Pueblo is a term used to describe modern (and ancient) communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States of America. The first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment-like structures built of stone, adobe mud, and other local material. These structures were usually multi-storeyed buildings surrounding an open plaza. They were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Pueblo people.

Etymology and usage

The Castilian word ''pueblo'', evolved from the Latin word ''populus'' (people), meaning "town".

Of the federally recognized Native American communities in the Southwest, those designated by the King of Spain as Pueblo at the time Spain ceded territory to the United States, after the American Revolutionary War, are legally recognized as Pueblo by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some of the Pueblo also came into under jurisdiction of the United States (in its view) by its treaty with Mexico, which had briefly gained rule over territory in the Southwest ceded by Spain after Mexican independence. There are 21 federally recognized Pueblos that are home to Pueblo people. Their official federal names are as follows: {| |

Hopi Tribe of Arizona

''Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo'', New Mexico

Pueblo of Acoma, New Mexico

Pueblo of Cochiti, New Mexico

Pueblo of Jemez, New Mexico

Pueblo of Isleta, New Mexico

Pueblo of Laguna, New Mexico

|

Pueblo of Nambe, New Mexico

Pueblo of Picuris, New Mexico

Pueblo of Pojoaque, New Mexico

Pueblo of San Felipe, New Mexico

Pueblo of San Ildefonso, New Mexico

Pueblo of Sandia, New Mexico

Pueblo of Santa Ana, New Mexico

|

Pueblo of Santa Clara, New Mexico

Pueblo of Santo Domingo, New Mexico

Pueblo of Taos, New Mexico

Pueblo of Tesuque, New Mexico

Pueblo of Zia, New Mexico

Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo of Texas

Zuni Tribe of the Zuni Reservation, New Mexico

|}

Historical places

Pre-Columbian towns and villages in the Southwest, such as Acoma, were located in defensive positions, for example, on high steep mesas. Anthropologists and official documents often refer to ancient residents of the area as pueblo cultures. For example, the National Park Service states, "The Late Puebloan cultures built the large, integrated villages found by the Spaniards when they began to move into the area." The people of some pueblos, such as Taos Pueblo, still inhabit centuries-old adobe pueblo buildings.

Contemporary residents often maintain other homes outside the historic pueblos. Adobe and light construction methods resembling adobe now dominate architecture at the many pueblos of the area, in nearby towns or cities, and in much of the American Southwest.

In addition to contemporary pueblos, numerous ruins of archeological interest are located throughout the Southwest. Some are of relatively recent origin. Others are of prehistoric origin, such as the cliff dwellings and other habitations of the Ancient Pueblo Peoples or Anasazi, who emerged as a people about 12th century BCE and began to construct their pueblos about AD 750-900.

See also

Ancient Pueblo Peoples

Pueblo Revolt

Puebloan buildings and structures

Notes

External links

The SMU-in-Taos Research Publications digital collection contains nine anthropological and archaeological monographs and edited volumes representing the past several decades of research, primarily on Pueblo Indian ruins and excavations, at the SMU-in-Taos (Fort Burgwin) campus near Taos, New Mexico, including Papers on Taos archaeology, Taos archeology, Pueblo through time: eight centuries of change in a northern Rio Grande pueblo and Excavations at Pot Creek Pueblo.

Category:Dwellings of the Pueblo peoples Category:Puebloan architecture

ca:Pueblo cs:Pueblo de:Pueblo-Kultur eo:Pueblo fa:پوئبلو fr:Pueblos ko:푸에블로 인디언 id:Pueblo it:Pueblo (popolo) he:פואבלו lt:Pueblų kultūra nl:Pueblo (cultuur) ja:プエブロ pl:Pueblo simple:Pueblo fi:Pueblo-kulttuuri tr:Pueblo zh:普埃布羅族

The Pueblo people are a Native American people in the Southwestern United States. Their traditional economy is based on agriculture and trade. When first encountered by the Spanish in the 16th century, they were living in villages that the Spanish called ''pueblos'', meaning "villages". Of the 21 pueblos that exist today, Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi are the best-known. The main Pueblos are located primarily in Arizona, and New Mexico and also in Texas and formerly in Colorado.

Subdivisions

While there are numerous subdivisions of Pueblo People that have been published in the literature, Kirchhoff (1954) published a subdivision of the Pueblo People into two subareas: the group that includes Hopi, Zuñi, Keres, Jemez which share exogamous matrilineal clans, have multiple kivas, believe in emergence of people from the underground, have four or six directions beginning in the north, and have four and seven as ritual numbers. This group stands in contrast to the Rammal-speaking Pueblos (except Jemez) who have nonexogamous patrilineal clans, two kivas or two groups of kivas and a general belief in dualism, emergence of people from underwater, five directions beginning in the west, and ritual numbers based on multiples of three.

Eggan (1950) in contrast, posed a dichotomy between Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on subsistence differences with the Western or Desert Pueblos of Zuñi and Hopi dry-farmers and the Eastern or River Pueblos irrigation farmers.They mostly grew corn.

Linguistic differences between the Pueblos point to their diverse origins. The Hopi language is Uto-Aztecan; Zuñi is a language isolate; Keresan is a dialect continuum that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe. The Tanoan is an areal grouping of three branches of the Tanoan family consisting of 6 languages: Towa (Jemez), Tewa (San Juan, San Ildefonso, Santa Clara, Tesuque, Nambe, Pojoaque, and Hano); and the 3 Tiwa languages Taos, Picuris, and Southern Tiwa (Sandia, Isleta).

History

The Pueblos are believed to be descended from the three major cultures that dominated the region before European contact: # Mogollon, an area near the Gila Wilderness # Hohokam, archaeological term for a settlement in the Southwest # Ancient Pueblo Peoples (or the Anasazi, a term coined by the Navajos).

Despite forced conversions to Catholicism (as evidenced by the establishment of a mission at each surviving pueblo) by the Spanish, the Pueblo tribes have been able to maintain much of their traditional lifestyle. There are now some 35,000 Pueblo Indians, living mostly in New Mexico and Arizona along the Rio Grande and Colorado River. These peoples were the first to successfully revolt against the Spanish in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, which expelled the Spanish for 12 years. The code for the action was a knotted rope sent by a runner to each pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. It began one day early, August 10, 1680; by August 21, Santa Fe fell to 2,500 warriors. On September 22, 2005, the statue of Po'pay, (Popé) the leader of the Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington D.C. The statue was the second one from the state of New Mexico and the 100th and last to be added to the Statuary Hall collection. It was created by Cliff Fragua, a Puebloan from Jemez Pueblo, and it is the only statue in the collection created by a Native American.

Most of the Pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. One such ceremony is the Pueblo's feast day, held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint. (These saints were assigned by the Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with a traditional ceremony.) Some Pueblos also have ceremonies around the Christmas and at other times of the year. The ceremonies usually feature traditional dances outdoors accompanied by singing and drumming, interspersed with non-public ceremonies in the kivas. They may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions.

Formerly, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal in a Pueblo home, but because of the large number of visitors, such meals are now by personal invitation only.

Culture

Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize—white cornmeal. Thus a man might bless his son, or some land, or the town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. Once, after the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering a town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance.

The Puebloans employed ''prayer sticks'', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers; these prayer sticks (or ''talking sticks'') were also used by other nations.

By the 13th century, Puebloans used turkey feather blankets for warmth. Cloth and weaving were known to the Puebloans before the conquest, but it is not known whether they knew of weaving before or after the Aztecs. But since clothing was expensive, they did not always dress completely until after the conquest, and breechcloths were not uncommon.

Corn was a staple food for the Pueblo people. They were what was called "dry farmers". Because there was not a lot of water in New Mexico, they farmed using as little water as possible, which restricted what they could grow. Because of this, they mainly would farm many types of corn, beans and squash. They would use pottery to hold their food and water.

Religion

The most highly developed Native communities of the Southwest were large villages or pueblos at the top of the mesas, rocky tablelands typical to the region. The archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of myths defines the relationships between man, nature, plants and animals. Man depended on the blessings of children, who in turn depended on prayers and the goddess of Himura. Children led the religious ceremonies to create a more pure and holy ritual.

List of Pueblos

New Mexico

Acoma Pueblo — Keres language speakers. One of the oldest continuously inhabited villages in the US. Access to mesa-top pueblo by guided tour only (available from visitors' center), except on Sept 2nd (feast day). Photography by $10 permit per camera only. Photographing of Acoma people allowed only with individual permission. No photography permitted in Mission San Esteban del Rey or of cemetery. Sketching prohibited. Video recording strictly prohibited. Video devices will be publicly destroyed if used.

Cochiti Pueblo — Keres speakers. Isleta Pueblo — Tiwa language speakers. Established in the 14th century. Both Isleta and Ysleta were of Shoshonean stock. The isleta was originally ''Shiewhibak''

Jemez Pueblo — Towa language speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo, but welcomed at Red Rocks.

Kewa Pueblo( Formerly Santo Domingo Pueblo) — Keres speakers. Known for turquoise work and the Corn Dance.

Laguna Pueblo — Keres speakers. Ancestors 3000 BC, established before the 14th century. Church July 4, 1699. Photography and sketching prohibited on the land, but welcomed at San Jose Mission Church.

Nambe Pueblo — Tewa language speakers. Established in the 14th century. Was an important trading center for the Northern Pueblos. Nambe is the original Tewa name, and means "People of the Round Earth". Feast Day of St. Francis October 4.

Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo — Tewa speakers. Originally named O'ke Oweenge in Tewa. Headquarters of the Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Council. Home of the Popé, one of the leaders of the August 1680 Pueblo Revolt. Known as San Juan Pueblo until November 2005.

Picuris Pueblo, Peñasco, New Mexico — Tiwa speakers.

Pojoaque Pueblo, Santa Fe, New Mexico — Tewa speakers. Re-established in the 1930s.

Sandia Pueblo, Bernalillo, New Mexico — Tiwa speakers. Originally named ''Nafiat''. Established in the 14th century. On the northern outskirts of Albuquerque.

San Felipe Pueblo — Keres speakers. 1706. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo.

San Ildefonso Pueblo, between Pojoaque and Los Alamos— Tewa speakers. Originally at Mesa Verde and Bandelier. The valuable black-on-black pottery was made famous here by Maria and Julian Martinez. Photography by $10 permit only. Sketching prohibited at pueblo. Heavily-visited destination.

Santa Ana Pueblo — Keres speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo.

Santa Clara Pueblo, Española, New Mexico — Tewa speakers. 1550. Originally inhabited Puyé Cliff Dwellings on Santa Clara Canyon.The valuable black-on-black pottery was developed here

Taos Pueblo — Tiwa speakers. World Heritage Site. National Historic Landmark.

Tesuque Pueblo Santa Fe— Tewa speakers. Originally named ''Te Tesugeh Oweengeh'' 1200. National Register of Historic Places. Pueblo closed to public. Camel Rock Casino and Camel Rock Suites as well as the actual Camel Rock are open.

Zia Pueblo — Keres speakers. New Mexico's state flag uses the Zia symbol.

Zuni Pueblo — Zuni language speakers. First visited 1540 by Spanish. Mission 1629

Arizona

Hopi Tribe Nevada-Kykotsmovi — Hopi language speakers. Area of present villages settled around 700 AD

Texas

Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, El Paso, Texas —originally Tigua (Tiwa) speakers. Also spelled 'Isleta del Sur Pueblo'. This Pueblo was established in 1680 as a result of the Pueblo Revolt. Some 400 members of Isleta, Socorro and neighboring Pueblos were forced or accompanied the Spaniards to El Paso as they fled Northern New Mexico. Three missions (Ysleta, Socorro, and San Elizario) were established on the Camino Real to Santa Fe. The San Elizario mission was administrative (that is, non Puebloan).

Some of the Piru Puebloans settled in Senecu, and then in Socorro, Texas, adjacent to Ysleta, Texas (which is now within El Paso city limits). When the Rio Grande would flood the valley or change course, these missions would lie variously on the north or south sides of the river. Although Socorro and San Elizario are still separate communities, Ysleta has been annexed into El Paso.

Feast days

;January

Pojoaque Pueblo Feast Day: December 12, January 6

San Ildefonso Pueblo Feast Day: January 23.

;May

San Felipe Pueblo Feast Day: May 1

;June

Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo Feast Day: June 24

Sandia Pueblo Feast Day: June 13.

Ysleta / Isleta del Sur Pueblo Feast Day: June 13.

;July

Cochiti Pueblo Feast Day: July 14

Santa Ana Pueblo Feast Day: July 26

;August

Picuris Pueblo Feast Day: August 10

Jemez Pueblo Feast Day: August 2

Santo Domingo Pueblo Feast Day: August 4

Santa Clara Pueblo Feast Day : August 12

Zia Pueblo Feast Day: August 15

;September

Acoma Pueblo Feast Day of San Esteban del Rey: September 2

Laguna Pueblo Feast Day: September 19

Taos Pueblo Feast Day: September 30

;October

Nambe Pueblo Feast Day of St. Francis: October 4

;December

Pojoaque Pueblo Feast Day: December 12, January 6

;Variable

Isleta Pueblo Feast Days

Pottery

There is a long history of creating pottery among the various Pueblo communities. Mera, in his discussion of the "Rain Bird" motif, a common and popular design element in pueblo pottery states that, "In tracing the ancestory of the "Rain Bird" design it will be necessary to go back to the very beginnings of decorated pottery in the Southwest to a ceramic type which as reckoned by present day archaeologists came into existence some time during the early centuries of the Christian era."

Well-known Puebloan potters include Maria Montoya Martinez.

See also

List of dwellings of Pueblo peoples

Ancient Pueblo Peoples

Arizona Tewa

Hopi

Tanoan languages

Navajo people

Paquime

Pueblo Revolt

Tewa people

Tiwa

Keresan languages

Zuni people

Notes

References

Fletcher, Richard A. (1984). ''Saint James' Catapult: The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela''. Oxford University Press. (on-line text, ch. 1)

Florence Hawley Ellis ''An Outline of Laguna Pueblo History and Social Organization'' Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Winter, 1959), pp. 325–347

Indian Pueblo Cultural Center in Albuquerque, NM offers information from the Pueblo people about their history, culture, and visitor etiquette.

Paul Horgan, ''Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History''. Vol. 1, Indians and Spain. Vol. 2, Mexico and the United States. 2 Vols. in 1, 1038 pages - Wesleyan University Press 1991, 4th Reprint, ISBN 0-8195-6251-3

Pueblo People, Ancient Traditions Modern Lives, Marica Keegan, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1998, profusely illustrated hardback, ISBN 1-57416-000-1

Elsie Clews Parsons, ''Pueblo Indian Religion'' (2 vols., Chicago, 1939).

Ryan D, A. L. Kroeber ''Elsie Clews Parsons'' American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 2, Centenary of the American Ethnological Society (Apr. - Jun., 1943), pp. 244–255

Parthiv S, ed. ''Handbook of North American Indians'', Vol. 9, Southwest. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1976.

External links

''Kukadze'eta Towncrier'', Pueblo of Laguna

Pueblo of Isleta

Pueblo of Laguna

Pueblo of Sandia

Pueblo of Santa Ana

The SMU-in-Taos Research Publications digital collection contains nine anthropological and archaeological monographs and edited volumes representing the past several decades of research at the SMU-in-Taos (Fort Burgwin) campus near Taos, New Mexico, including Papers on Taos archaeology and Taos archeology

Category:Native American tribes Category:Native American tribes in New Mexico Category:Native American history of New Mexico Category:Native American history Category:Hopi tribe

ca:Pueblo de:Pueblo-Kultur nv:Kiisʼáanii es:Indios pueblo ja:プエブロ ko:푸에블로 인디언 ru:Пуэбло sv:Puebloindianer tr:Pueblo uk:Пуебло

Horacio ''"Chango"'' Spasiuk (born on September 23, 1968 in Apóstoles, Misiones) is an Argentine chamamé musician and accordion player.

Of Ukrainian grandparents, ''El Chango'' had a strong Polka music influence from his early days; Eastern European musical influences were also already present in the chamamé music of the region. He had his first accordion at age 12, which he played at parties, weddings and other events with his father and uncle.

Early years

A musical-talent TV show that travelled around small towns opened the door for Spasiuk to perform at provincial festivals. When he finished high school, he went to Posadas, capital of Misiones, to study anthropology, but soon after dropped out. Nevertheless, there he was exposed to other musical genres, and met pianist Norberto Ramos, who convinced him to go to Buenos Aires to study with him. Spasiuk then played in small places in Buenos Aires as well as in some festivals around the country, and even received an invitation to participate of the Eurolatina festival in the Netherlands.

In 1989 ''El Chango'' was invited to play in Cosquín, perhaps the most important folkloric music festival in Argentina, where he received the "Consecration" prize. After Cosquín he moved to Buenos Aires, where he recorded his first album, eponymously named ''Chango Spasiuk''.

Spasiuk gained some popularity not only among folk and world music audiences but, given his modern style, also with rock and pop fans. He worked as a guest musician with bands like Divididos and Cienfuegos, but continued recording his own material. Favourable reviews of the "La Ponzoña" album reached Canada, and ''El Chango'' was invited to play at the Montreal International Jazz Festival.

In 2000 he returned to his roots recording ''Polcas de mi tierra'' live at parties and weddings in the small towns of Misiones with his accordion. Since then he has being touring around the world with the Chango Spasiuk Orchestra, and has edited an international recompilation of his work in 2003.

Spasiuk has been championed in Europe by world music journalists, for many of whom chamamé is a previously unknown form of music. BBC radio presenter Charlie Gillett (who died earlier this year) was a prominent fan in the United Kingdom and included ''El Chango'''s tracks on his compilations and playlists .

Awards

2006 named Best Folklore Artist, by the Carlos Gardel awards, for his work ''Tarefero de mis Pagos''

2006 ''Tarefero de mis Pagos'' nominated for Best Folk Album by the 7th Annual Latin Grammy Awards

2005 received the Konex Award for best Argentine male Folklore singer of the decade

2005 winner of the Newcomer BBC World Music Awards

2001 nominated for Best Folklore Artist, by the Carlos Gardel awards, for his work "Chamamé crudo".

2000 ''Chamamé crudo'' named Best Folklore Record of the Year by ''Rolling Stone-Argentina''.

2000 named Best Folklore Artist, by the Carlos Gardel awards, for his work ''Polcas de mi tierra''.

1999 ''Polcas de mi tierra'' named Folklore Record of the Year, by ''Clarín''.

1997 ''La Ponzoña'' awarded as Best Instrumental Record - Asociación de Cronistas del Espectáculo (ACE).

1993 ''Bailemos y...'' nominated for Best Instrumental Record - Asociación de Cronistas del Espectáculo (ACE).

1989 "Premio Consagración" - Festival Nacional de Folklore, Cosquín, Córdoba.

Discography

''Chango Spasiuk'' (1989)

''Contrastes'' (1990)

''Bailemos y...'' (1992)

''La ponzoña'' (1996)

''Polcas de mi tierra'' (1999)

''Chamamé crudo'' (2001)

''The Charm of chamamé'' (2003 recompilation, Germany)

''Tarefero de mis Pagos'' (2004)

''Pynandi - Los Descalzos'' (2008)

External links

Official site

Profile at the BBC

Biography Interview ''La Nación'' magazine

The Charm of Chamamé

Funkhaus Europa(German)

Category:1968 births Category:Living people Category:Accordionists Category:Argentine composers Category:Argentine musicians Category:Argentine people of Ukrainian descent Category:People from Misiones Province

es:Chango Spasiuk pl:Chango Spasiuk uk:Чанґо Спасюк

Name	Víctor Jara
Image caption	Víctor Jara
Background	solo_singer
Birth name	Víctor Lidio Jara Martínez
Birth date	September 28, 1932
Death date	September 16, 1973
Origin	Chillán Viejo, Chile
Occupation	Singer/Songwriter, Poet, Theatre director, University academic, Social activist
Instrument	Vocals, Spanish Guitar
Genre	Folk, Nueva canción, Andean music
Years active	1959–1973
Label	EMI-Odeon DICAP/Alerce Warner Music
Associated acts	Violeta Parra, Patricio Castillo, Quilapayún, Inti-illimani, Patricio Manns, Ángel Parra, Isabel Parra, Sergio Ortega, Pablo Neruda, Daniel Viglietti, Atahualpa Yupanqui, Joan Baez, Dean Reed, Silvio Rodriguez, Holly Near, Cornelis Vreeswijk
Website	Official website }}

Víctor Lidio Jara Martínez () (September 28, 1932 – September 16, 1973) was a Chilean teacher, theatre director, poet, singer-songwriter, political activist and member of the Communist Party of Chile. A distinguished theatre director, he devoted himself to the development of Chilean theatre, directing a broad array of works from locally produced Chilean plays, to the classics of the world stage, to the experimental work of Ann Jellicoe. Simultaneously he developed in the field of music and played a pivotal role among neo-folkloric artists who established the ''Nueva Canción Chilena'' (New Chilean Song) movement which led to a revolution in the popular music of his country under the Salvador Allende government. Shortly after the Chilean coup of 11 September 1973, he was arrested, tortured and ultimately shot to death with 44 bullet shots by machine gun fire. His body was later thrown out into the street of a shanty town in Santiago. The contrast between the themes of his songs, on love, peace and social justice and the brutal way in which he was murdered transformed Jara into a symbol of struggle for human rights and justice across Latin America.

{| align="right" |----- | ''"As long as we ''sing his songs, ''as long as his ''courage can inspire ''us to greater courage, ''Victor Jara will ''never die." |----- | align="right" | ''Pete Seeger'' |}

Early life

Víctor Jara was born in the locality of Lonquén, near the city of Santiago, to poor peasants Manuel Jara and Amanda Martínez. Jara's father, Manuel, was illiterate and wanted his children to work as soon as they could rather than get an education, so by the age of 6, Jara was already working on the land. Manuel Jara was unable to extract a livelihood from the earnings as a peasant in the Ruiz-Tagle estate nor was he able to find stable work to support his large family. He took to drinking and became violent. His relationship with his wife deteriorated, and Manuel left the family when Víctor was still a child to look for work elsewhere. Amanda persevered in raising Víctor and his siblings by herself, insisting that all of them should receive a good education. Amanda, a mestiza with deep Araucanian roots in the south of Chile, was not illiterate, she was autodidactic; played the guitar, the piano and was a singer in her town, singing traditional folk songs at local functions like wedding and funerals for the locals.

Jara's mother died when he was 15, leaving him to make his own way thereafter. He began to study to be an accountant, but soon moved into a seminary instead, studying to become a priest. After a couple of years, however, he became disillusioned with the Church and left the seminary. Subsequently he spent several years in the army before returning to his home town to pursue interests in folk music and theater.

Artistic life

Jara was deeply influenced by the folklore of Chile and other Latin American countries; he was particularly influenced by artists like Violeta Parra, Atahualpa Yupanqui, and the poet Pablo Neruda. Jara began his foray into folklore in the mid-1950s when he began singing with the group Cuncumen. He moved more decisively into music in the 1960s getting the opportunity to sing at Santiago's La Peña de Los Parra, owned by Ángel Parra. Through them Jara became greatly involved in the Nueva Canción movement of Latin American folk music. He published his first recording in 1966 and, by 1970, had left his theater work in favor of a career in music. His songs were drawn from a combination of traditional folk music and left-wing political activism. From this period, some of his most renowned songs are ''Plegaria a un Labrador'' ("Prayer to a Worker") and ''Te Recuerdo Amanda'' ("I Remember You Amanda"). He supported the ''Unidad Popular'' ("Popular Unity") coalition candidate Salvador Allende for the presidency of Chile, taking part in campaigning, volunteer political work, and playing free concerts.

Political activism

Allende's campaign was successful and, in 1970, he was elected president of Chile. However, the Chilean right wing, who opposed Allende's socialist politics, staged a coup with the help of the Chilean military on September 11, 1973, in the course of which Allende was killed (See Death of Salvador Allende). At the moment of the coup, Jara was on the way to the Technical University (today Universidad de Santiago), where he was a teacher. That night he slept at the university along with other teachers and students, and sang to raise morale.

Death

On the morning of September 12, Jara was taken, along with thousands of others, as a prisoner to the Chile Stadium (renamed the Estadio Víctor Jara in September 2003 ). In the hours and days that followed, many of those detained in the stadium were tortured and killed there by the military forces. Jara was repeatedly beaten and tortured; the bones in his hands were broken as were his ribs. Fellow political prisoners have testified that his captors mockingly suggested that he play guitar for them as he lay on the ground with broken hands. Defiantly, he sang part of "Venceremos" (We Will Win), a song supporting the Popular Unity coalition. After further beatings, he was machine-gunned on September 16, his body dumped on a road on the outskirts of Santiago and then taken to a city morgue where they found 44 bullet shots on his body.

Jara's wife Joan was allowed to come and retrieve his body from the site and was able to confirm the physical damage he had endured. After holding a funeral for her husband, Joan Jara fled the country in secret.

Joan Turner Jara currently lives in Chile and runs the Víctor Jara Foundation. The ''Chile Stadium'', also known as the Víctor Jara Stadium, is often confused with the Estadio Nacional (National Stadium).

Before his death, Jara wrote a poem about the conditions of the prisoners in the stadium, the poem was written on a paper that was hidden inside a shoe of a friend. The poem was never named, but is commonly known as Estadio Chile.

In June 2008, Chilean judge Juan Eduardo Fuentes re-opened the investigation into Jara's death. Judge Fuentes said he would examine 40 new pieces of evidence provided by the singer's family. On May 28, 2009, José Adolfo Paredes Márquez, a 54-year-old former Army conscript was arrested the previous week in San Sebastian, Chile, and was formally charged with Jara's murder. Following Paredes' arrest, on June 1, 2009, the police investigation identified the name of the officer who first shot Víctor Jara in the head. The officer played Russian roulette with Jara, by placing a single round in his revolver, spinning the cylinder, placing the muzzle against Jara's head and pulling the trigger. The officer repeated this a couple of times, until a shot fired and Víctor fell to the ground. The officer then ordered two conscripts (one of them Paredes) to finish the job, by firing into Jara's body. A judge ordered Jara's body to be exhumed in an effort to determine more information regarding his death.

On December 3, 2009, a massive funeral took place in the "Galpón de Víctor Jara" across from "Plaza Brazil". Jara's remains were honoured by thousands. His remains were re-buried in the same place he was buried in 1973.

Víctor Jara's legacy

Although the military regime managed to burn the vast majority of master recordings of Jara's music, Joan Jara managed to sneak recordings out of Chile, which were later copied and distributed worldwide. Joan Jara later wrote an account of Víctor Jara's life and music, titled ''Víctor: An Unfinished Song''.

On September 22, 1973, the Soviet/Russian astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh named a newly found asteroid 2644 Víctor Jara, in honor of Víctor Jara's life and artistic work.

American folksinger Phil Ochs, who met and performed with Jara during a tour of South America, organized a benefit concert in his memory in New York in 1974. Titled "An Evening With Salvador Allende", the concert featured Bob Dylan, Pete Seeger, Arlo Guthrie and Ochs.

An East German biographical movie called ''El Cantor'' (the Singer) was made in 1978. It was directed by Jara's friend Dean Reed, who also played the part of Jara.

Dutch-Swedish singer-songwriter Cornelis Vreeswijk recorded "Blues för Victor Jara" on his album ''Bananer - bland annat'' in 1980.

In the late 1990s British actress Emma Thompson started to work on a screenplay, which she planned to use as the basis for a movie about Víctor Jara. Thompson, a human rights activist and fan of Jara, considered the political murder of the Chilean artist as a symbol of human rights violation in Chile. She believed a movie about Jara's life and death would make more people aware of the Chilean tragedy. The movie would feature Antonio Banderas – another fan of Víctor Jara – as Jara himself where he would sing some of his songs and Emma Thompson as Víctor Jara's British wife Joan Jara. The project has not yet been made into a film.

The Soviet musician Alexander Gradsky created the rock opera ''Stadium (Стадион, Stadion)'' in 1985 based on the events surrounding Jara's death.

The Southwestern American band Calexico open their 2008 album ''Carried to Dust'' with the song "Victor Jara's Hands".

Portuguese folk band Brigada Víctor Jara is named after him.

Songs mentioning Víctor Jara

The Chilean group Inti-Illimani dedicated the song "Canto de las estrellas" to Víctor Jara.

In 1975, Norwegian folksinger Lillebjørn Nilsen included a tribute song entitled "Victor Jara" on his album ''Byen Med Det Store Hjertet''. The same year the Swedish band Hoola Bandoola Band included their song "Victor Jara" on their album ''Fri information''.

Belgian singer Julos Beaucarne relates the death of Víctor Jara in his song "Lettre à Kissinger".

French singer Pierre Chêne also wrote a song about Jara's death entitled "Qui Donc Est Un Homme?"

In 1976, Arlo Guthrie included a biographical song entitled "Victor Jara" on his album ''Amigo''. The words were written by Adrian Mitchell and Arlo Guthrie wrote the music.

On Barnstormer's album ''Zero Tolerance'', Attila the Stockbroker mentions Jara in the song "Death of a Salesman", written just after the 11 September attack on the World Trade Center. "You were there in Chile, 11 September '73. 28 years to the day - what a dreadful irony. Victor Jara singing 'midst the tortured and the dead. White House glasses clinking as Allende's comrades bled."

Former German folk duo ''Zupfgeigenhansel'' (Thomas Friz and Erich Schmeckenbecher) featured a live performance of their song "Victor Jara" as a last track on their 1978 LP ''Volkslieder III''.

The Clash sing about Jara in the song "Washington Bullets" on their 1980 album ''Sandinista!''. Joe Strummer sings: "As every cell in Chile will tell, the cries of the tortured men. Remember Allende in the days before, before the army came. Please remember Victor Jara, in the Santiago Stadium. Es Verdad, those Washington Bullets again."

In 1987, U2 included the track "One Tree Hill" on their album, The Joshua Tree where Bono sings: "And in the world a heart of darkness, a fire zone. Where poets speak their heart, then bleed for it. Jara sang, his song a weapon, in the hands of love. Though his blood still cries from the ground."

Jackson Browne recorded "My Personal Revenge" on his CD "World in Motion" in 1989 as a tribute to Víctor Jara. The lyrics include "My personal revenge will be to give you... these hands that once you so mistreated."

Holly Near's "Sing to me the Dream" is a tribute to Víctor Jara.

Chuck Brodsky wrote and recorded "The Hands of Victor Jara." This 1996 tribute includes these words:

The blood of Victor Jara Will never wash away It just keeps on turning A little redder every day As anger turns to hatred And hatred turns to guns Children lose their fathers And mothers lose their sons

Irish folk artist Christy Moore recorded the song 'Victor Jara' on his 'Live at the Point' album

Rory McLeod's title song on his album "Angry Love" is about Jara.

Ismael Serrano, a Spanish singer included Jara's name and the name of the song "Te Recuerdo Amanda" in his "Vine del Norte" song from album La Memoria de los Peces, released in 1998.http://www.ismaelserrano.com/discografia/lamemoriadelospeces.htm

Marty Willson-Piper, who plays guitar for The Church, included "Song for Victor Jara" on his 2009 solo album, Nightjar.

The Argentine rock group, Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, remember Víctor Jara in their hit song, "Matador", with the lyrics "Que suenan, son balas me alcanzan, me atrapan, resiste, 'Víctor Jara' no calla... Matador!! Matador!!"

Heaven Shall Burn made a song about him and his legacy called "The Weapon They Fear".

Spanish ska group Ska-P dedicated a song called "Juan Sin Tierra" to Jara (the song was originally written by Jorge Saldaña, and previously recorded by Jara), with the chorus going:

"No olvidamos el valor de Víctor Jara/ dando la cara siempre a la represión/ le cortaron sus dedos y su lengua/ y hasta la muerte gritó revolución."''

"We won't forget Victor Jara's courage/ always fighting oppression/ They cut off his fingers and his tongue/ And right up to his death he shouted 'Revolution'."''

Tucson, AZ-based Calexico include a song called Víctor Jara's Hands on their 2008 album Carried to Dust.

Cuban rap group Eskuadron Patriota mentions Jara in their song "Decadencia". The song goes: "Como Víctor Jara diciendole a su pueblo: La libertad esta cerca"

The Peruvian ska band Psicosis mentions Jara in their song "Esto es Ska". The chorus goes "Lo dijo Víctor Jara no nos puedes callar".

Soviet, Byelorussian composer Igor Lutchenok wrote a song "In memory of Victor Jara" on lyrics of Boris Brusnikov which first time was performed in 1974 by Byelorussian singer Victor Vuyachich and afterwards this song was performed by Byelorussian folk-rock group "Pesniary" in the arrangement of Vladimir Mulyavin. Please visit http://krasnoetv.ru/node/6853 http://krasnoetv.ru/node/6855 to listen to the song.

The Glasgow/Irish folk group The Wakes included a song about Víctor Jara on their album These Hands in 2008.

The San Francisco post-rock band From Monument to Masses samples excerpts from a reading of Jara's poetry on the track "Deafening," a song from their 2005 remix album ''Schools of Thought Contend''.

German singer Hannes Wader published his song "Victor Jara" on his album Wünsche in 2001.

Scottish singer/songwriter Bert Jansch had written his "Let Me Sing" about him.

Venezuelan singer/songwriter Alí Primera wrote his "Canción para los valientes" ( ''Song to the courageous ones'' ) about Victor Jara. The song was included in the album of the same name in 1976.

British musician Marek Black's 2009 CD "I Am A Train" features the song "The Hands of Victor Jara" written by Marek Black

Scottish Group, Simple Minds, Released an album with the title track called "Street Fighting Years" dedicated to Victor Jara in 1989

Welsh folk singer/songwriter Dafydd Iwan wrote a song called "Can Victor Jara" (''Victor Jara's song'') that was released on his 1979 album "Bod yn rhydd" (''Being free''). Here are the original Welsh lyrics.

In 2011, London-based band Melodica, Melody and Me released a track titled "Ode to Victor Jara" as the B-Side to their limited release vinyl single "Come Outside".

American folk icon, the singer-songwriter and performer, Jack Hardy (1947–2011), mentioned Victor Jara in "I Ought to Know," a song recorded on the album Omens in 2000. (song lyrics: http://jackhardy.com/JHIOughtToKnow.html, and live performance http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xT16T-Ms3Is)

Theatre work

Works directed by Víctor Jara

1959. ''Parecido à la Felicidad'' (Some kind of happiness), Alejandro Sieveking

1960. ''La Viuda de Apablaza'' (The Widow of Apablaza), Germán Luco Cruchaga (assistant director to Pedro de la Barra, founder of ''ITUCH''.)

1960. ''La Mandragola,'' Niccolò Machiavelli

1961. La Madre de los Conejos (Mother rabbit), Alejandro Sieveking (assistant director to Agustín Siré)

1962. ''Ánimas de Día Claro'' (Daylight Spirits), Alejandro Sieveking

1963. ''Caucasian Chalk Circle'', Bertold Brecht (assistant director to Atahualpa del Cioppo)

1963. ''Los Invasores'' (The Intruders), Egon Wolff

1963. ''Dúo'' (Duet), Raúl Ruiz

1963. ''Parecido à la Felicidad'' (Some kind of happiness), Alejandro Sieveking (version for Chilean television)

1965. ''La Remolienda'', Alejandro Sieveking

1965. ''The Knack'', Ann Jellicoe

1966. ''Marat/Sade,'' Peter Ulrich Weiss (assistant director to William Oliver.)

1966. ''La Casa Vieja'' (The old house), Abelardo Estorino

1967. ''La Remolienda'', Alejandro Sieveking (redirects)

1967. ''La Viuda de Apablaza'' (The Widow of Apablaza), Germán Luco Cruchaga (as director)

1968. ''Entertaining Mr. Sloane'', Joe Orton

1969. ''Viet Rock'', Megan Ferry

1969. ''Antigone'', Sophocles

1972. Directed the ballet and musical homage to Pablo Neruda which coincided with the poets return to Chile after being awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Discography

Studio albums

!Year of Release	!Title
1966	''Víctor Jara (Geografía)''
1967	''Canciones folklóricas de América (with Quilapayún)''
1967
1969	''Pongo en tus manos abiertas''
1970	''Canto libre''
1971	''El derecho de vivir en paz''
1972	''La Población''
1973	''Canto por travesura''
1974

Live albums

''Víctor Jara en Vivo'' (1974)

''El Recital'' (1983)

''Víctor Jara en México'', WEA International (1996)

''Habla y Canta en la Habana Cuba'', WEA International (2001)

''En Vivo en el Aula Magna de la Universidad de Valparaíso'', WEA International (2003)

Compilations

''Te recuerdo Amanda'', Fonomusic (1974)

''Vientos del Pueblo'', Monitor – U.S. (1976)

''Canto Libre'', Monitor (1977)

''An Unfinished Song'', Redwood Records (1984)

''Todo Víctor Jara'', EMI (1992)

''20 Años Después'', Fonomusic (1992)

''Víctor Jara presente, colección “Haciendo Historia”'', Odeon (1997)

''Te Recuerdo, Víctor'', Fonomusic (2000)

''Antología Musical'', Warner Bros. Records (2001) 2CDs

''1959-1969 – Víctor Jara'', EMI Odeon (2001) 2CDs

''Latin Essential: Victor Jara'', (WEA) 2CDs (2003)

''Colección Víctor Jara'' – Warner Bros. Records (2004) (8CD Box)

''Víctor Jara. Serie de Oro. Grandes Exitos'', EMI (2005)

Tribute albums

''An Evening with Salvador Allende'', VA - U.S. (1974)

''A Víctor Jara'', Raímon - Spain (1974)

''Het Recht om in Vrede te Leven'', Cornelis Vreeswijk - Nederlands (1977)

''Cornelis sjunger Victor Jara, Rätten till ett eget liv'', Cornelis Vreeswijk - Sweden (1979)

''Omaggio a Victor Jara'', Ricardo Pecoraro - Italy (1980)

''Quilapayún Canta a Violeta Parra, Víctor Jara y Grandes Maestros Populares'', Quilapayún - Chile (1985)

''Konzert für Víctor Jara'' VA - Germany (1998)

''Inti-illimani performs Victor Jara'', Inti-illimani - Chile (1999)

''Conosci Victor Jara?'', Daniele Sepe - Italy (2001)

''Tributo a Víctor Jara'', VA - Latin America/Spain (2004)

''Tributo Rock a Víctor Jara'', VA - Argentina (2005)

''Lonquen: Tributo a Víctor Jara'', Francesca Ancarola - Chile (2007)

Documentaries and films

The following are films or documentaries about and/or featuring Víctor Jara:

''El Tigre Saltó y Mató, Pero Morirá…Morirá…''. Director: Santiago Álvarez – Cuba (1973)

''Compañero: Víctor Jara of Chile.'' Directors: Stanley Foreman/Martin Smith (Documentary) – UK (1974)

''Il Pleut sur Santiago.'' Director: Helvio Soto – France/Bulgaria (1976)

''Ein April hat 30 Tage.'' Director: Gunther Scholz - East Germany (1978)

''El Cantor.'' Director: Dean Reed – East Germany (1978)

''El Derecho de Vivir en Paz.'' Director: Carmen Luz Parot - Chile (1999)

''Freedom Highway: Songs That Shaped a Century.'' Director: Philip King – Ireland (2001)

''La Tierra de las 1000 Músicas [Episode 6: La Protesta].'' Directors: Luis Miguel González Cruz/Joaquín Luqui – Spain (2005)

Notes

References

Jara, Joan (1983). ''Victor: An Unfinished Song''. Jonathan Cape, London. ISBN 0-224-01880-9

Kósichev, Leonard. (1990). ''La guitarra y el poncho de Víctor Jara''. Progress Publishers, Moscow

External links

Resources in English

Three chapters from Victor: An Unfinished Song by Joan Jara

Discography

Background materials on the Chilean Workers' Movement in the 1970s

Report of the Chilean National Commission on Truth and Reconciliation

GDR Poster Art: Víctor Jara

Victor Jara tabs

"Who Killed Victor Jara?", Professor Paul Cantor, Norwalk Community College, Connecticut

Resources in Spanish

Fundación Víctor Jara

Lyrics of all his Songs

Discography

Che, Guía y Ejemplo: - Songs of Víctor Jara dedicated to Che Guevara

Informe de la Comisión Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliación (Informe Rettig)

Vientos del Pueblo: Un Homenaje a Víctor Jara

Category:1932 births Category:1973 deaths Category:Academics Category:Anti-fascists Category:Assassinated Chilean people Category:Chilean actors Category:Chilean educators Category:Chilean folk singers Category:Chilean poets Category:Chilean singer-songwriters Category:Chilean theatre directors Category:Chilean Christians Category:Chilean torture victims Category:Deaths by firearm in Chile Category:Former Roman Catholics Category:Latin American folk singers Category:Marxist humanists Category:Murdered musicians Category:Nueva canción musicians Category:People from Chillán Category:University of Chile alumni Category:Chilean Marxists Category:People murdered in Chile Category:Communist Party of Chile politicians

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