't walk nearly as well as human beings as they often need to keep their knees bent permanently in order to improve stability.

See also

Flâneur

Footpath

Gait training

List of U.S. cities with most pedestrian commuters

Military step

The Ministry of Silly Walks

Nordic Walking

Outdoor education

Pedestrian-friendly

Power Walking

Relay for Life

Sustainable transport

Terrestrial locomotion in animals

Trail

Walking distance measure

Walking fish

Walking stick

Walking tour

Walking (film)

Notes

Bibliography

Nicholson, Geoff, ''The Lost Art of Walking'', Harbour Books, 2010. ISBN 9781905128150

External links

European Local Transport Information Service (ELTIS) provides case studies concerning walking as a local transport concept.

cs:Chůze de:Gehen eo:Irado fr:Marche fy:Kuiersport hi:चलना is:Ganga he:הליכה nl:Wandelen ja:歩行 ru:Ходьба человека simple:Walk fi:Kävely sv:Gång th:การเดิน yi:גיין

Coordinates	40°37′29″N73°57′8″N
name	Mayer Hawthorne
background	solo_singer
birth name	Andrew Mayer Cohen
birth date	February 02, 1979
alias	Haircut
origin	Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
instruments	Vocals, multi-instrumentalist
genre	Soul
occupation	Singer, producer, songwriter, arranger, audio engineer, DJ, rapper and multi-instrumentalist
years active	2008–present
label	Stones Throw Records, Universal Republic
website	StonesThrow.com/MayerHawthorne }}

Mayer Hawthorne (born Andrew Mayer Cohen on February 2, 1979) is an American singer, producer, songwriter, arranger, audio engineer, DJ, rapper and multi-instrumentalist based in Los Angeles, California, USA. The stage name "Mayer Hawthorne" is a combination of Cohen's real middle name (Mayer) and the name of the street he grew up on in Michigan (Hawthorne Rd). "Mayer Hawthorne and The County" is a name Cohen often uses when performing or recording as Mayer Hawthorne with other artists. In Cohen's words, "The County" is basically anyone who plays an instrument or sings on his album. It’s also his band when he performs live. Cohen also performs and records hip hop under the stage name Haircut, sometimes as part of the groups Now On & Athletic Mic League.

Born and raised in Ann Arbor, Michigan, Hawthorne moved to Los Angeles and was eventually signed to Stones Throw Records by label head Peanut Butter Wolf. Originally the Mayer Hawthorne tracks were meant to be just side projects for pleasure, but upon hearing them Peanut Butter Wolf insisted they be made into an album. Hawthorne has had no previous vocal training.

Mayer Hawthorne draws influence from the music of Curtis Mayfield, Isaac Hayes, Leroy Hutson, Mike Terry, Barry White, Smokey Robinson and the legendary songwriting and production trio of Lamont Dozier, Brian Holland, and Edward Holland, Jr. (known collectively as Holland–Dozier–Holland). Taking umbrage at the notion that his is a purely "throwback" soul sound, however, Hawthorne also cites more contemporary artists, such as J-Dilla, as significant influences.

His debut single, "Just Ain't Gonna Work Out"/"When I Said Goodbye", was released on a red heart-shaped 7" record on Stones Throw Records on November 4, 2008. His second single "Maybe So, Maybe No"/"I Wish It Would Rain" was released on a 12" record on Stones Throw Records on April 19, 2009. His debut album, ''A Strange Arrangement'' was released on CD and LP on Stones Throw Records on September 8, 2009.

In July 2009, Hawthorne was featured on the cover of the third anniversary issue of ''Beyond Race Magazine (BRM).''

The song "Just Ain't Gonna Work Out" was chosen as the Starbucks iTunes Pick of the Week for October 13, 2009.

The song "When I Said Goodbye", was featured in the Kanye West/Spike Jonze short film ''We Were Once A Fairytale''.

Hawthorne's song, "Your Easy Lovin' Ain't Pleasin' Nothin'" was featured in the fourth season of Ugly Betty in its finale episode entitled Hello Goodbye. The song begins in the scene at Betty's good-bye party when Marc asks Troy if he would like to dance.

Discography

Singles

"Just Ain't Gonna Work Out"/"When I Said Goodbye" 7" single (November 4, 2008, Stones Throw Records, STH7028)

"The Ills"/"The Ills (instrumental)" 7" single (2009, Stones Throw Records, STH7035)

"Maybe So, Maybe No"/"I Wish It Would Rain" 12" single (April 19, 2009, Stones Throw Records, STH2212)

"No Strings" 10" single (April, 2011, Stones Throw Records, STH2265)

"A Long Time" Digital single (May, 2011, Universal Republic)

"The Walk" (August, 2011, Universal Republic)

Albums

''A Strange Arrangement'' CD/LP (September 8, 2009, Stones Throw Records, STH2219-Deluxe, STH2230-Standard)

''Mayer Hawthorne & The County Direct To Disc'' 2LP (2011, Stones Throw Records, STH2273)

''How Do You Do'' (2011, Universal Republic)

Other

''A Few Tracks'' CD (promo)

"Impressions - The Covers" EP (It is available for free download)

References

External links

Liveagl.com

Mayer Hawthorne on Stones Throw Records

Mayer Hawthorne on Beyond Race Magazine (BRM)

Mayer Hawthorne aka Haircut on A-Side Worldwide

Mayer Hawthorne Fan Group SoulRnB.com

Category:Stones Throw Records artists Category:1979 births Category:Living people Category:Blue-eyed soul singers

da:Mayer Hawthorne fr:Mayer Hawthorne nl:Mayer Hawthorne pt:Mayer Hawthorne

Coordinates	40°37′29″N73°57′8″N
Name	Marc Cohn
Background	solo_singer
Birth name	Marc Craig Cohn
Birth date	July 05, 1959
Origin	Cleveland, Ohio, United States
Instrument	Vocals, guitar, piano
Genre	Rock, folk rock, alternative country
Years active	1991–present
Website	MarcCohn.com

Marc Craig Cohn (born July 5, 1959) is an American folk rock singer-songwriter and musician. He is best known for his song "Walking in Memphis" from his 1991 album ''Marc Cohn''. He has issued four other studio albums to date: ''The Rainy Season'' (1993), ''Burning the Daze'' (1998), ''Join the Parade'' (2007), and ''Listening Booth: 1970'' (2010).

Cohn wrote the song "My Great Escape" for the 1995 Peter Horton film ''The Cure''. However, the song, which was played during the opening sequence, was not released on the film's Dave Grusin soundtrack album.

In 1987, Cohn performed two songs ("One Rock and Roll Too Many" and "Pumping Iron") on the Phil Ramone-produced concept album of Andrew Lloyd Webber's Starlight Express, ''Music and Songs from Starlight Express''.

Cohn's new album, ''Listening Booth: 1970'' (release date July 20, 2010) is a collection of covers from the year 1970.

Personal life

Cohn was born in Cleveland, Ohio. He graduated from Beachwood High School in Beachwood, a Cleveland suburb. He then attended Oberlin College.

Cohn is married to ABC News journalist Elizabeth Vargas, whom he met at the 1999 U.S. Open after being introduced by Andre Agassi. They have two sons: Zachary Raphael, who was born on January 31, 2003, and Samuel Wyatt, who was born on August 16, 2006. Cohn has two other children from a previous marriage, a son, Max and a daughter, Emily.

On August 7, 2005, Cohn was shot in the head during an attempted carjacking in Denver, Colorado, following a concert with Suzanne Vega. The bullet struck him in the temple but did not penetrate his skull. Cohn was hospitalized and released the next day. His remaining concerts on the tour were canceled.

Awards

1991 American Music Awards - Nominated for Favorite New Artist - Adult Contemporary

1991 Grammy Awards - Winner for Best New Artist

1992 Grammy Awards - Nominated for Pop Male Vocalist on "Walking in Memphis"

1994 - Inducted into Beachwood High School Gallery of Success

Discography

Albums

Title	Album details	Peak chartpositions			! width="45"
		! scope="row"			* Release date: February 21, 1991	* Label: [[Atlantic Records">Music recording sales certification
! width="45"	! width="45"
! scope="row"		* Release date: February 21, 1991	* Label: [[Atlantic Records	38	15		Recording Industry Association of America>US: Platinum	Canadian Recording Industry Association>CAN: Gold
''The Rainy Season''		* Release date: May 25, 1993	* Label: Atlantic Records	63	46
''Burning the Daze''		* Release date: May 17, 1998	* Label: Atlantic Records	114	—
''Marc Cohn Live 04/05''		* Release date: 2005	* Label: United Musicians	—	—
''The Very Best of Marc Cohn''		* Release date: June 20, 2006	Warner Music Group>WEA	—	—
''Join the Parade''		* Release date: October 9, 2007	* Label: Decca Records	—	—
''Listening Booth: 1970''		* Release date: July 20, 2010	* Label: Saguaro Road Records	28	81

Singles

Year	Single	Peak chart positions						Album
		! width="40"	! width="40"	! width="40"	! width="40"	! width="40"	! width="40"
	"Walking in Memphis"	13	12	7	74	3	5
"Silver Thunderbird"	63	—	22	—	31	18
"True Companion"	80	24	—	—	—	—
"29 Ways"	—	—	—	—	—	—
1992	"Ghost Train"	—	—	—	—	—	—
	"Strangers in a Car"	—	—	—	—	—	—
"Walk Through the World"	—	28	—	—	26	20
"Paper Walls"	—	—	—	—	—	—
"The Rainy Season"	—	—	—	—	—	—
1995	"Turn on Your Radio"	—	—	—	—	—	—
	"Already Home"	—	—	—	—	—	—
"Healing Hands"	—	—	—	—	—	—
"Lost You in the Canyon"	—	—	—	—	—	—
2007	"Listening to Levon"	—	—	—	—	—	—

EPs

"Marc Cohn Live: Limited Edition EP" (2005)

"Rhino Hi-Five: Marc Cohn" (2005)

"Join the Parade Live EP" (2008)

References

External links

Marc Cohn's official website

Marc Cohn Central (fan site)

Category:1959 births Category:Living people Category:American male singers Category:Jewish American musicians Category:Oberlin College alumni Category:People from Cleveland, Ohio Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Jewish singers Category:Atlantic Records artists Category:American shooting survivors

da:Marc Cohn de:Marc Cohn es:Marc Cohn it:Marc Cohn nl:Marc Cohn pl:Marc Cohn sv:Marc Cohn th:มาร์ก คอห์น