Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the ninth and fifteenth centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for ordering society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. Although derived from the Latin word ''feodum'' (fief), then in use, the term ''feudalism'' and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the medieval period. In its classic definition, by François-Louis Ganshof (1944), ''feudalism'' describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. There is also a broader definition, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), that includes not only warrior nobility but the peasantry bonds of manorialism, sometimes referred to as a "feudal society". Since 1974 with the publication of Elizabeth A. R. Brown's ''The Tyranny of a Construct'', and Susan Reynolds' ''Fiefs and Vassals'' (1994), there has been ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval historians if feudalism is a useful construct for understanding medieval society.

Definition

There is no broadly accepted modern definition of feudalism. The terms ''feudalism'' or ''feudal system'' were coined in the early modern period (17th century), and were often used in a political and propaganda context. By the mid-20th century, François Louis Ganshof's ''Feudalism'', 3rd ed. (1964; originally published in French, 1947), became a traditional definition of feudalism. Since at least the 1960s, concurrent with when Marc Bloch's ''Feudal Society'' (1939) was first translated into English in 1961, many medieval historians have included a broader social aspect, adding the peasantry bonds of manorialism, sometimes referred to as a "feudal society". Since the 1970s, when Elizabeth A. R. Brown published ''The Tyranny of a Construct'' (1974), many have re-examined the evidence and concluded that feudalism is an unworkable term and should be removed entirely from scholarly and educational discussion, or at least used only with severe qualification and warning.

Outside a European context, the concept of feudalism is normally used only by analogy (called ''semi-feudal''), most often in discussions of Japan under the shoguns, and sometimes medieval and Gondarine Ethiopia. However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing it in places as diverse as ancient Egypt, the Parthian empire, the Indian subcontinent, and the antebellum American South.

The term ''feudalism'' has also been applied—often inappropriately or pejoratively—to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to prevail. Some historians and political theorists believe that the many ways the term ''feudalism'' has been used has deprived it of specific meaning, leading them to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.

Classic feudalism

:''See also Feudalism in England and Examples of feudalism'' The classic François-Louis Ganshof version of feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs. A lord was in broad terms a noble who held land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the use of the fief and the protection of the lord, the vassal would provide some sort of service to the lord. There were many varieties of feudal land tenure, consisting of military and non-military service. The obligations and corresponding rights between lord and vassal concerning the fief form the basis of the feudal relationship.

Vassalage

Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a commendation ceremony composed of the two-part act of homage and oath of fealty. During homage, the lord and vassal entered a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command, whilst the lord agreed to protect the vassal from external forces. ''Fealty'' comes from the Latin ''fidelitas'' and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty" also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage. Such an oath follows homage.

Once the commendation ceremony was complete, the lord and vassal were now in a feudal relationship with agreed-upon mutual obligations to one another. The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to "aid", or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer to calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal could have other obligations to his lord, such as attendance at his court, whether manorial, baronial or at the king's court itself. It could also involve the vassal providing "counsel", so that if the lord faced a major decision he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. On the manorial level this might be a fairly mundane matter of agricultural policy, but also included the handing down by the lord of sentences for criminal offences, including capital punishment in some cases. Concerning the king's feudal court, such deliberation could include the question of declaring war. These are examples, depending on the period of time and location in Europe, feudal customs and practices varied, see examples of feudalism.

Feudal society

The phrase "feudal society" as defined by Marc Bloch expands on the definition proposed by Ganshof and includes within the feudal structure not only the warrior aristocracy bound by vassalage, but also the peasantry bound by manorialism. Thus the entire society from top to bottom is bound by feudalism.

History of feudalism

Feudalism traditionally emerges as a result of the decentralization of an empire. This was particularly the case within the Japanese and Carolingian (European) empires which both lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure necessary to support cavalry without the ability to allocate land to these mounted troops. Mounted soldiers began to secure a system of hereditary rule over their allocated land and their power over the territory came to encompass the social, political, judicial, and economic spheres as well. These acquired powers significantly reduced the presence of centralized power in these empires. Only when the infrastructure existed to maintain centralized power—as with the European monarchies—did Feudalism begin to yield to this new organized power and eventually disappear.

Historiography of feudalism

The term ''feudalism'' was unknown and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the Medieval Period. This section describes the history of the idea of feudalism, how the concept originated among scholars and thinkers, how it changed over time, and modern debates about its use.

Invention

The term "feudal" was invented by Italian Renaissance jurists to describe what they took to be the common customary law of property. It derived from the medieval Latin word ''feodum'' (a word which first appears on a Frankish charter dated 884), meaning simply an estate in land, but deriving from a more ancient Gothic source ''faihu'' signifying simply "property" which in its most basic sense was "cattle". The term ''feudal system'' was coined in the 17th century (1614) by French and English lawyers, when the system it purported to describe was rapidly vanishing or gone entirely. No writers in the period in which feudalism was supposed to have flourished are known to have used the word itself. It was often used as a pejorative by later commentators to describe any law or custom that they perceived as unfair or out-dated. Most of these laws and customs were related in some way to the medieval institution of the fief, and thus lumped together under this single term. The term we know today, "Feudalism", comes from the French ''féodalisme'', coined during the French Revolution.

Evolution of the term

''Feudalism'' became a popular and widely used term in 1748, thanks to Montesquieu's ''De L'Esprit des Lois'' (''The Spirit of the Laws''). In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism to denigrate the antiquated system of the ''Ancien Régime'', or French monarchy. This was the Age of Enlightenment when writers valued reason and the Middle Ages were viewed as the "Dark Ages". Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages" including feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain. For them "feudalism" meant seigneurial privileges and prerogatives. When the French Constituent Assembly abolished the "feudal regime" in August 1789 this is what was meant.

Adam Smith used the term “feudal system” to describe a social and economic system defined by inherited social ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and economic privileges and obligations. In such a system wealth derived from agriculture, which was organized not according to market forces but on the basis of customary labor services owed by serfs to landowning nobles.

Marx

Karl Marx also used the term in political analysis. In the 19th century, Marx described feudalism as the economic situation coming before the inevitable rise of capitalism. For Marx, what defined feudalism was that the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) rested on their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom. "The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist." Marx thus considered feudalism within a purely economic model.

Later studies

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, John Horace Round and Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of English society before the Norman Conquest in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had brought feudalism with them to England, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain before 1066. The debate continues today, but a consensus is building: England before the Conquest had commendation, which embodied some of the personal elements in feudalism. William the Conqueror introduced a modified northern French feudalism to England which countered decentralized aspects of feudalism abroad. In 1086 he required oaths of loyalty to the king by all, even the vassals of his principal vassals, who held by feudal tenure. Holding by feudal tenure meant that vassals must provide the quota of knights required by the king or a money payment in substitution.

In the 20th century, the historian François-Louis Ganshof was very influential on the topic of feudalism. Ganshof defined feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in ''Feudalism'' (1944). His classic definition of feudalism is the most widely known today and also the easiest to understand, simply put, when a lord granted a fief to a vassal, the vassal provided military service in return.

One of Ganshof's contemporaries, the French historian Marc Bloch, was arguably the most influential 20th century medieval historian. Bloch approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one. He developed his ideas in ''Feudal Society'' (1939–40; English 1961). Bloch conceived of feudalism as a type of society that was not limited solely to the nobility. Like Ganshof, he recognized that there was a hierarchical relationship between lords and vassals, but Bloch saw as well a similar relationship obtaining between lords and peasants. It is this radical notion that peasants were part of feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers. While the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection. Both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on "lordship", and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy.

Feudalism revisionism

In 1974, U.S. historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown rejected the label ''feudalism'' as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the current use of many, often contradictory, definitions of ''feudalism'', she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically" into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have suggested that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In ''Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted'' (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument. Note that Reynolds does not object to the Marxist use of ''feudalism.''

The term ''feudal'' has also been applied to non-Western societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed (See Other feudal-like systems). Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term ''feudalism'' has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading some historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society. Others have taken the concept to its heart: the contract between a lord and his or her vassals, a reciprocal arrangement of support in exchange for service.

See also

Bastard feudalism

Cestui que

Charter of Liberties

Chivalry

Concordat of Worms

English feudal barony

Gentry

Landed property

Majorat

Manorialism

Medieval demography

Middle Ages

''Nulle terre sans seigneur''

Quia Emptores

Sark

Scottish feudal barony

Serfdom

Statutes of Mortmain

Vassal

Feudalism in England

Protofeudalism

Military:

Knights

Medieval warfare

Non-European:

Fengjian

Indian feudalism

Sources

Bloch, Marc, ''Feudal Society.'' Tr. L.A. Manyon. Two volumes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961 ISBN 0-226-05979-0

Brown, Elizabeth, 'The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe', ''American Historical Review'', 79 (1974), pp. 1063–8.

Cantor, Norman F., ''Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth century.'' Quill, 1991.

Guerreau, Alain, ''L'avenir d'un passé incertain.'' Paris: Le Seuil, 2001. (Complete history of the meaning of the term.)

Poly, Jean-Pierre and Bournazel, Eric, ''The Feudal Transformation, 900–1200.'', Tr. Caroline Higgitt. New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1991.

Reynolds, Susan, ''Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994 ISBN 0-19-820648-8

References

External links

"Feudalism", by Elizabeth A. R. Brown. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''.

"Feudalism?", by Paul Halsall. Internet Medieval Sourcebook.

''Medieval Feudalism, by Carl Stephenson. Cornell University Press, 1942. Classic introduction to Feudalism.

"The Problem of Feudalism: An Historiographical Essay", by Robert Harbison, 1996, Western Kentucky University.

Category:Economic history Category:Early Middle Ages Category:Oligarchy Category:High Middle Ages Category:Post-medieval constructs about the Middle Ages Category:Social systems Category:Other economic systems

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Coordinates	53°11′″N23°18′″N
name	Jello Biafra
background	solo_singer
birth name	Eric Reed Boucher
alias	Occupant, Count Ringworm, Osama McDonald, J Lo
birth date	June 17, 1958
birth place	Boulder, Colorado, U.S.
origin	San Francisco, California, U.S.
instrument	Vocals
genre	Punk rock, spoken word
years active	1976–present
label	Alternative Tentacles
associated acts	Dead Kennedys, The Melvins, No WTO Combo, D.O.A., Lard, Al Jourgensen, Pennywise, The Offspring, Nomeansno, Sepultura, Tool, Revolting Cocks, Napalm Death, Mojo Nixon, 1000 Homo DJs, Métal Urbain, Body Count, Tumor Circus, Butthole Surfers, Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine
website	AlternativeTentacles.com Alternative Tentacles myspace
occupation	Musician, speaker, record label director, Green Party politician }}

Jello Biafra (born Eric Reed Boucher; June 17, 1958) is an American musician, spoken word artist and leading figure of the Green Party of the United States. Biafra first gained attention as the lead singer and songwriter for San Francisco punk rock band Dead Kennedys. After his time with the band concluded, he took over the influential independent record label Alternative Tentacles, which he had co-founded in 1979 with Dead Kennedys bandmate East Bay Ray. Although now focused primarily on spoken word, he has continued as a musician in numerous collaborations.

Politically, Biafra is a member of the Green Party of the United States and actively supports various political causes. He ran for the party's Presidential nomination in 2000, finishing second to Ralph Nader. He is a staunch believer in free society, who utilizes shock value and advocates direct action and pranksterism in the name of political causes. Biafra is known to use absurdist media tactics, in the leftist tradition of the Yippies, to highlight issues of civil rights and social justice.

Early life

Eric Boucher was born in Boulder, Colorado, U.S. to parents Stanley Boucher, a psychiatric social worker and poet, and Virginia Boucher, a librarian, who worked two cubicles away from Ed Sauer. He also had a sister, Julie J. Boucher, the Associate Director of the Library Research Service at the Colorado State Library (who died in a mountain-climbing accident on October 12, 1996). As a child, Boucher developed an interest in international politics that was encouraged by his parents. An avid news watcher, one of his earliest memories was of the John F. Kennedy assassination. Biafra says he has been a fan of rock music since first hearing it in 1965, when his parents accidentally tuned in to a rock radio station. During the 1970s, he became involved in activism in reaction to several events of the era including the Vietnam War, the Chicago 7 trial, and the Kent State shootings.

He began his career in music in January 1977 as a roadie for the punk rock band The Ravers (who later changed their name to The Nails). In the autumn of that year, he began attending the University of California, Santa Cruz. He studied acting and the history of Paraguay before leaving to become involved in San Francisco, California's punk scene.

Musical career

The Dead Kennedys

In June 1978, he responded to an advertisement placed in a store by guitarist East Bay Ray, stating "Guitarist wants to form punk band", and together they formed the Dead Kennedys. He began performing with the band under the stage name Occupant, but soon began to use his current stage name. Biafra wrote the band's lyrics, most of which were political in nature and displayed a sardonic, sometimes absurdist, sense of humor despite their serious subject matter. In the tradition of UK peace punk bands like Crass, the Dead Kennedys was one of the first US punk bands to write politically-themed songs. The lyrics Biafra wrote helped popularize the use of humorous lyrics in hardcore. Biafra cites Joey Ramone as the inspiration for his use of humor in his songs (as well as being the musician who made him interested in punk rock), noting in particular songs by The Ramones such as "Beat on the Brat" and "Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue".

Biafra initially attempted to compose music on guitar, but his lack of experience on the instrument and his own admission of being "a fumbler with my hands" led Dead Kennedys bassist Klaus Flouride to suggest that Biafra simply sing the parts he envisioned to the band. Biafra sang his riffs and melodies into a tape recorder, which he brought to the band's rehearsal and/or recording sessions. This later became a problem when the other members of the Dead Kennedys sued Biafra over royalties and publishing rights. By all accounts, including his own, Biafra is not a conventionally-skilled musician, and his work, particularly with the Dead Kennedys, is highly respected by punk-oriented critics and fans.

Biafra's first popular song was the first single by the Dead Kennedys, "California Über Alles". The song, which spoofed California governor Jerry Brown, was the first of many political songs by the group and Biafra. The song's popularity resulted in its being covered by other musicians, such as The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy (who rewrote the lyrics to parody Pete Wilson), John Linnell of They Might Be Giants and Six Feet Under on their Graveyard Classics album of cover versions. Not long after, the Dead Kennedys had a second and bigger hit with "Holiday in Cambodia" from their debut album ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables''. ''Allmusic'' cites this song as "possibly the most successful single of the American hardcore scene" and Biafra counts it as his personal favorite Dead Kennedys song. Minor hits from the album included "Kill the Poor" (about potential abuse of the then-new neutron bomb) and a satirical cover of Elvis Presley's "Viva Las Vegas".

The Dead Kennedys received some controversy in the spring of 1981 over the single "Too Drunk to Fuck". The song became a big hit in Britain, and the BBC feared that it would manage to be a big enough hit to appear among the top 30 songs on the national charts, requiring a mention on ''Top of the Pops''. However, the single peaked at number 31 in the charts.

Later albums also contained memorable songs, but with less popularity than the earlier ones. The EP ''In God We Trust, Inc.'' contained the song "Nazi Punks Fuck Off!" as well as "We've Got A Bigger Problem Now", a rewritten version of "California Über Alles" about Ronald Reagan. Punk musician and scholar Vic Bondi considers the latter song to be the song that "defined the lyrical agenda of much of hardcore music, and represented its break with punk". The band's most controversial album, ''Frankenchrist'', brought with it the song "MTV Get Off the Air", which accused MTV of promoting poor quality music and sedating the public. The album also contained a controversial poster by Swiss surrealist artist H. R. Giger entitled ''Penis Landscape''.

The Dead Kennedys toured widely during their career, starting in the late 1970s. They began playing mostly at southern Californian clubs (most notably the Whisky a Go Go), but eventually they moved to major clubs across the country, including CBGB in New York. Later, they played to larger audiences such as at the 1980 Bay Area Music Awards (where they played the notorious "Pull My Strings" for the only time), and headlined the 1983 Rock Against Reagan festival.

On May 7, 1994, people who believed Biafra was a "sell out" attacked him at the 924 Gilman Street club in Berkeley, California. Biafra claims that he was attacked by a man nicknamed Cretin, who crashed into him while moshing. The crash injured Biafra's leg, causing an argument between the two men. During the argument, Cretin pushed Biafra to the floor and five or six friends of Cretin assaulted Biafra while he was down, yelling "Sellout rock star, kick him", and attempting to pull out his hair. Biafra was later hospitalized with serious injuries. The attack derailed Biafra's plans for both a Canadian spoken-word tour and an accompanying album, and the production of ''Pure Chewing Satisfaction'' was halted. However, Biafra returned to the Gilman club a few months after the incident to perform a spoken-word performance as an act of reconciliation with the club.

Biafra has been a prominent figure of the Californian punk scene and was one of the founding members of the San Francisco hardcore punk community. Many later hardcore bands have cited the Dead Kennedys as a major influence. Hardcore punk author Steven Blush describes Biafra as hardcore's "biggest star" who was a "powerful presence whose political insurgence and rabid fandom made him the father figure of a burgeoning subculture [and an] inspirational force [who] could also be a real prick... Biafra was a visionary, incendiary [performer]."

After the Dead Kennedys disbanded, Biafra's new songs were recorded with other bands, and he released only spoken word albums as solo projects. These collaborations had less popularity than Biafra's earlier work. However, his song "That's Progress", originally recorded with D.O.A. for the album ''Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors'', received considerable exposure when it appeared on the album ''Rock Against Bush, Vol. 1''.

Obscenity prosecution

In April 1986, police officers raided his house in response to complaints by the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC). In June 1986, L.A. deputy city attorney Michael Guarino, working under City Attorney James Hahn, brought Biafra to trial in Los Angeles for distributing "harmful material to minors" in the Dead Kennedys album ''Frankenchrist''. In actuality, the dispute was about neither the music nor the lyrics from the album, but rather the print of the H. R. Giger poster ''Landscape XX'' (''Penis Landscape'') included with the album. Biafra believes the trial was politically motivated; it was often reported that the PMRC took Biafra to court as a cost-effective way of sending a message out to other musicians with content considered offensive in their music.

Music author Reebee Garofalo argued that Biafra and Alternative Tentacles may have been targeted because the label was a "small, self-managed and self-supported company that could ill afford a protracted legal battle." Facing the possible sentence of a year in jail and a $2000 fine, Biafra, Dirk Dirksen, and Suzanne Stefanac founded the No More Censorship Defense Fund, a benefit made up of several punk rock bands, to help pay for his legal fees, which neither he nor his record label could afford. The jury deadlocked 5 to 7 in favor of acquittal, prompting a mistrial; despite a district attorney motion to re-try the case, the judge ordered all charges dropped. The Dead Kennedys disbanded during the trial, in December 1986, due to the mounting legal costs; in the wake of their disbandment, Biafra made a career of his spoken word performances. His early spoken word albums focused heavily on the trial (especially in ''High Priest of Harmful Matter''), which made him renowned for his anti-censorship stance.

Biafra has a cameo role in the 1988 film ''Tapeheads''. He plays an FBI agent who arrests the two protagonists (played by Tim Robbins and John Cusack). Whilst arresting them his character asks "Remember what we did to Jello Biafra?" lampooning the obscenity prosecution.

On March 25, 2005, Biafra appeared on the U.S. radio program ''This American Life'', "Episode 285: Know Your Enemy", which featured a phone call between Jello Biafra and Michael Guarino, the prosecutor in the ''Frankenchrist'' trial. The episode was about Guarino's change of opinion and the reconciliation between Guarino and Biafra.

Lawsuit by former band members and reunion activities

In October 1998, former members of the Dead Kennedys sued Biafra for nonpayment of royalties. According to Biafra, the suit resulted from his refusal to allow one of the band's most well known singles, "Holiday in Cambodia", to be used in a commercial for Levi's Dockers; Biafra opposes Levi's because he believes that they use unfair business practices and sweatshop labor. The three former members claimed that their motive had nothing to do with advertising, and that they had filed suit because Biafra had denied them royalties and failed to promote their albums. Biafra maintained that he had never denied them royalties, and that he himself had not even received royalties for rereleases of their albums or "posthumous" live albums which had been licensed to other labels by the Decay Music partnership. Decay Music denied this charge and have posted what they say are his cashed royalty checks. Biafra also complained about the songwriting credits in new reissues and archival live albums of songs that Biafra claims he composed himself to the entire band. In May 2000, a jury found Biafra liable for fraud and malice and ordered him to pay $200,000, including $20,000 in punitive damages, to the band members. After an appeal by Biafra’s lawyers, in June 2003, the California Court of Appeal unanimously upheld all the conditions of the 2000 verdict against Biafra and Alternative Tentacles.

The other band members reunited in 2001 without Biafra under the name of "DK Kennedys" (later returning to the original band name), replacing Biafra first with Brandon Cruz, then with Jeff Penalty, and finally with Ron "Skip" Greer. Biafra himself has openly criticized his former bandmates' legal tactics and reunion tours, most notably in the song "Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)", which he performed with The Melvins.

In June, 2011, Mondoweiss, the anti Zionist news source reported that Jello Biafra had decided to play live shows in Israel, though those movements in favour of sanctioning and boycotting Israel hoped to persuade him to alter his decision.

Other bands

In 1988, Biafra, with Al Jourgensen and Paul Barker of the band Ministry, and Jeff Ward, formed Lard. The band became yet another side project for Ministry, with Biafra providing vocals and lyrics. According to a March 2009 interview with Jourgensen, he and Biafra are working on a new Lard album, which is being recorded in Jourgensen's El Paso studio. While working on the film ''Terminal City Ricochet'' in 1989, Biafra did a song for the film's soundtrack with D.O.A.. As a result, Biafra worked with D.O.A. on the album ''Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors''. Biafra also worked with Nomeansno on the soundtrack, which led to their collaboration on the album ''The Sky Is Falling and I Want My Mommy'' the following year. Biafra also provided lyrics for the song "Biotech is Godzilla" for Sepultura's 1993 album ''Chaos A.D.''.

In 1999, Biafra and other members of the anti-globalization movement protested the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle. Along with other prominent West Coast musicians, he formed the short-lived band the No WTO Combo to help promote the movement's cause. The band was originally scheduled to play during the protest, but the performance was canceled due to riots. The band performed a short set the following night at the Showbox in downtown Seattle (outside the designated area), along with the hiphop group Spearhead. No WTO Combo later released a CD of recordings from the concert, entitled ''Live from the Battle in Seattle''.

As of late 2005, Biafra was performing with the band The Melvins under the name "Jello Biafra and the Melvins", though fans sometimes refer to them as "The Jelvins." Together they have released two albums, and have been working on material for a third collaborative release, much of which was premiered live at two concerts at the Great American Music Hall in San Francisco during an event called Biafra Five-O, commemorating Biafra's 50th birthday, the 30th anniversary of the founding of the Dead Kennedys, and the beginning of legalized same-sex marriage in California. Biafra is also working with a new band known as Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine, which includes Ralph Spight of Victims Family on guitar and Billy Gould of Faith No More on bass. This group debuted during Biafra Five-O.

Alternative Tentacles

In June 1979, Biafra co-founded the record label Alternative Tentacles, with which the Dead Kennedys released their first single, "California Über Alles". The label was created to allow the band to release albums without having to deal with pressure from major labels to change their music (although the major labels were not willing to sign the band due to their songs being deemed too controversial). After dealing with Cherry Red in the UK and IRS Records in the US for their first album ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables'', the band released all later albums (and later pressings of ''Fresh Fruit'') on Alternative Tentacles (with the exception of live albums released after the band's break-up, which the other band members compiled from recordings in the band partnership's vaults without Biafra's input or endorsement). Biafra has been the owner of the company ever since its founding, though he does not receive a salary for his position (Biafra has referred to his position in the company as "absentee thoughtlord").

Biafra is an ardent collector of unusual vinyl records of all kinds, from '50s and '60s ethno-pop recordings by the likes of Les Baxter and Esquivel to vanity pressings that have circulated regionally, to German crooner Heino; he cites his always growing collection as one of his biggest musical influences. In 1993 he gave an interview to RE/Search Publications for their second ''Incredibly Strange Music'' book focusing primarily on these records. His heavy interest in such recordings (often categorized as outsider music) eventually led to his discovery of the prolific (and schizophrenic) singer/songwriter/artist Wesley Willis, whom he signed to Alternative Tentacles in 1994, preceding Willis' major label deal with American Recordings. His collection grew so large that on October 1, 2005, Biafra donated a portion of his collection to an annual yard sale co-promoted by Alternative Tentacles and held at their warehouse in Emeryville, California.

In 2006, along with Alternative Tentacles employee and The Frisk lead singer Jesse Luscious, Biafra began co-hosting ''The Alternative Tentacles Batcast'', a downloadable podcast hosted by alternativetentacles.com. The show primarily focuses on interviews with artists and bands that are currently signed to the Alternative Tentacles label, although there are also occasional episodes where Biafra devoted the show to answering fan questions.

Spoken word

Biafra first became a spoken word artist in January 1986, starting with a performance at University of California, Los Angeles. In his performance he combined his sense of humor with his political beliefs, much in the same way that he did with the lyrics to his songs. Biafra has held this career since, but did not begin recording spoken word records until after the disbanding of the Dead Kennedys.

His ninth spoken word album, ''In the Grip of Official Treason'', was released in October 2006.

Politics

Mayoral campaign

In the autumn of 1979, Biafra ran for mayor of San Francisco, using the Jell-O ad campaign catchphrase, "There's always room for Jello", as his campaign slogan. Having entered the race before creating a campaign platform, Biafra later wrote his platform on a napkin while attending a Pere Ubu concert. As he campaigned, Biafra wore campaign T-shirts from his opponent Quentin Kopp's previous campaign and at one point vacuumed leaves off the front lawn of another opponent, current U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein, to mock her publicity stunt of sweeping streets in downtown San Francisco for a few hours. Supporters committed equally odd actions; two well known signs held by supporters said "If he doesn't win I'll kill myself" and "What if he does win?"

His platform included unconventional points such as forcing businessmen to wear clown suits within city limits, erecting statues of Dan White (who assassinated Mayor George Moscone and City Supervisor Harvey Milk in 1978) all over town and allowing the parks department to sell eggs and tomatoes with which people could pelt them, and a citywide ban on cars (although the latter point was not considered completely outlandish by many voters at the time, as the city was suffering from serious pollution). Biafra has expressed irritation that these parts of his platform attained such notoriety, preferring instead to be remembered for serious proposals such as legalizing squatting in vacant, tax-delinquent buildings and requiring police officers to keep their jobs by running for election voted by the people of the neighborhoods they patrol.

He finished third out of a field of nine, receiving 3.79% of the vote (6,591 votes); the election ended in a runoff that did not involve him (Feinstein was declared the winner).

Presidential campaign

In 2000, the New York State Green Party drafted Biafra as a candidate for the Green Party presidential nomination, and a few supporters were elected to the party's nominating convention in Denver, Colorado. Biafra chose death row inmate Mumia Abu-Jamal as his running mate. Despite the fact that his address to the convention was positively received, the party overwhelmingly chose Ralph Nader as the presidential candidate with 295 of the 319 delegate votes. Biafra finished in a second place tie with Stephen Gaskin; both received 10 votes.

Biafra, along with a camera crew (dubbed by Biafra as "The Camcorder Truth Jihad"), later reported for the Independent Media Center at the Republican and Democratic conventions. Biafra detailed these events in his album ''Become The Media'', which has resulted in his being credited with coining the slogan "''Don't hate the media, become the media''". Indymedia and related alternative media often use this line, or the now more apt "''Don't hate the media, be the media''."

Post-2000

After losing the 2000 nomination, Jello became highly active in Ralph Nader's presidential campaign, as well as in 2004 and 2008.

During the 2008 campaign Jello played at rallies and answered questions for journalists in support of Ralph Nader. After Barack Obama won the general election, Jello wrote an open letter making suggestions on how to run his term as president.

Tel Aviv tour

After news was released of Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine's decision to play in Tel Aviv, Israel on 2 July 2011, Biafra received much criticism from the left and punk community. This was in light of an artistic boycott put forward by the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions campaign in 2005. On 29 June, just four days before the planned concert, Biafra announced on the band's Facebook page that the show had been canceled, yet: "I am going to Israel and Palestine to check things out myself and may yet conclude that playing for people in the belly of the beast was the right thing to do in the first place."

Personal life

Biafra married Therese Soder, aka Ninotchka, lead singer of San Francisco-area punk band The Situations on October 31, 1981. The wedding was conducted by Flipper vocalist/bassist Bruce Loose, who became a Universal Life Church minister just to conduct the ceremony, which took place in a graveyard. The wedding reception, which members of Flipper, Black Flag, and D.O.A. attended, was held at director Joe Rees' Target Video studios. The marriage ended in 1986.

Samples

Partial discography

''For a more complete list, see the Jello Biafra discography.''

Dead Kennedys

1980 - ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables''

1981 - ''In God We Trust, Inc.''

1982 - ''Plastic Surgery Disasters''

1985 - ''Frankenchrist''

1986 - ''Bedtime for Democracy''

1987 - ''Give Me Convenience OR Give Me Death''

Spoken word

1987 - ''No More Cocoons''

1989 - ''High Priest of Harmful Matter: Tales From the Trial''

1991 - ''I Blow Minds for a Living''

1994 - ''Beyond the Valley of the Gift Police''

1998 - ''If Evolution Is Outlawed, Only Outlaws Will Evolve''

2000 - ''Become the Media''

2002 - ''The Big Ka-Boom, Pt. 1''

2002 - ''Machine Gun in the Clown's Hand''

2006 - ''In the Grip of Official Treason''

Lard

1989 - ''The Power of Lard''

1990 - ''The Last Temptation of Reid''

1997 - ''Pure Chewing Satisfaction''

2000 - ''70's Rock Must Die''

Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine

2009 - ''The Audacity of Hype''

2011 - ''Enhanced Methods of Questioning''

Collaborations

1990 - ''Supernaut'' with 1000 Homo DJs - "Hey Asshole" (credited as Count Ringworm)

1990 - ''Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors'' with D.O.A.

1990 - ''In Case You Didn't Feel Like Showing Up'' by Ministry (appears on the video release where he recites his own version of the Pledge of Allegiance)

1991 - ''The Sky is Falling and I Want My Mommy'' with Nomeansno

1991 - ''Tumor Circus'' with Steel Pole Bath Tub by Tumor Circus

1992 - ''Body Count'' with Body Count - "Freedom of Speech"

1993 - ''Chaos A.D.'' with Sepultura - "Biotech Is Godzilla" (credited on the lyrics)

1994 - ''Prairie Home Invasion'' with Mojo Nixon

1995 - ''Raza Odiada'' with Brujeria - "Raza Odiada (Pito Wilson)" (as the voice of Pete Wilson)

1997 - ''Helter Skelter'' with The D.O.C. - "Secret Plan"

1997 - ''Ixnay on the Hombre'' with The Offspring - "Disclaimer"

1998 - ''Every Home a Prison'' with Coldcut

2000 - ''Deviant'' with Pitchshifter - "As Seen on T.V."

2000 - ''Live from the Battle in Seattle'' with No WTO Combo

2001 - ''Nation'' with Sepultura - "Politricks"

2004 - ''Never Breathe What You Can't See'' with The Melvins (credited on the inner sleeve as ''Osama McDonald'')

2005 - ''The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code'' with Napalm Death - "The Great and the Good"

2005 - ''Sieg Howdy!'' with The Melvins (credited on the inner sleeve as ''J Lo'')

2005 - ''13 Ft. and Rising'' with Throw Rag - "Children of the Secret State"

2005 - ''Hell's Winter'' with Cage - "Grand Ol' Party Crash" (credited on the Cage as the voice of ''George W. Bush'')

2006 - ''J'Irai Chier dans Ton Vomi'' with Métal Urbain

2006 - ''Cocked and Loaded'' with Revolting Cocks - "Dead End Streets" and "Viagra Culture"(credited on the inner sleeve as Jello Biafra as well as all of his former stage names including Occupant, Smegma Pigvomit, Osama McDonald, and J Lo)

2006 - ''Rio Grande Blood'' with Ministry - "Ass Clown"

2007 - ''Deadline'' with Leftöver Crack - "Baby-Punchers"

2008 - ''Everybody Make Some Noise!'' with The A.K.A.s

2009 - ''All Sewn Up: A Tribute to Patrik Fitzgerald'' with Motorpsycho - "Punch"

2009 - ''That's So Gay'' with Pansy Division - "Average Men"

Filmography

1977 - ''This Is America, Pt. 2''

1978 - ''Massacre at Central High''

1981 - ''Urgh! A Music War''

1983 - ''Anarchism in America''

1986 - ''Lovedolls Superstar'', directed by Dave Markey

1987 - ''Household Affairs'', directed & filmed by Allen Ginsberg

1988 - ''Tapeheads'', directed by Bill Fishman

1990 - ''Terminal City Ricochet''

1991 - ''Highway 61'', directed by Bruce McDonald

1994 - ''Skulhedface'', directed by Melanie Mandl

1997 - ''Mary Jane's Not a Virgin Anymore'', directed by Sarah Jacobson

1999 - ''The Widower''

1999 - ''Virtue''

2001 - ''Plaster Caster''

2002 - ''Bikini Bandits'', directed by Steve and Peter Grasse

2004 - ''Death and Texas''

2004 - ''Punk: Attitude''

2005 - ''We Jam Econo: The Story Of The Minutemen''

2006 - ''Punk's Not Dead'', directed by Susan Dynner

2006 - ''Whose War?'', directed by Donald Farmer

2007 - ''American Drug War: The Last White Hope'', directed by Kevin Booth

2008 - ''Nerdcore Rising'', directed by Negin Farsad

2009 - ''Open Your Mouth And Say Mr.Chi Pig'', directed by Sean Patrick Shaul

References and footnotes

==External links==

Biafra's label Alternative Tentacles

Alternative Tentacles at MySpace

Alternative Tentacle's Jello Biafra Biography with MP3s and Discography

Audio recordings of Biafra's keynote speech at H2K

Audio recordings of Biafra's State of the World Address at H2K2

Audio recordings of Biafra's keynote speech at the Fifth HOPE

Audio recordings from HOPE Number Six, featuring Jello Biafra's keynote address

Nardwuar">Audio interviews of Jello Biafra and Nardwuar

Jello Biafra Scratch Magazine Interview

Juice Magazine Jello Biafra Interview

Democracy Now Interview with Jello Biafra

Audio of Jello Biafra Speaking at Peace Rally in San Francisco

Punknews.org interview with Jello Biafra

Maximumrocknroll Interview - Jello Biafra participates in 1984 discussion

Plazm Magazine 1996 interview with Jello Biafra

Discussed politics and the elections with Dan Patterson on the Creepy Sleepy Show, December 2006]

The Onion A.V. Club interview

Photos of Jello in the DKs

Unofficial Fan Site

Category:Living people Category:1958 births Category:Actors from Colorado Category:American anarchists Category:American anti-war activists Category:American anti–Iraq War activists Category:American film actors Category:American human rights activists Category:American punk rock singers Category:American satirists Category:American socialists Category:American spoken word artists Category:Anti-globalization activists Category:California Greens Category:Dead Kennedys members Category:Libertarian socialists Category:Musicians from Colorado Category:Musicians from San Francisco, California Category:People from Boulder, Colorado Category:People from San Francisco, California Category:Pigface members Category:United States presidential candidates, 2000

bg:Джело Биафра cs:Jello Biafra da:Jello Biafra de:Jello Biafra es:Jello Biafra fr:Jello Biafra id:Jello Biafra it:Jello Biafra csb:Jello Biafra nl:Jello Biafra ja:ジェロ・ビアフラ no:Jello Biafra pl:Jello Biafra pt:Jello Biafra ru:Джелло Биафра fi:Jello Biafra sv:Jello Biafra

Coordinates	53°11′″N23°18′″N
name	Thomas "Tom" Horn, Jr.
birth date	November 21, 1860
birth place	Scotland County, Missouri
death date	November 20, 1903
death place	Cheyenne, Wyoming
death cause	Hanging
resting place	Columbia Cemetery, Boulder, Colorado
resting place coordinates
nationality	American
citizenship	United States
other names	Tom Hale
known for	Work with the Pinkerton Detective Agency, Crawford Affair
employer	Pinkerton Detective Agency
notable works	Assisted in the capture of Geronimo, disputably killed Willie Nickell
occupation	Lawman, outlaw, detective, assassin
years active	1876-1903
height	6'1"
weight	200 lbs }}

Thomas "Tom" Horn, Jr. (November 21, 1860 – November 20, 1903) was an American Old West lawman, scout, soldier, hired gunman, detective, outlaw and assassin. On the day before his 43rd birthday, he was hanged in Cheyenne, Wyoming, for the murder of Willie Nickell.

Horn's exploits as an assassin far overshadowed any other accomplishments he made during his lifetime, including during his time as a scout in tracking Apaches in southeastern Arizona Territory, southwestern New Mexico Territory, and into the states of Sonora and Chihuahua in northern Mexico along the Sierra Madre Occidental.

Biography

Early life

Born to Thomas S. Horn, Sr. and Mary Ann Maricha (née Miller), in rural northeastern Scotland County, Missouri, on the family farm of 600 acres (bisected by the South Wyaconda River) between the towns of Granger and Etna, he was the fifth of twelve children.

He left home as a young teen, probably in part because of an abusive father and his desire for adventure.

Scout

At sixteen, he headed to the American Southwest, where he was hired by the U.S. Cavalry as a civilian scout under Al Sieber and became involved in the Apache Wars and aided in the capture of warriors such as Geronimo. On January 11, 1886, Tom Horn was involved in an expedition into Mexican territory in the pursuit of Geronimo. During the operation, Horn's camp was attacked by Mexican militia and he was wounded in the arm. Allegedly Horn killed his first man in a duel-a 2nd Lt in the Mexican Army

Later, hiring out his skills with a gun, he took part in the Pleasant Valley War in Arizona between cattlemen and sheepmen, but it is not known for certain as to which side he was allied, and both sides suffered several killings to which no known suspects were ever identified.

Career as a detective and lawman

He worked in Arizona for a time as a deputy sheriff, where he drew the attention of the Pinkerton Detective agency due to his abilities in tracking. Hired by the agency around late 1889 or early 1890, he handled investigations in Colorado and Wyoming, in other western states, and around the Rocky Mountain area, working out of the Denver office. He became known for his calm under pressure, and his ability to track down anyone assigned to him.

On one instance, Horn and another agent, C. W. Shores, captured two men for robbing the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad (on August 31, 1890) between Cotopaxi and Texas Creek in Fremont County, Colorado. Horn and Shores tracked Thomas Eskridge (aka "Peg-Leg" Watson) and Burt "Red" Curtis to a house (the home a of man named Wolfe) in either Washita or Pauls Valley, Oklahoma, along the Washita River, without firing a shot. In his report on that arrest, Horn stated in part "Watson, was considered by everyone in Colorado as a very desperate character. I had no trouble with him".

His termination from employment, however, was not as a result of his killings. In Charlie Siringo's book, ''"Two Evil Isms: Pinkertonism and Anarchism"'', he wrote that "William A. Pinkerton told me that Tom Horn was guilty of the crime, but that his people could not allow him to go to prison while in their employ". More likely than not, this was due to the agency's desire to avoid negative press. Siringo would later indicate that he respected Horn's abilities at tracking, and that he was a very talented agent but had a wicked element.

Horn resigned from the agency, under pressure, in 1894. Over the course of the late 1890s he hired out as a range deputy US marshal and detective for various wealthy ranchers in Wyoming and Colorado, specifically during the Johnson County War, when he worked for the ''Wyoming Stock Grower's Association''; and is alleged to have in involved of the killing of Nate Champion and Nick Ray April 6, 1892. In 1895, Horn supposedly killed a known cattle thief named William Lewis near Iron Mountain, Wyoming. Horn was exonerated for that crime and for another six weeks later, the murder of Fred Powell. In 1896 a ranchman named Campbell who had a large stock of money was last seen with Horn and "disappeared"

Although his official title was always "Range Detective", he actually functioned as a killer for hire. In 1900 he was implicated in the murder of two known rustlers and robbery suspects in northwest Colorado. Just prior to the killings, Horn had begun working for the ''Swan Land and Cattle Company''. He had killed the two rustlers, Matt Rash and Isom Dart, while he was following up on what became known as the Wilcox Train Robbery, and he was possibly working freelance for the Pinkerton Agency when he did so.

During his involvement in the Wilcox Train Robbery investigation, Horn obtained information from Bill Speck that revealed which of the robbers had killed Sheriff Josiah Hazen, who had been shot and killed during the pursuit of the robbers. He passed this information on to Charlie Siringo, who was working the case by that time for the Pinkerton's. This information indicated that either George Curry or Kid Curry had killed the sheriff. Both outlaws were members of the Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch gang, which was then known as "The Hole-in-the-Wall Gang."

He left that line of work briefly to serve a stint in the Army during the Spanish American War. Before he could steam from Tampa for Cuba, he contracted malaria. When his health recovered he returned to Wyoming. Shortly after his return, in 1901, Horn began working for wealthy cattle baron John C. Coble.

Willie Nickell murder, Horn's arrest and trial

On July 18, 1901, Horn was once again working near Iron Mountain when Willie Nickell, the 14-year-old son of a sheepherding rancher, was murdered. Horn was arrested for the murder after a questionable confession to Joe Lefors, an office deputy in the US Marshal's office, in 1902. Horn was convicted and hanged in Cheyenne in 1903. The prosecutor in the case was Walter Stoll.

During Horn's trial, the prosecution introduced a vague confession by Horn to Lefors, taken while he was intoxicated. Only certain parts of Horn's statement were introduced, distorting the significance of the statement. Additionally, testimony by at least two witnesses, including lawman Lefors, was presented by the prosecution, as well as circumstantial evidence that only placed him in the general vicinity of the crime scene.

Glendolene M. Kimmell, a school teacher who knew the Miller family, testified on the Millers behalf during the Inquest. She further testified that Jim Miller (no relation to the Texas outlaw Jim Miller) was nervous on the morning of the murder. Jim Miller and the Nickell boy's father had been in several disputes with each other over the Nickells' sheep grazing on Miller's land.

In 1993, the case was retried in a mock trial in Cheyenne and Horn was acquitted.

It is still debated whether Horn committed the murder. Some historians believe he did not, while others believe that he did, but that he did not realize he was shooting a boy. Whatever the case, the consensus is that regardless of whether he committed that particular murder, he had certainly committed many others. Chip Carlson, who extensively researched the ''Wyoming v. Tom Horn'' prosecution, concluded that although Horn ''could have'' committed the murder of Willie Nickell, he probably did not. According to Carlson's book ''Tom Horn: Blood on the Moon'', there was no actual evidence that Horn had committed the murder, he was last seen in the area the day before the murder, his alleged confession was valueless as evidence, and no efforts were made to investigate involvement by other possible suspects. In essence, Horn's reputation and history made him an easy target for the prosecution.

Execution

Tom Horn has the distinction of being one of the few people in the "Wild West" to have been hanged by an automated process. A Cheyenne architect named James P. Julian designed the contraption in 1892, earning the name "The Julian Gallows", which made the condemned man hang himself. The trap door was connected to a lever which pulled the plug out of a barrel of water. This would cause a lever with a counterweight to rise, pulling on the support beam under the gallows. When enough pressure was applied, this would cause the beam to break free, opening the trap and hanging the condemned man. Tom Horn was buried in the Columbia Cemetery in Boulder, Colorado.

Films

Tom Horn has been the subject of two movies: ''Mr. Horn'' (1979) a made-for-TV movie starring David Carradine, and ''Tom Horn'' (1980), starring Steve McQueen. The McQueen film was not entirely accurate, but it was well received.. There was a third movie, "Fort Utah" (1967), a western fiction with John Ireland playing Tom Horn.

The History Channel aired (December 2009) the series "Cowboys & Outlaws" which featured an hour-long episode entitled "Frontier Hitman" about the life of Tom Horn.

In 1954, Louis Jean Heydt played Tom Horn in an episode of the syndicated television series, ''Stories of the Century'', narrated and starring Jim Davis. Walter Coy appeared in the episode as Sam Clayton.

Notes

References

Gatewood, Charles B. (Editor Louis Kraft). ''LT. Charles Gatewood & His Apache Wars Memoir.'' University of Nebraska Press 2005. ISBN 978-0-8032-2772-9.

Further reading

Carlson, Chip, (2001). - ''Tom Horn: Blood on the Moon - Dark History of the Murderous Cattle Detective''. - Glendo, Wyoming: High Plains Press. - ISBN 9780931271588.

Henry, Will, (1975). - ''I, Tom Horn''. - New York: Bantam Books. - ISBN 9780553298352.

::(NOTE: fictionalization of ''Life of Tom Horn: Government Scout and Interpreter'' and other documents) Also available as:

* Horn, Tom, and John C. Coble, (2001). - ''Life of Tom Horn - Government Scout and Interpreter''. - Narrative Press. - ISBN 9781589760684.

* Horn, Tom, edited by Doyce B. Nunis, Jr., (1987). - ''Life of Tom Horn - Government Scout and Interpreter - Written by Himself: A Vindication''. - Chicago: The Lakeside Press, R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company.

* Horn, Tom, and Dean Krakel, (1985). - ''Life of Tom Horn - Government Scout and Interpreter: A Vindication''. - University of Oklahoma Press. - ISBN 9780806110448.

Krakel, Dean, (1954). - ''The Saga of Tom Horn''. - Powder River Publishing.

Tom Horn's Story - Hanged By The Neck Until You Are Dead at Tom-Horn.com (Horn's last letter proclaiming his confession being staged and not accurate)

External links

Tom Horn website

Tom Horn at www.thrillingdetective.com

Category:1860 births Category:1903 deaths Category:People from Scotland County, Missouri Category:American people convicted of murder Category:People executed for murder Category:People executed by hanging Category:20th-century executions by the United States Category:People executed by Wyoming Category:People convicted of murder by Wyoming Category:Executed American people Category:Pinkerton National Detective Agency Category:Gunmen of the American Old West

es:Tom Horn no:Tom Horn sv:Tom Horn