Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems. Computer scientists invent algorithmic processes that create, describe, and transform information and formulate suitable abstractions to model complex systems.

Computer science has many sub-fields; some, such as computational complexity theory, study the fundamental properties of computational problems, while others, such as computer graphics, emphasize the computation of specific results. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describe computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems, and human-computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.

The general public sometimes confuses computer science with careers that deal with computers (such as information technology), or think that it relates to their own experience of computers, which typically involves activities such as gaming, web-browsing, and word-processing. However, the focus of computer science is more on understanding the properties of the programs used to implement software such as games and web-browsers, and using that understanding to create new programs or improve existing ones.

History

The early foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks, such as the abacus, have existed since antiquity. Wilhelm Schickard designed the first mechanical calculator in 1623, but did not complete its construction. Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator, the Pascaline, in 1642. Charles Babbage designed a difference engine and then a general-purpose Analytical Engine in Victorian times, for which Ada Lovelace wrote a manual. Because of this work she is regarded today as the world's first programmer. Around 1900, punched card machines were introduced.

During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s. The world's first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science degree program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.

Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population. It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704 and later the IBM 709 computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating...if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again". During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.

Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computer science technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift from computers being used solely by experts or professionals to a more widespread user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and for their most-effective use, some degree of human aid was needed, in part by professional computer operators. However, as computers became widespread and far more affordable, less human assistance was needed, although residues of the original assistance still remained.

Major achievements

Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include: The start of the "digital revolution," which includes the current Information Age and the Internet. A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems. The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction. In cryptography, breaking the Enigma machine was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II. Scientific computing enabled practical evaluation of processes and situations of great complexity, as well as experimentation entirely by software. It also enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping of the human genome became possible with the Human Genome Project. Distributed computing projects such as Folding@home explore protein folding. Algorithmic trading has increased the efficiency and liquidity of financial markets by using artificial intelligence, machine learning, and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale. Image synthesis, including video by computing individual video frames. Human language processing, including practical speech-to-text conversion and automated translation of languages Simulation of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.

Philosophy

Following Peter Wegner, Amnon H. Eden proposes that there are three paradigms at work in various areas of computer science:

a "rationalist paradigm", which treats computer science as branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning,

a "technocratic paradigm", readily identifiable with engineering approaches, most prominent in software engineering, and

a "scientific paradigm", which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences, and identifiable in some branches of artificial intelligence (the study of artificial life for instance).

Areas of computer science

As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software. CSAB, formerly called ''Computing Sciences Accreditation Board'' – which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS) – identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: ''theory of computation'', ''algorithms and data structures'', ''programming methodology and languages'', and ''computer elements and architecture''. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.

Theoretical computer science

The broader field of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a wide range of other topics that focus on the more abstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.

Theory of computation

According to Peter J. Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, ''"What can be (efficiently) automated?"'' The study of the theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.

The famous "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems, is an open problem in the theory of computation.

{| style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15" |- | | | P = NP ? | GNITIRW-TERCES | |- | Automata theory | Computability theory | Computational complexity theory | Cryptography | Quantum computing theory |}

Information and coding theory

Information theory is related to the quantification of information.This was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data. Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error-correction and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods.

Algorithms and data structures

{| style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15" |- | $O(n^2)$ | | | |- | Analysis of algorithms | Algorithms | Data structures | Computational geometry |}

Programming language theory

Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering and linguistics. It is a well-recognized branch of computer science, and an active research area, with results published in numerous journals dedicated to PLT, as well as in general computer science and engineering publications.

{| style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15" |- | $\backslash Gamma\backslash vdash\; x:\; \backslash text\{Int\}$ | | |- | Type theory | Compiler design | Programming languages |}

Formal methods

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically-based techniques for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity systems, where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.

Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. A distributed system extends the idea of concurrency onto multiple computers connected through a network. Computers within the same distributed system have their own private memory, and information is often exchanged amongst themselves to achieve a common goal.

Databases and information retrieval

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages.

Applied computer science

Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed. Certain departments of major universities prefer the term ''computing science'', to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term ''datalogy'', to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the ''Communications of the ACM'' – ''turingineer'', ''turologist'', ''flow-charts-man'', ''applied meta-mathematician'', and ''applied epistemologist''. Three months later in the same journal, ''comptologist'' was suggested, followed next year by ''hypologist''. The term ''computics'' has also been suggested. In continental Europe, terms cognate with "information" are often used, e.g. ''informatique'' (French), ''Informatik'' (German) or ''informatika'' (Slavic languages) are also used.

Renowned computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra once stated: "Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics, physics, statistics, and logic.

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.

The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.

The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.

Artificial intelligence

This branch of computer science aims to synthesise goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning and communication which are found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence (AI) research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering, philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of software development which require computational understanding and modeling such as finance and economics, data mining and the physical sciences. The starting-point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively unanswered although the "Turing Test" is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.

{| style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15" |- | | | | |- | Machine Learning | Computer vision | | Pattern Recognition |- | | | | |- | Cognitive Science | Data Mining | Evolutionary Computation | Information Retrieval |- | | | |- | Knowledge Representation | Natural Language Processing | Robotics |}

Computer architecture and engineering

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. The field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnection hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost goals.

{| style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15" |- | | | |- | Digital logic | Microarchitecture | Multiprocessing |- | | | | |- | Operating systems | Computer networks | Databases | Computer security |- | | | | |- | Ubiquitous computing | Systems architecture | Compiler design | Programming languages |}

Computer graphics and visualization

Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents, and involves syntheses and manipulations of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computational geometry, and are heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video games.

Computer security and cryptography

Computer security is a branch of computer technology, whose objective includes protection of information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users. Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related to computer science, for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on their computational complexity.

Computational science

Computational science (or scientific computing) is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. In practical use, it is typically the application of computer simulation and other forms of computation to problems in various scientific disciplines.

{| style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15" |- | | | | |- | Numerical analysis | Computational physics | Computational chemistry | Bioinformatics |}

Information science

{| style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15" |- | | | | |- | Information Retrieval | Knowledge Representation | Natural Language Processing | Human–computer interaction |}

Software engineering

Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software.

Academia

Conferences

Journals

Education

Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theory of computation, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, computer graphics, and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study.

Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary schools and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced programming rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The process aspects of computer programming are often referred to as software engineering.

Yet while computer science professions increasingly drive the U.S. economy, computer science education is absent in most American K-12 curricula. A report entitled "Running on Empty: The Failure to Teach K-12 Computer Science in the Digital Age" was released in October 2010 by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA), and revealed that only 14 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science. The report also found that only nine states count high school computer science courses as a core academic subject in their graduation requirements. In tandem with "Running on Empty," a new, non-partisan advocacy coalition--Computing in the Core (CinC)--was founded to influence federal and state policy, such as the Computer Science Education Act, which calls for grants to states to develop plans for improving computer science education and supporting computer science teachers.

Industry

See also

Academic genealogy of computer scientists

Computer scientist

Computing

History of computer science

Informatics

List of academic computer science departments

List of computer science conferences

List of computer scientists

List of open problems in computer science

List of publications in computer science

List of pioneers in computer science

List of software engineering topics

Philosophy of computer science

Women in computing

References

Further reading

; Overview

* "Within more than 70 chapters, every one new or significantly revised, one can find any kind of information and references about computer science one can imagine. [...] all in all, there is absolute nothing about Computer Science that can not be found in the 2.5 kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey articles [...]." (Christoph Meinel, ''Zentralblatt MATH'')

* "[...] this set is the most unique and possibly the most useful to the [theoretical computer science] community, in support both of teaching and research [...]. The books can be used by anyone wanting simply to gain an understanding of one of these areas, or by someone desiring to be in research in a topic, or by instructors wishing to find timely information on a subject they are teaching outside their major areas of expertise." (Rocky Ross, ''SIGACT News'')

* "Since 1976, this has been the definitive reference work on computer, computing, and computer science. [...] Alphabetically arranged and classified into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of computing, theory of computation, methodologies, applications, and computing milieu. The editors have done a commendable job of blending historical perspective and practical reference information. The encyclopedia remains essential for most public and academic library reference collections." (Joe Accardin, Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)

;Selected papers

* "Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the content of each of these papers — still timely today — but also in their being put together so that ideas expressed at different times complement each other nicely." (N. Bernard, ''Zentralblatt MATH'')

;Articles

Peter J. Denning. ''Is computer science science?'', Communications of the ACM, April 2005.

Peter J. Denning, ''Great principles in computing curricula'', Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.

Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe report. Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, ''Research evaluation for computer science'', in Communications of the ACM, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 31–34, April 2009.

; Curriculum and classification

Association for Computing Machinery. 1998 ACM Computing Classification System. 1998.

Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), Association for Information Systems (AIS) and IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS). Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report. September 30, 2005.

Norman Gibbs, Allen Tucker. "A model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in computer science". ''Communications of the ACM'', Volume 29 Issue 3, March 1986.

External links

Scholarly Societies in Computer Science

Best Papers Awards in Computer Science since 1996

Photographs of computer scientists by Bertrand Meyer

EECS.berkeley.edu

; Bibliography and academic search engines

CiteSeer^''x'': search engine, digital library and repository for scientific and academic papers with a focus on computer and information science.

DBLP Computer Science Bibliography: computer science bibliography website hosted at Universität Trier, in Germany.

The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies

;Webcasts

Directory of free university lectures in Computer Science

Collection of computer science lectures

UCLA Computer Science 1 Freshman Computer Science Seminar Section 1

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name	Eduardo Galeano
birth name	Eduardo Germán María Hughes Galeano
birth date	September 03, 1940
birth place	Montevideo, Uruguay
occupation	writer, Journalist
nationality	Uruguayan
period	20th century
spouse	Helena Villagra
website	}}

Eduardo Hughes Galeano (born September 3, 1940) is a Uruguayan journalist, writer and novelist. His best known works are ''Memoria del fuego'' (Memory of Fire Trilogy, 1986) and ''Las venas abiertas de América Latina'' (Open Veins of Latin America, 1971) which have been translated into twenty languages and transcend orthodox genres: combining fiction, journalism, political analysis, and history. The author himself has proclaimed his obsession as a writer saying, "I'm a writer obsessed with remembering, with remembering the past of America above all and above all that of Latin America, intimate land condemned to amnesia."

Life

Galeano was born in Montevideo, Uruguay to a middle class Catholic family of European descent (Italian,Spanish, German and Welsh descent). Like many young Latin American boys, Galeano dreamed of becoming a football (soccer) player; this desire was reflected in some of his works, such as ''El Fútbol A Sol Y Sombra (Football In Sun and Shadow)''. In his teens, Galeano worked odd jobs — as a factory worker, a bill collector, a sign painter, a messenger, a typist, and a bank teller. At 14 years, Galeano sold his first political cartoon to the Socialist Party weekly, ''El Sol'' and married for the first time in 1959. He started his career as a journalist in the early 1960s as editor of ''Marcha'', an influential weekly journal which had such contributors as Mario Vargas Llosa, Mario Benedetti, Manuel Maldonado Denis and Roberto Fernández Retamar. For two years he edited the daily ''Época'' and worked as editor-in-chief of the University Press. In 1962, having divorced, he remarried to Graciela Berro.

In 1973, a military coup took power in Uruguay; Galeano was imprisoned and later was forced to flee. His book Open Veins of Latin America was banned by the right-wing military government, not only in Uruguay, but also in Chile and Argentina. . He settled in Argentina where he founded the cultural magazine, ''Crisis''. In 1976 he married for the third time to Helena Villagra, however in the same year the Videla regime took power in Argentina in a bloody military coup and his name was added to the lists of those condemned by the death squads. He fled again, this time to Spain, where he wrote his famous trilogy: ''Memoria del fuego'' (''Memory of Fire'').

At the beginning of 1985 Galeano returned to Montevideo, where he continues to live. Following the victory of Tabaré Vázquez and the Broad Front alliance in the 2004 Uruguayan elections marking the first left-wing government in Uruguayan history Galeano wrote a piece for ''The Progressive'' titled "Where the People Voted Against Fear" in which Galeano showed support for the new government and concluded that the Uruguayan populace used "common sense" and were "tired of being cheated" by the traditional Colorado and Blanco parties. Following the creation of TeleSUR, a pan-Latin American television station based in Caracas, Venezuela, in 2005 Galeano along with other left-wing intellectuals such as Tariq Ali and Adolfo Pérez Esquivel joined the network's 36 member advisory committee.

In 2006, Galeano signed a petition in support of the independence of Puerto Rico from the United States of America.

On February 10, 2007, Galeano underwent a successful operation to treat lung cancer. During an interview with journalist Amy Goodman following Barack Obama's election as President of the United States in November 2008, Galeano said, "The White House will be Barack Obama's house in the time coming, but this White House was built by black slaves. And I’d like, I hope, that he never, never forgets this." At the April 17, 2009, opening session of the 5th Summit of the Americas held in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez gave a copy of Galeano's ''Open Veins of Latin America'' to U.S. President Barack Obama, who was making his first diplomatic visit to the region. This made the English language edition of the book go to #2 position and the Spanish version to #11 on the Amazon.com bestseller list.

In a May 2009 interview he spoke about his past and recent works, some of which deal with the relationships between freedom and slavery, and democracies and dictatorships; "... not only the United States, also some European countries, have spread military dictatorships all over the world. And they feel as if they are able to teach democracy...". He also talked about how and why he has changed his writing style, and his recent rise in popularity.

Works

''Las venas abiertas de América Latina'' (''Open Veins of Latin America'') is arguably Galeano's best-known work. In this book, he analyzes the history of Latin America as a whole from the time period of European contact with the New World to contemporary Latin America arguing against the European and later U.S. economic exploitation and political dominance over the region. It was the first of his many books to be translated by Cedric Belfrage into English. It is a classic among scholars of Latin American history. The book gained popularity in the English-speaking world after the Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez gave it as a gift to the American President Barack Obama.

''Memoria del fuego'' (''Memory of Fire'') is a three-volume narrative of the history of America, North and South. The characters are historical figures; generals, artists, revolutionaries, workers, conquerors and the conquered, who are portrayed in brief episodes which reflect the colonial history of the continent. It starts with pre-Columbian creation myths and ends in the 1980s. It highlights not only the colonial oppression that the continent underwent but particularly the long history of resistance, from individual acts of heroism to mass revolutionary movements.

''Memoria del fuego'' is widely praised by reviewers. Galeano was compared to John Dos Passos and Gabriel García Márquez. Ronald Wright wrote in the ''Times Literary Supplement'': "Great writers... dissolve old genres and found new ones. This trilogy by one of South America's most daring and accomplished authors is impossible to classify."

In ''New York Times Book Review'' Jay Parini praised as perhaps his most daring work ''The Book of Embraces'', a collection of short, often lyrical stories presenting Galeano's views on emotion, art, politics, and values, as well as offering a scathing critique of modern capitalistic society and views on an ideal society and mindset. (''The Book of Embraces'' was the last book Cedric Belfrage translated before he died in 1991.)

Galeano is also an avid Soccer fan; in his childhood, Galeano had the dream of becoming a soccer player and this desire is the subject of some of his writings, among them ''Soccer in Sun and Shadow'' (1995), a review of the history of the game. Galeano compares it with a theater performance and with war; he criticizes its unholy alliance with global corporations but attacks leftist intellectuals who reject the game and its attraction to the broad masses for ideological reasons.

Galeano's ''Espejos'' (''Mirrors'') is Galeano's most expansive work since ''Memory of Fire''. Galeano offers a broad mosaic of history told through the voices of the unseen, unheard, and forgotten. Recalling the lives of artists, writers, gods and visionaries, Galeano's makes "lore out of the mass of history and stories that make this world, and make us human." (Rick Simonson) ''Mirrors'' is set to be published in the US in English by Nation Books in June 2009.

Galeano is a regular contributor to ''The Progressive'' and the ''New Internationalist'', and has also been published in the ''Monthly Review'' and ''The Nation''.

Awards and honors

The Stig Dagerman Prize – 2010

Bibliography

''Los días siguientes'' (1963)

''China'' (1964)

''Guatemala'' (1967 - Guatemala: Occupied Country)

''Reportajes'' (1967)

''Los fantasmas del día del léon y otros relatos'' (1967)

''Su majestad el fútbol'' (1968)

''La crisis económica'' (1969)

''Las venas abiertas de América Latina'' (1971) ''Open Veins of Latin America'' ISBN 0-85345-279-2 ; ISBN 0-85345-990-8

''Siete imágenes de Bolivia'' (1971)

''Violencía y enajenación'' (1971)

''Crónicas latinoamericanas'' (1972)

''Vagamundo'' (1973) ISBN 84-7222-307-8

''La cancion de nosotros'' (1975) ISBN 84-350-0124-5

''Conversaciones con Raimón'' (1977) ISBN 84-7432-034-8

''Días y noches de amor y de guerra'' (1978) ISBN 84-7222-891-6 ''Days and Nights of Love and War'' ISBN 0-85345-620-8

''La piedra arde'' (1980)

''Voces de nuestro tiempo'' (1981) ISBN 84-8360-237-7

''Memoria del fuego'' (1982–1986) ISBN 84-323-0439-5 ''Memory of Fire'' ISBN 0-394-54805-1 (v. 1)

''Guatemala: un pueblo en lucha'' (1983) ISBN 84-85781-18-X

''Aventuras de los jóvenes dioses'' (1984)

''Ventana sobre Sandino'' (1985)

''Contraseña'' (1985) ISBN 950-9413-06-2

''El descubrimiento de América que todavía no fue y otros escritos'' (1986) ISBN 84-7668-105-4

''El tigre azul y otros artículos'' (1988)

''Entrevistas y artículos (1962–1987)'' (1988)

''El libro de los abrazos'' (1989) ISBN 84-323-0670-3 ''The Book of Embraces'' ISBN 0-393-02960-3

''Nosotros decimos no'' (1989) ISBN 84-323-0675-4 ''We Say No'' ISBN 0-393-30898-7

''América Latina para entenderte mejor'' (1990)

''Palabras: antología personal'' (1990)

''An Uncertain Grace'' with Fred Ritchin, photographs by Sebastiao Salgado (1990) ISBN 0-89381-421-0

''Ser como ellos y otros artículos'' (1992) ISBN 84-323-0761-0

''Amares'' (1993)

''Las palabras andantes'' (1993) ISBN 84-323-0814-5 ''Walking Words'' ISBN 0-393-03782-7

''Úselo y tírelo'' (1994) ISBN 950-742-542-X

''El fútbol a sol y sombra'' (1995) ISBN 84-323-0879-X ''Football (soccer) in Sun and Shadow'' ISBN 1-85984-848-6

''Mujeres'' (1996) ISBN 968-6719-51-2

''Apuntes para el fin de siglo: antología'' (1997) ISBN 950-860-055-1

''100 relatos breves: antología'' (1998?) ISBN 950-860-066-7

''Patas arriba: la escuela del mundo al revés'' (1998) 8432309745 ''Upside Down: A Primer for the Looking-Glass World'' (2000) ISBN 0-8050-6375-7

''I Am Rich Potosi: The Mountain That Eats Men'' photographs by Stephen Ferry (1999)

''Tejidos: antología'' (2001) ISBN 84-8063-500-2

''Bocas del Tiempo'' (2004) ISBN 9974-620-16-3 ''Voices of time: a life in stories'' ISBN 978-0-8050-7767-4

''Espejos: Una historia casi universal'' (2008) ISBN 978-84-323-1314-1

''Mirrors: Stories of Almost Everyone'' (2009) ISBN 1568584237

See also

List of Uruguayan writers

Culture of Uruguay

References

External links

Interview with Eduardo Galeano

Eduardo Galeano, "The Devil's Devils" (Trans. Mark K. Jensen), ''Le Monde diplomatique'', no. 617 (August 2005), p. 10.

Sandra Cisneros reads "Los Nadies/The Nobodies" by Eduardo Galeano from ''Book of Embraces'', ''El libro de los abrazos'' (1989) "".

"'Voices of Time': Legendary Uruguayan Writer Eduardo Galeano on Immigration, Latin America, Iraq, Writing – and Soccer," ''Democracy Now!'' 19 May 2006

"Reflections from Eduardo Galeano," ''The Leonard Lopate Show'', 19 May 2006.

"Writer Without Borders" -- interview by Scott Widmer on ''In These Times''

"Author of the Month," ''Escritores.org''

Eduardo Galeano Articles ''Third World Traveler''

The Guardian: Chávez creates overnight bestseller with book gift to Obama

Eduardo Galeano Interviewed by Jonah Raskin by ''Monthly Review'', October 2009

Uruguayan Author Eduardo Galeano Returns with ''Mirrors: Stories of Almost Everyone'' - video report by ''Democracy Now!''

Category:Uruguayan journalists Category:Uruguayan writers Category:Uruguayan novelists Category:Uruguayan socialists Category:Uruguayan Christian socialists Category:Writers on Latin America Category:Uruguayan expatriates in Argentina Category:Uruguayan expatriates in Spain Category:People from Montevideo Category:1940 births Category:Living people Category:Anti-globalization writers

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