Anglicisation, or anglicization (see -ise vs -ize), is the process of converting verbal or written elements of any other language into a form that is more comprehensible to an English speaker, or, more generally, of altering something such that it becomes English in form or character.

The term most often refers to the process of altering the pronunciation or spelling of a foreign word when it is borrowed into English. Personal names may also be anglicised. This was rather common for names of antiquity or of foreign heads of state, and it was and is also common among immigrants to English-speaking countries (e.g., Battenberg became Mountbatten).

Loan words

Non-English words may be anglicised by changing their form and pronunciation to something more familiar to English speakers. For example, the Latin word ''obscenus'' has been imported into English in the modified form ''obscene'' . Changing endings in this manner is especially common, and can be frequently seen when foreign words are imported into any language. For example, the English word ''damsel'' is an anglicisation of the Old French ''damoisele'' (modern ''demoiselle''), meaning "young lady". Another form of anglicising is the inclusion of a foreign article as part of a noun (such as ''alkali'' from the Arabic ''al-qili'').

Proper names

Place names

Place names are commonly anglicised in English. Examples include the Italian cities of ''Napoli'' and ''Milano'', known in English as Naples and Milan, the German city of ''München'' (Munich), the Danish city of ''København'' (Copenhagen), the Swedish city of ''Göteborg'' (Gothenburg), the Dutch city of ''Den Haag'' (The Hague), the Spanish city of ''Sevilla'' (Seville), a number of Arabic speaking places, like Cairo (القاهرة ''Al-Qāhira''). Such anglicisation was once universal: nearly all cities and people discussed in English literature up to the mid-20th century had their names anglicised. In the late 20th century, however, use of non-English names in English began to become more common. When dealing with languages that use the same Latin alphabet as English, names are now more usually written in English as they exist in their local language, sometimes even with diacritical marks that do not normally exist in English. With languages that use non-Latin alphabets, such as the Arabic, Cyrillic, Greek, Korean Hangul and other alphabets a direct transliteration is typically used, which is then often pronounced according to English rules. Non-Latin based languages may use standard romanisation systems, such as Japanese Rōmaji or Chinese (Mandarin) Pīnyīn. The Japanese and Chinese names are spelled English following these spellings with some common exceptions, usually without Chinese tone marks and Japanese macrons for long vowels (Chóngqìng to Chongqing (重慶/重庆), Shíjiāzhuāng to Shijiazhuang (石家莊/石家庄), both in China, Kyōto to Kyoto (京都) in Japan).

De-anglicisation has become a matter of national pride in some places and especially in regions that were once under colonial rule, where vestiges of colonial domination are a sensitive subject. Following centuries of English rule in Ireland, an argument for de-anglicisation was delivered before the Irish National Literary Society in Dublin, 25 November 1892; "When we speak of 'The Necessity for De-Anglicising the Irish Nation', we mean it, not as a protest against imitating what is best in the English people, for that would be absurd, but rather to show the folly of neglecting what is Irish, and hastening to adopt, pell-mell, and indiscriminately, everything that is English, simply because it is English." Despite its status as an official language, the Irish language has been reduced to a minority language in Ireland as a result of centuries of English rule, as is the case in North America where their indigenous languages have been replaced by that of the colonists. As a consequence of national pride, anglicised names have been officially discouraged in many places: Ireland's ''Kingstown'', named by King George IV, has reverted to its original Irish name of ''Dún Laoghaire''; India's ''Bombay'' is now Mumbai, even though this is not the oldest local name (see Toponymy of Mumbai) and "''Bombay''" is still commonly used in the city; ''Calcutta'' is ''Kolkata'' and ''Madras'' is ''Chennai''. Bangladesh's ''Dacca'' is ''Dhaka''. Many Chinese endonyms have become de-anglicised: ''Canton'' is now more commonly called Guangzhou (廣州/广州), and Peking is generally referred to as Beijing (北京), although this reflected a name change from Beiping (Peiping) to Beijing (Peking) with the de-anglicisation of the name taking place after the name change to reflect a pronunciation change in Mandarin.

In other cases, established anglicised names have remained in common use where there is no national pride at stake: this is the case with ''Ghent'' (Gent/Gand), ''Munich'' (München), ''Cologne'' (Köln), ''Vienna'' (Wien), ''Naples'' (Napoli), ''Rome'' (Roma), ''Milan'' (Milano), ''Athens'' (Αθήνα/Athina), ''Moscow'' (Москва/Moskva), ''Saint Petersburg'' (Санкт-Петербург/Sankt-Peterburg), ''Warsaw'' (Warszawa), ''Prague'' (Praha), ''Bucharest'' (Bucureşti), ''Belgrade'' (Београд/Beograd), ''Lisbon'' (Lisboa) and other European cities whose names have been familiar in their anglicised forms for centuries. However, the de-anglicised names now often appear as an alternative on maps, in airports, etc.

Often the English name reflects a French origin, sometimes unchanged from French, e.g. Cologne, sometimes changed slightly, e.g. Vienna (Vienne), Venice (Venise). The English city-name for the Czech capital - 'Prague' is taken verbatim from the French name for the city, itself descended from the Latin name for the city (Praga), which had been borrowed from an earlier Czech name (pre-dating the 'g'>'h' shift).

Sometimes a place name can appear anglicised, but is not, such as when the form being used in English is an older name that has now been changed. For example, Turin in the Piedmont province of Italy was named Turin in the original Piedmontese language, but is now officially known as ''Torino'' in Italian. English-language media can sometimes overcompensate for this in the mistaken belief that the anglicised name was imposed by English speakers and is cultural domination. The International Olympic Committee made the choice to officially regard the city as "Torino" throughout the 2006 Winter Olympics.

The English/French name for Florence in Italy is closer to the original name in Latin (''Florentia'') than is the modern Italian name (''Firenze'').

Historical personal names

In the past, the names of people from other language areas were anglicised to a higher extent than today. This was the general rule for names of Latin or (classical) Greek origin. Today, the anglicised name forms are often retained for the more common persons, like Aristotle for ''Aristoteles'', and Adrian or (later) Hadrian for ''Hadrianus''. However, less well-known persons from the antiquity now are often given their full name (in the nominative case).

For royalty, the anglicisation of personal name was a general phenomenon, especially until recently: Charles for ''Carlos'', ''Karoly'', and ''Karl''; Frederic for ''Friedrich'' or ''Fredrik'', etc. Anglicisation is still the rule for popes, including recent ones: Pope John Paul II instead of ''Ioannes Paulus II'', Pope Benedict XVI instead of ''Benedictus XVI''.

Immigrant family and personal names

During the time in which there were large influxes of immigrants from Europe to the United States and United Kingdom during the 19th and 20th centuries, the names of many immigrants were changed.

French immigrants to the United States (both those of Huguenot and French Canadian background) often accommodated those unfamiliar with French pronunciations and spellings by altering their surnames in either of two ways: spellings were changed to fit the traditional pronunciation (Pariseau became Parizo, Boucher became Bushey, Mailloux became Mayhew), or pronunciations were changed to fit the spelling (Benoît, pronounced , became ). In some cases, it could go either way (Gagné, pronounced , become or Gonyea), or something only slightly similar (Bourassa became Bersaw).

Most Irish names have been anglicised. A good example of this can be seen in the surnames of many Irish families – for example, Ó Briain has often become O'Brien, Ó Rothláin became Rowland, Ó Néill became O'Neill and some surnames like Ó Súilleabháin may be shortened to just O'Sullivan or Sullivan. Similarly, native Scottish names were altered such as Somhairle to Sorley, Mac Gill-Eain to MacLean, and Mac Aoidh to MacKay. Many Welsh names have also been altered, such as 'ap Hywell' to Powell, or 'ap Siôn' to Jones.

German names have also been anglicised (von Licht to Light) due to the German immigration waves during times of political instability in the late 19th century and early 20th century. A somewhat different special case was the politically motivated change of dynasty name in 1917 by the royal family of the United Kingdom from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to the House of Windsor.

The anglicisation of a personal name now usually depends on the preferences of the bearer. Name changes are less common today for Europeans emigrating to the United States than they are for people originating in East Asian countries (except for Japan, which no longer has large-scale emigration). For instance, ''Xiangyun'' might be anglicised to ''Sean'' as the pronunciation is similar (though Sean - or Seán - is Irish and is a Gaelicisation of the Anglo-Norman ''Jean'', which itself has been anglicised to John).

Ethnonyms

In some cases ethnonyms may be anglicised from a term in another language (either the language of the group described or the language of another people).

Anglicisation of other languages

A more recent linguistic development is anglicisation of other languages, in which words are borrowed ''from'' English; such a word is known as an anglicism. With the rise in Anglophone media and global spread of British and American cultures in the 20th and 21st centuries, many English terms have entered popular usage in other tongues. Technology-related English words like ''internet'' and ''computer'' are particularly common across the globe, as there are no pre-existing words for them. English words are sometimes imported verbatim, and sometimes adapted to the importing language in a process similar to anglicisation. In languages with non-Latin alphabets, these borrowed words can be written in the Latin alphabet anyway, resulting in a text made up of a mixture of scripts; other times they are transliterated. Transliteration of English and other foreign words into Japanese requires the special katakana script.

In some countries such anglicisation is seen as relatively benign, and the use of English words may even take on a ''chic'' aspect. In Japan marketing products for the domestic market often involves using English or pseudo-English brand names and slogans. In other countries, anglicisation is seen much more negatively, and there are efforts by public-interest groups and governments to reverse the trend; for example, the Académie française in France insists on the use of French neologisms to describe technological inventions in place of imported English terms. But also in the province of Quebec, the Office québécois de la langue française is the equivalence of the Académie française.

Anglicisation of minority language groups

The adoption of English as a personal, preferred language is another form of anglicisation. Calvin Veltman, following the methods of analysis developed in Quebec, Canada for establishing rates of language shift, uses the term to refer to the practice of individuals in minority language groups who cease using their mother tongue as their usual, preferred language and adopt English instead. When such individuals continue to speak their mother tongue, they are referred to as "English-dominant bilinguals" and when they cease to do so, they are referred to as "English monolinguals". Rates of anglicisation may be calculated by comparing the number of people who usually speak English to the total number of people in any given minority language group.

References

See also

Anglicism

Anglosphere

Anglish

British Empire

English exonyms of Arabic speaking places

English words with diacritics

Loanword

Romanization

Assimilation (linguistics)

Category:English language Category:Scots language Category:Types of words Category:Word coinage Category:Transliteration Category:Cultural assimilation

cy:Seisnigo fr:Anglicisation he:אינגלוז nl:Verengelsing ro:Anglicizare simple:Anglicisation th:การแผลงเป็นอังกฤษ zh:英語化

Coordinates	45°47′45″N24°09′08″N
name	Blessed Ramon Llull, T.O.S.F.
birth date	ca. 1232
death date	June 30, 1315
feast day	June 30
venerated in	Third Order of St. Francis, Roman Catholic Church
titles	martyr
birth place	Palma de Mallorca, Crown of Aragon
death place	Palma de Mallorca, Majorca
titles	martyr
beatified date	1847
beatified place	Rome
beatified by	Blessed Pope Pius IX
occupation	Writer, philosopher, logician
notableworks	''Art Abreujada d'Atrobar Veritat'', ''The Book of the Lover and the Beloved'', ''Blanquerna''
influences	Gottfried Leibnitz
influenced	}}

Ramon Llull (, (1232 – June 29, 1315) (Anglicised Raymond Lully, Raymond Lull, in Latin Raimundus or Raymundus Lullus or Lullius) was a Majorcan writer and philosopher, logician and tertiary Franciscan. He wrote the first major work of Catalan literature. Recently-surfaced manuscripts show him to have anticipated by several centuries prominent work on elections theory. He is sometimes considered a pioneer of computation theory, especially given his influence on Gottfried Leibniz. Llull is well known also as a glossator of Roman Law.

Within the Franciscan Order, he is honored as a martyr. He was beatified in 1857 by Blessed Pope Pius IX and his feast day was assigned to June 30th, the day of his death.

Early life

Llull was born into a wealthy family in Palma, the capital of the new Kingdom of Majorca founded by James I of Aragon to integrate politically the recently-conquered territories of the Balearic Islands (nowadays part of Spain) in the Crown of Aragon.

He was well educated, and became the tutor of James II of Aragon. He was conversant in Latin, Catalan, Occitan (both considered the same language at the time as "popular Latin") and Arabic.

By 1257 he had married Blanca Picany and they had two children, Domènec and Magdalena; yet despite his family he lived, as before, a troubadour's life. About this time he became the Seneschal (the administrative head of the royal household) to the future King James II of Majorca.

A key event in his early life was his religious conversion. In 1265 he had a religious epiphany which he narrates in the ''Vita coaetanea'' ("Daily Life"), an "autobiography" which he dictated circa 1311.

The vision came to him five times in all. As a consequence of this conversion experience, he took the habit of the Third Order of St. Francis the following year.

His first major work ''Art Abreujada d'Atrobar Veritat'' (''The Abbreviated Art of Finding Truth'') was written in Catalan and then translated into Latin. He wrote treatises on alchemy and botany, ''Ars Magna'', and ''Llibre de meravelles''. He wrote the romantic novel ''Blanquerna'', the first major work of literature written in Catalan, and perhaps the first European novel. Llull pressed for the study of Arabic and other then-insufficiently studied languages in Spain for the purpose of converting Muslims to Christianity. He even wrote some books in Arabic.

His mission to convert the Jews of Europe was zealous, his goal to utterly relieve Christendom of any Jews or Jewish religious influence. Some scholars regard Llull's as the first comprehensive articulation, in the Christian West, of an expulsionist policy regarding Jews who refused conversion. To acquire converts, he worked for amicable public debate to foster an intellectual appreciation of a rational Christianity among the Jews of his time. His rabbinic opponents included Rabbi Shlomo ben Aderet of Barcelona and Moshe ben Shlomo of Salerno.

''Ars generalis ultima'' (''Ars Magna'')

Around 1275, Llull designed a method, which he first published in full in his ''Ars generalis ultima'' or ''Ars magna'' ("The Ultimate General Art", published in 1305), of combining religious and philosophical attributes selected from a number of lists. It is believed that Llull's inspiration for the ''Ars magna'' came from observing Arab astrologers use a device called a zairja.

It was intended as a debating tool for winning Muslims to the Christian faith through logic and reason. Through his detailed analytical efforts, Llull built an in-depth theological reference by which a reader could enter in an argument or question about the Christian faith. The reader would then turn to the appropriate index and page to find the correct answer.

Llull also invented numerous 'machines' for the purpose. One method is now called the ''Lullian Circle'', each of which consisted of two or more paper discs inscribed with alphabetical letters or symbols that referred to lists of attributes. The discs could be rotated individually to generate a large number of combinations of ideas. A number of terms, or symbols relating to those terms, were laid around the full circumference of the circle. They were then repeated on an inner circle which could be rotated. These combinations were said to show all possible truth about the subject of the circle. Llull based this on the notion that there were a limited number of basic, undeniable truths in all fields of knowledge, and that we could understand everything about these fields of knowledge by studying combinations of these elemental truths.

The method was an early attempt to use logical means to produce knowledge. Llull hoped to show that Christian doctrines could be obtained artificially from a fixed set of preliminary ideas. For example, one of the tables listed the attributes of God: goodness, greatness, eternity, power, wisdom, will, virtue, truth and glory. Llull knew that all believers in the monotheistic religions - whether Jews, Muslims or Christians - would agree with these attributes, giving him a firm platform from which to argue.

The idea was developed further by Giordano Bruno in the 16th century, and by Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century for investigations into the philosophy of science. Leibniz gave Llull's idea the name ''ars combinatoria'', by which it is now often known. Some computer scientists have adopted Llull as a sort of founding father, claiming that his system of logic was the beginning of information science.

Missions

First mission

Llull became a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis founded by Saint Francis of Assisi for lay people. He was not only influenced by Saint Francis but also the Dominican, St. Thomas Aquinas. Because he was married, he could never enter the Franciscans as a friar as some have believed. He traveled through Europe to interest popes, kings and princes in establishing special colleges to prepare future missionaries to convert the infidels of Tunis to Christianity.

In 1285, he hoped to embrace a martyr's death and embarked on his first mission to North Africa; he wound up, instead, violently expelled from Tunis.

In 1297 Llull met Duns Scotus, after which he was given the nickname ''Doctor Illuminatus''. This is possibly in reference to the manner of his conversion.

Second mission

Llull travelled to Tunis a second time in about 1304, and wrote numerous letters to the king of Tunis, but little else is known about this part of his life.

While Llull was a member of the Franciscan Third Order, founded by Saint Francis of Assisi for lay people, he was not only influenced by Saint Francis but also by the Dominican St. Thomas Aquinas in his development of Scholastic Theology. Because he was married, he could never enter the Franciscans as a friar as some have believed.

Third mission, Council, and death

In the early 14th century, Llull visited North Africa on a reconnaissance mission for a Crusade being planned by the Pope. He returned in 1308, reporting that the conversion of Muslims should be achieved through prayer, not through military force. Llull finally achieved his goal of linguistic education at major universities in 1311 when the Council of Vienne ordered the creation of chairs of Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldean (Aramaic) at the Universities of Bologna, Oxford, Paris, Salamanca, and at the Papal Court.

At the age of 82, in 1314, Raymond traveled again to North Africa and an angry crowd of Muslims stoned him in the city of Bougie or Béjaïa in present-day northern Algeria. Genoese merchants took him back to Mallorca where he died at home in Palma the next year. Riber, ''Raimunco Lulio'' (1935, 1949); Bonner, "Historical Background and Life" in his ''Doctor Illuminatus'' (1985).

Reputation and reception after death

His rationalistic mysticism was formally condemned by Pope Gregory XI in 1376 and the condemnation was renewed by Pope Paul IV, though he himself remained in good standing with the Church. Despite this, 100 of his theories were condemned by the inquisitor general, Nicholas Eymerich.

Chairs for the propagation of the theories of Llull were set up at the University of Barcelona and the University of Valencia. He is regarded as one of the most influential authors in Catalan; the language is sometimes referred to as ''la llengua de Llull'', as other languages might be referred to as ''la langue de Molière'' (French), ''la lengua de Cervantes'' (Castilian) or ''die Sprache Goethes'' (German).

The logo of the Spanish ''Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas'' ("Higher Council of Scientific Research") is Llull's Tree of Science. Ramon Llull University, a private university established in Barcelona in 1990, is named for the philosopher.

Mathematics, statistics, and classification

With the 2001 discovery of his lost manuscripts ''Ars notandi'', ''Ars eleccionis'', and ''Alia ars eleccionis'', Llull is given credit for discovering the Borda count and Condorcet criterion, which Jean-Charles de Borda and Marquis de Condorcet independently discovered centuries later. The terms Llull winner and Llull loser are ideas in contemporary voting systems studies that are named in honor of Llull. Also, Llull is recognized as pioneer of computation theory, especially due to his great influence on Gottfried Leibniz. Llull's systems of organizing concepts using devices such as trees, ladders, and wheels, have been analyzed as classification systems.

Mysticism and the occult

Ramon Llull also had a strong mystical side, instanced in his work ''The Book of the Lover and the Beloved'', written in order to illuminate weary, sterile souls. He was also interested in, and wrote about, astrology.

A synthesis of Llull's work was made by his disciple Thomas Le Myésier, in his ''Electorium''. In the early modern period Bernard de Lavinheta connected Llull with contemporary hermeticism.

Art and architecture

The inspiration by Ramon Llulls mnemonic graphic cartwheels, reaching into contemporary art and culture, is demonstrated by Daniel Libeskind's architectural construction of the 2003 completed Studio Weil in Port d'Andratx, Majorca. „Studio Weil, a development of the virtuality of these mnemonic wheels which ever center and de-center the universal and the personal, is built to open these circular islands which float like all artwork in the oceans of memory.”

Modern fiction

Paul Auster refers to Llull (as Raymond Lull) in his memoir ''The Invention of Solitude'' in the second part, ''The Book of Memory''. Llull, now going under the name 'Cole Hawlings' and revealed to be immortal, is a major character in ''The Box of Delights'', the celebrated children's novel by poet John Masefield. He is also a major influence on the fictional character Zermano in Thomas Salazar's ''The Day of the Bees'', and his name, philosophies, and quotes from his writings appear throughout the novel. In Roberto Bolano's novel 2666, Amalfitano, a Chilean professor, thinks about "Ramon Llull and his fantastic machine. Fantastic in its uselessness." Adan, Leopoldo Marechal's protagonist of the novel Adan Buenosayres (1948), mentions Ramon Lulio when he walks by the "curtiembre": He says: "Ramon Lulio, que aconsejaba no rehuir del olor de las letrinas a fin de recordar a munod lo que da el cuerpo de si mismo en su tan frecuentemente olvidada miseria" (Edicion Critica, Coleccion Archivos, 1997. Page 312)

Works

Llull is known to have written at least 265 works, including:

''The Book of the Lover and the Beloved''

''Blanquerna'' (a novel; 1283)

''Desconort'' (on the superiority of reason)

''L'arbre de ciència'', ''Arbor scientiae'' ("Tree of Science") (1295)

''Tractatus novus de astronomia''

''Ars Magna'' (''The Great Art'') (1305) or ''Ars Generalis Ultima'' (''The Ultimate General Art'')

''Ars Brevis'' (''The Short Art''; an abbreviated version of the ''Ars Magna'')

''Llibre de meravelles''

''Practica compendiosa''

''Liber de Lumine'' (''The Book of Light'')

''Ars Infusa'' (''The Inspired Art'')

''Book of Propositions''

''Liber Chaos'' (''The Book of Chaos'')

''Book of the Seven Planets''

''Liber Proverbiorum'' (''Book of Proverbs'')

''Book on the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit''

''Ars electionis'' (on voting) ''Artifitium electionis personarum'' (on voting)

''Ars notatoria''

''Introductoria Artis demonstrativae''

''Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men''

''Llibre qui es de l'ordre de cavalleria'' (''The Book of the Order of Chivalry'' written between 1279–1283)

''Le Livre des mille proverbes'' (2008), ISBN : 978-2-9531917-0-7, Éditions de la Merci, editions@orange.fr

''Vademecum, quo sontes Alchemica Art'' (cited by Arthur Dee in his Fasciculus Chemicus

About another 400 works are doubtfully or spuriously attributed to him.

Bibliography

Anthony Bonner (ed.), ''Doctor Illuminatus. A Ramon Llull Reader'' (Princeton University 1985), includes ''The Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men'', ''The Book of the Lover and the Beloved'', ''The Book of the Beasts'', and ''Ars brevis''; as well as Bonner's "Historical Background and Life" at 1-44, "Llull's Thought" at 45-56, "Llull's Influence: The History of Lullism" at 57-71.

Martin Gardner has written extensively about Llull. His analyses can be found in ''Logic Machines and Diagrams'' and ''Science - Good, Bad and Bogus''.

Antonio Monserat Quintana, ''La Visión Lulliana del Mundo Derecho'' (Palma de Mallorca: Institut d'Estudis Baleàrics 1987).

J. N. Hillgarth, ''Ramon Lull and Lullism in Fourteenth-Century France'' (Oxford University 1971).

Frances Yates includes a brief chapter on Lull in "The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age" (London, Ark Paperbacks 1979).

Frances Yates, "Lull and Bruno" (1982) Collected Essays I

Lorenzo Riber, ''Raimundo Lulio'' (Barcelona: Editorial Labor 1935, 1949).

William Theodore Aquila Barber, ''Raymond Lull, the illuminated doctor : a study in mediaeval missions'', London : C.H. Kelly, 1903.

Samuel Marinus Zwemer, ''Raymund Lull, first missionary to the Moslems'', New York and London : Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1902; reprinted by Diggory Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-84685-301-2

William Thomas Walsh, ''Characters of the Inquisition'', Tan Books and Publishers, Inc (1940). ISBN 0-89555-326-0

Notes

External links

Raymund Lull: First Missionary to the Muslims by Samuel M. Zwemer

Ramon Llull at the AELC (Association of Writers in Catalan Language). Webpage in Catalan, English and Spanish.

Ramon Llull in LletrA, Catalan Literature Online (Open University of Catalonia)

Site with fulltexts of Raymond Lull's books. Also music based on Lullian arts.

English translations of lullian works, freeware version of Ars Magna

Ramon Llull Database, University of Barcelona

Patron Saints Index

''Catholic Encyclopedia'' article of 1911

Ramon Llull at Lletra, espai virtual de literatura catalana)

Càtedra Ramon Llull (in Catalan)

Blessed Raymond Lull

The Ultimate General Art

Esteve Jaulent:The Theory of Knowledge and the Unity of Man according to Ramon Llull

Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution portrait of Ramon Llull in .jpg and .tiff format.

Category:1230s births Category:1315 deaths Category:Arabic-language writers Category:Catalan language Category:Catalan philosophers Category:Catalan-language writers Category:Christian Kabbalists Category:Christian philosophers Category:Third Order of Saint Francis Category:Medieval writers Category:People from Palma de Mallorca Category:People executed by stoning Category:Roman Catholic philosophers Category:Scholastic philosophers Category:13th-century philosophers Category:14th-century philosophers Category:Astrologers Category:Theologians Category:Christian mystics

bg:Реймонд Лулий ca:Ramon Llull cs:Raimundus Lullus da:Ramon Llull de:Ramon Llull es:Ramon Llull eo:Ramon Lullo eu:Ramon Llull fa:رامون لیول fr:Raymond Lulle gl:Ramon Llull hr:Ramon Llull it:Raimondo Lullo he:רמון ליול kk:Луллий la:Raimundus Lullus nl:Ramon Llull ja:ライムンドゥス・ルルス oc:Ramon Llull pms:Ramon Llull pl:Rajmund Llull pt:Raimundo Lúlio ro:Ramon Llull ru:Раймунд Луллий sk:Ramon Llull fi:Ramon Llull sv:Raimundus Lullus uk:Раймунд Луллій

Enrico Dandolo (1107? – 21 June 1205) — anglicised as Henry Dandolo and Latinized as Henricus Dandulus — was the 41st Doge of Venice from 1195 until his death. Remembered for his blindness, piety, longevity, and shrewdness, and is infamous for his role in the Fourth Crusade which he, at age ninety and blind, surreptitiously redirected against the Byzantine Empire from reconquering the Holy Land, sacking Constantinople in the process.

In the nineteenth-century, the Regia Marina (Italian Navy) launched an ironclad battleship named ''Enrico Dandolo''.

Blindness

It is not known for certain when and how Dandolo became blind. The story passed around after the Fourth Crusade (which is the version told by modern Venetians and accepted by many historians) was that he had been blinded by the Byzantines during his 1171 embassy, although it is possible that he suffered from cortical blindness as a result of a severe blow to the back of the head received sometime between 1174 and 1176.

Dandolo's blindness appears to have been total. Writing thirty years later, Geoffrey de Villehardouin, who had known Dandolo personally, stated, "Although his eyes appeared normal, he could not see a hand in front of his face, having lost his sight after a head wound." Although even this account may have become exaggerated by the gloss of time, it is clear in any event that Dandolo's sight was severely impaired.

Life

Early career in politics

Born in Venice, he was the son of the powerful jurist and member of the ducal court, Vitale Dandolo. Dandolo had served the ''Serenissima'' Republic in diplomatic (as ambassador to Ferrara and ''bailus'' in Constantinople) and perhaps military roles for many years.

Dandolo was from a socially and politically prominent Venetian family. His father Vitale was a close advisor of Doge Vitale II Michiel, while an uncle, also named Enrico Dandolo, was patriarch of Grado, the highest-ranking churchman in Venice. Both these men lived to be quite old, and the younger Enrico was overshadowed until he was in his sixties.

Dandolo's first important political roles were during the crisis years of 1171 and 1172. In March 1171 the Byzantine government had seized the goods of thousands of Venetians living in the empire, and then imprisoned them all. Popular demand forced the doge to gather a retaliatory expedition, which however fell apart when struck by the plague early in 1172. Dandolo had accompanied the disastrous expedition against Constantinople led by Doge Vitale Michiel during 1171-1172. Upon returning to Venice, Michiel was killed by an irate mob, but Dandolo escaped blame and was appointed as an ambassador to Constantinople in the following year, as Venice sought unsuccessfully to arrive at a diplomatic settlement of its disputes with Byzantium. Renewed negotiations begun twelve years later finally led to a treaty in 1186, but the earlier episodes seem to have created in Enrico Dandolo a deep and abiding hatred for the Byzantines.

During the following years Dandolo twice went as ambassador to King William II of Sicily, and then in 1183 returned to Constantinople to negotiate the restoration of the Venetian quarter in the city.

Dogeship

On 1 January 1193, Dandolo became the thirty-ninth Doge of Venice. Already old and blind, but deeply ambitious, he displayed tremendous mental and (for his age) physical strength. Some accounts say he was already 85 years old when he became Doge. His remarkable deeds over the next eleven years bring that age into question, however. Others have hypothesized that he may have been in his mid-70s when he became Venice's leader.

Two years after taking office, in 1194, Enrico enacted reforms to the Venetian currency system. He introduced the large silver ''grosso'' worth 26 ''denarii'', and the ''quartarolo'' worth 1/4 of a ''dinaro''. Also he reinstated the Bianco worth 1/2 denaro, which had not been minted for twenty years. He debased the ''dinaro'' and its fractions, whereas the ''grosso'' was kept at 98.5% pure silver to ensure its usefulness for foreign trade. Enrico's revolutionary changes made the ''grosso'' the dominant currency for trade in the Mediterranean and contributed to the wealth and prestige of Venice. In later years, the value of the ''grosso'' would climb relative to the increasingly debased denaro, until it was itself debased in 1332. Soon after the introduction of the ''grosso'', the ''dinaro'' began to be referred to as the ''piccolo''. Literally ''grosso'' means "large one" and piccolo means "small one".

Fourth Crusade

In 1202 the knights of the Fourth Crusade were stranded in Venice, unable to pay for the ships they had commissioned after far fewer troops arrived than expected. Dandolo developed a plan that allowed the crusaders' debt to be suspended if they assisted the Venetians in restoring nearby Zadar to Venetian control. At an emotional and rousing ceremony in San Marco di Venezia, Dandolo "took the cross" (committed himself to crusading) and was soon joined by thousands of other Venetians. Dandolo became an important leader of the crusade.

Venice was the major financial backer of the Fourth Crusade, supplied the Crusaders' ships, and lent money to the Crusaders who became heavily indebted to Venice. Because of the crusaders' continued delays, provisions were also a problem for the enterprise.

Although they were supposed to be sailing to Egypt, Dandolo convinced them to stop at Zadar, a port city on the Adriatic that was claimed both by Venice and by the Kingdom of Hungary. Dandolo encouraged the crusaders to attack the city which had rebelled from Venice. A small number of Crusaders refused to help; but the others realized that the conquest of the rebel town and subsequent wintering there was the only way to hold the faltering crusade together. Zadar was besieged and captured on November 15, 1202.

Shortly afterwards, Alexius Angelus, son of the deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II, arrived in that city. Dandolo agreed to go along with the crusade leaders' plan to place Alexius Angelus on the throne of the Byzantine Empire in return for Byzantine support of the crusade. This ultimately led to the conquest and sack of Constantinople on April 13, 1204, an event at which Dandolo was present and in which he played a directing role. The Catholic Crusaders then took permanent control of the Eastern Orthodox capital of Constantinople and established a Catholic state, the Latin Empire. In the ''Partitio Romaniae'', Venice gained title to three-eighths of the Byzantine Empire as a result of her crucial support to the Crusade. The Byzantine Empire was never again as powerful as it had been prior to the Fourth Crusade.

He was active enough to take part in an expedition against the Bulgarians, but died in 1205. He was buried in Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, probably in the upper Eastern gallery. In the 19th century an Italian restoration team placed a cenotaph marker near the probable location, which is still visible today. The marker is frequently mistaken by tourists as being a medieval marker of the actual tomb of the doge. The real tomb was destroyed by the Turks after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and subsequent conversion of Hagia Sophia into a mosque.

Descendants

His son, Raniero, served as vice-doge during Dandolo's absence and was later killed in the war against Genoa for the control of Crete. His granddaughter, Anna Dandolo, was married to the Serbian king Stefan Nemanjić. Although later genealogists attributed a whole brood of distinguished children to the doge, none of them actually existed. It is very possible that he had only the one son. During his dogeship he was married to a woman named Contessa, who may have been a member of the Minotto clan. Although there were several subsequent doges of the Dandolo family, none were direct descendents of Enrico.

Notes

References

Category:1100s births Category:1205 deaths Category:People from Venice (city) Category:Doges of Venice Category:13th century in the Byzantine Empire Category:Christians of the Fourth Crusade Category:12th-century Italian people Category:13th-century Italian people Enrico Category:12th-century rulers in Europe Category:13th-century rulers in Europe Category:Blind people

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Coordinates	45°47′45″N24°09′08″N
Name	Yngwie Malmsteen
Background	solo_singer
Alias	Yngwie J. MalmsteenLars Y. Loudamp
Birth name	Lars Johan Yngve Lannerbäck
Born	June 30, 1963Stockholm, Sweden
Instrument	Guitar, bass, keyboards, vocals, sitar, cello
Genre	Heavy metal, neo-classical metal, speed metal, hard rock, power metal
Occupation	Musician, songwriter, producer
Years active	1978–present
Label	Polydor, Polygram, Elektra, Rising Force Records, Universal Music
Associated acts	Steeler, Alcatrazz, Rising Force, Hear 'n Aid, G3
Website	Official website
Notable instruments	Yngwie Malmsteen Signature Stratocaster }}

Yngwie Johann Malmsteen ( ; born June 30, 1963) is a Swedish virtuoso guitarist, composer, multi-instrumentalist and bandleader. Malmsteen became known for his neo-classical playing approach in heavy metal music which became a new musical style in the early 1980s. He is considered by many to be one of the most technically gifted rock guitarists of all time and a pioneer of shred guitar.

Early life

Malmsteen was born Lars Johan Yngve Lannerbäck in Stockholm, Sweden, as the third child of a musically-inclined family. At age seven, he saw a television news report on the death of Jimi Hendrix, an event which had a profound impact on his musical path. Malmsteen has later stated that Hendrix had no musical impact on him, but on September 18, 1970 he saw a TV special of Hendrix, where he smashed and burned his guitar, and Malmsteen thought: "this is really cool". To quote his official website, "The day Jimi Hendrix died, the guitar-playing Yngwie was born". At the age of 10 he took his mother's maiden name Malmsten as his surname, slightly changed it to Malmsteen, and Anglicised his given name Yngve to "Yngwie". Yngwie also created his first band "Track On Earth" at the age of 10, consisting of himself and a friend from school on drums (Armin). Malmsteen was a teenager when he first encountered the music of the 19th century violin virtuoso Niccolò Paganini, whom he cites as his biggest classical music influence. Ritchie Blackmore and Uli Jon Roth are also cited as being significant influences, as is Brian May of Queen. He played featuring Denim And Leather song with Saxon during The Eagle Has Landed part II tour.

Recording career

1980s

In late 1982, Mike Varney of Shrapnel Records, who had heard a demo tape of Malmsteen's playing, brought Malmsteen to the U.S. He had brief engagements with Steeler, for their self-titled album of 1983, then Graham Bonnet's Alcatrazz, for their 1983 debut ''No Parole from Rock 'n' Roll'', and the 1984 live album ''Live Sentence''. Malmsteen released his first solo album ''Rising Force'' in 1984, which featured Barrie Barlow of Jethro Tull on drums. His album was really meant to be an instrumental side-project of Alcatrazz, but it contained vocals, and Malmsteen left Alcatrazz soon after the release of ''Rising Force''.

''Rising Force'' won the Guitar Player Magazine's award for Best Rock Album and was also nominated for a Grammy for 'Best Rock Instrumental', achieving #60 on the Billboard album chart. Yngwie J. Malmsteen's Rising Force (as his band was thereafter known) next released ''Marching Out'' (1985). Jeff Scott Soto filled vocal duties on these initial albums. His third album, ''Trilogy'', featuring the vocals of Mark Boals, was released in 1986. In 1987, another singer, former Rainbow vocalist Joe Lynn Turner joined his band. That year, Malmsteen was in a serious car accident, smashing his Jaguar E-Type into a tree and putting him in a coma for a week. Nerve damage to his right hand was reported. During his time in the hospital, Malmsteen's mother died from cancer. In the summer of 1988 he released his fourth album, ''Odyssey''. Odyssey would be his biggest hit album, mainly because of its first single "Heaven Tonight". Shows in Russia during the Odyssey tour were recorded, and released in 1989 as his fifth album ''Trial By Fire: Live in Leningrad''.

Malmsteen's "Neo-classical" style of metal became popular among some guitarists during the mid 1980s, with contemporaries such as Jason Becker, Paul Gilbert, Marty Friedman, Tony MacAlpine and Vinnie Moore becoming prominent. In late 1988, Malmsteen's signature Fender Stratocaster guitar was released, making him and Eric Clapton the first artists to be honored by Fender.

1990s

In the early 1990s, Malmsteen released the albums ''Eclipse'' (1990), ''The Yngwie Malmsteen Collection'' (1991), ''Fire and Ice'' (1992) and ''The Seventh Sign'' (1994). Despite his early success, and continuous success in Europe and Asia, by the early 1990s 1980s heavy metal styles such as neoclassical metal and lengthy, virtuoso shred guitar solos had become unfashionable in the US.

In 1993, Malmsteen's future mother-in-law, opposed to his engagement to her daughter, had him falsely arrested for holding the woman hostage with a gun. The charges were quickly dropped. Malmsteen continued to record and release albums under the Japanese record label Pony Canyon, and maintained a devoted following from some fans in Europe and Japan, and to a lesser extent in the USA. In 2000, he once again acquired a contract with a US record label, Spitfire, and released his 1990s catalog into the US market for the first time, including what he regards as his masterpiece, ''Concerto Suite for Electric Guitar and Orchestra'', recorded with the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra in Prague.

In the mid 1990's Malmsteen went on to release the albums Magnum Opus (1995), Inspiration (1996) Facing the Animal (1997), Double LIVE! (1998) and Alchemy (1999). In 1996, Malmsteen joined forces with former band members Jeff Scott Soto and Marcel Jacob on the Human Clay album where he played lead guitar on the track Jealousy

2000s

After the release of ''War to End All Wars'' in 2000, singer Mark Boals left the band. He was replaced by former Rainbow vocalist Doogie White. White's vocals were well received by fans. In 2003, Malmsteen joined Joe Satriani and Steve Vai as part of the G3 supergroup. Malmsteen made two guest appearances on keyboardist Derek Sherinian's albums ''Black Utopia'' (2003), and ''Blood of the Snake'' (2006) where Malmsteen is heard on the same tracks as Al Di Meola and Zakk Wylde. In 2004, Malmsteen made two cameo appearances on Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law.

Malmsteen released ''Unleash the Fury'' in 2005. (This title may be a reference to an audio recording that supposedly captured Malmsteen's immoderate response to a flight attendant who spilled a beverage on him. The recording found popularity in filesharing networks as an example of the absurd behavior of celebrities.) He is married to April (Ebru Solmaz, born in Istanbul, Turkey) and has a son named Antonio after Antonio Vivaldi, and they live in Miami, Florida. A noted Ferrari enthusiast, Malmsteen owned a black 1985 308 GTS for 18 years before selling it on eBay, and a red 1962 250 GTO. In 2007, Malmsteen was honored in the Xbox 360 version of ''Guitar Hero II''. Players can receive the "Yngwie Malmsteen" award by hitting 1000 or more notes in succession. February 2008 saw the replacement of singer Doogie White with former Iced Earth and Judas Priest and current Beyond Fear singer Tim "Ripper" Owens, with whom Malmsteen had once recorded a cover of Ozzy Osbourne's song "Mr. Crowley", for the 2000 Osbourne tribute album ''Bat Head Soup: A Tribute to Ozzy''. The first Malmsteen album to feature Owens is titled Perpetual Flame and was released on October 14. On November 25, 2008, Malmsteen had three of his songs ("Caprici Di Diablo", "Damnation Game", and "Red Devil") released as downloadable content for the video games ''Rock Band'' and ''Rock Band 2''. In 2008 Malmsteen was a special guest on the VH1 Classic show "That Metal Show". In the 10th of March 2009, Malmsteen's label Rising Force has launched his new release Angels of Love, an instrumental album which features acoustic arrangements of some of his best-known ballads.

In August 2009, ''Time'' magazine named Malmsteen #9 on its list of the 10 best electric guitar players of all-time. Malmsteen recently released another album compilation entitled High Impact on December 8, 2009.

2010s

On November 23, 2010 ''Relentless'' was released, the second album to feature Tim "Ripper" Owens on vocals. The US version features a remake of "Arpeggios From Hell" as a bonus track. Yngwie appeared on Late Night With Jimmy Fallon along with Dana Carvey on February 3, 2011 to promote his album.

Technique and style

Malmsteen is known for his technical fluency and neo-classical metal compositions, often incorporating high speed picking and sweep picked arpeggios with harmonic minor and phrygian scales, and diminished arpeggios. He is often considered one of the most talented rock guitarists of all time and is considered to be a pioneer of shred guitar.

Musical equipment

Malmsteen has been a longtime user of Fender Stratocasters. His most famous Stratocaster is his 1972 blonde Strat, nicknamed "The Duck" because of its yellow finish and the Donald Duck stickers on the body. An alternative nickname for this guitar is "Play Loud" due to a sticker on the upper horn of the guitar. Fender made 100 replica copies of this guitar and marketed it as the "Play Loud Guitar". He also has a signature Stratocaster. It comes in a Vintage White finish with a maple neck, either a maple or rosewood fretboard with scalloped frets and, from 2010, Seymour Duncan STK-S10 YJM "Fury" Model pickups. There is also a signature YJM100 Marshall amplifier, based on the '1959' amplifier range.

Yngwie has stated that he prefers Stratocasters from the period of 1968-1972; he claims that the bigger headstock on these generates more sustain. Yngwie customizes his guitars by fitting a brass nut, removing the middle string tree and scalloping the fretboard. Yngwie previously disconnected the tone controls on his guitars but has said that he no longer does this.

Yngwie has previously used DiMarzio pickups - most notably the HS3 and the HS4 (Formerly known as the YJM). Yngwie would use an HS3 in the bridge and the HS4 in the middle and neck positions.

In his earlier recordings, Yngwie used an HS3 in the neck and bridge positions and a disconnected stock fender in the middle. In his earlier years he also used a Ibanez Gio Rg Series

Band members

; Current members

Tim "Ripper" Owens—vocals (2008–present)

Bjorn Englen—bass (2008–present)

Patrick Johansson—drums, percussion (2001–present)

Nick Marino—keyboards (2005–2006, 2010–present)

Discography

;Steeler

!Date of Release	!Title	!Label	!Chart positions	!US sales
1983		Shrapnel

;Alcatrazz

!Date of Release	!Title	!Label	!Chart positions	!US sales
	''No Parole from Rock N' Roll''
''Live Sentence''
	''Live '83''
''No Parole from Rock 'n' Roll Tour Live in Japan 1984.1.28 Audio Tracks''

;Solo

Year	Album details	Peak chart positions
!style="width:2em;font-size:75%"	!style="width:2em;font-size:75%"
1984	''Rising Force''	* Released: 1984	Polydor Records>Polydor	* Format:
1985	''Marching Out''	* Released: October 1985	* Label: Polydor	* Format:
1986		* Released: 1986	* Label: Polydor	* Format:
1988		* Released: March 1988	* Label: Polydor	* Format:
1989		* Released: October, 1989	* Label: Polydor	* Format:
1990		* Released: 1990	* Label: Polydor	* Format:
1991	''The Yngwie Malmsteen Collection''	* Released: November, 1991	* Label: Polydor	* Format:
1992		* Released: 1992	Elektra Records>Elektra	* Format:
		* Released: February 18, 1994	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
	* Released: September 21, 1994	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
	* Released: October 21, 1994	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
1995		* Released: June 6, 1995	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
1996		* Released: November 5, 1996	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
1997	''Facing the Animal''	* Released: September 3, 1997	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
	''Concerto Suite for Electric Guitar and Orchestra'' in E flat minor, Opus 1	* Released: February 4, 1998	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
''Double LIVE!''	* Released: September 18, 1998	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
1999		* Released: September 17, 1999	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
		* Released: March 15, 2000	* Label:	* Format:
''The young person's guide to the classics.1'' *	* Released: April 25, 2000	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
''The young person's guide to the classics.2'' *	* Released: April 25, 2000	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
	* Released: May 9, 2000	* Label: Dream Catcher	* Format:
	* Released: November 22, 2000	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
		* Released: January 9, 2002	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
	* Released: September 4, 2002	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
''The Genesis''	* Released: December 30, 2002	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
		* Released: January 1, 2004	* Label: Pony Canyon	* Format:
''G3: Rockin' in the Free World''	* Released: March 10, 2004	Epic Records>Epic	* Format:
	''Unleash the Fury	* Released: February 23, 2005	* Label: Universal Music	* Format:
''20th Century Masters - The Millennium Collection: The Best of Yngwie Malmsteen	* Released: May 24, 2005	* Label: Polydor	* Format:
2008	''Perpetual Flame	* Released: October 14, 2008	* Label: Rising Force Records/Universal Music Japan	* Format:
	''Angels of Love	* Released: March 10, 2009	* Label: Rising Force Records	* Format:
	* Released: December 8, 2009	* Label: Rising Force Records	* Format:
2010		* Released: November 23, 2010	* Label: Rising Force Records/Universal Music Japan	* Format:

See also

Guitar Moves

Shredding

Sweeping

G3 Tour

References

External links

Gaspar Muntwyler - Capricho Arabe/Preludio Obsesivo http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ijX0Zvg_Mc

Malmsteen Brazil Fanclub

Audio interview with Yngwie // Metalpaths.com 2010

Audio Interview with Yngwie on GuitarJamDaily.com

HardRadio.com interview with Yngwie

How to pronounce Yngwie Malmsteen in Swedish (Svenska)

http://baroqueandloud.fr-bb.com/index.forum : French forum of Yngwie Malmsteen

A very complete biography of Malmsteen in French, made by Michaël Mhamdi from Baroque and Loud Forum: http://malmsteenforum.free.fr/

Category:Swedish expatriates in the United States Category:American people of Swedish descent Category:Swedish heavy metal guitarists Category:Swedish rock guitarists Category:G3 Category:Lead guitarists Category:People from Stockholm Category:1963 births Category:Living people

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{| style="float:right;" |

Coordinates	45°47′45″N24°09′08″N
type	monarch
name	Margrethe II
imgw	200px
succession	Queen of Denmark
reign	14 January 1972 – present
predecessor	Frederik IX
successor	Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark
suc-type	Heir apparent
reg-type	Prime Ministers
regent
spouse	Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark
issue	Crown Prince Frederik Prince Joachim
house	House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg
full name	Margrethe Alexandrine Þórhildur Ingrid
father	Frederik IX of Denmark
mother	Ingrid of Sweden
birth date	April 16, 1940
birth place	Amalienborg Palace, Copenhagen
religion	Church of Denmark

|- | |}

Royal name	Queen Margrethe II of Denmark
Dipstyle	Her Majesty
Offstyle	Your Majesty
Altstyle	Ma'am}}

Margrethe II (; ''Margrethe Alexandrine Þórhildur Ingrid'', sometimes anglicised as Margaret II) (born 16 April 1940) is the queen regnant of the Kingdom of Denmark. In 1972 she became the first female monarch of Denmark since Margaret I, ruler of the Scandinavian countries in 1375-1412 during the Kalmar Union.

Early life

Princess Margrethe was born on 16 April 1940 at Amalienborg Palace in Copenhagen. Her parents were the future Frederik IX and Ingrid of Sweden, then Crown Prince and Crown Princess of Denmark.

She was baptised on 14 May 1940 in the Church of Holmen. Since her paternal grandfather, the then-reigning King Christian X, was also the King of Iceland at the time, as a tribute to the people of Iceland, the Princess was given an Icelandic name, ''Þórhildur'' (spelled with the Icelandic thorn character, simplified as "th"). This middle name is sometimes anglicized as "Thorhildur."The princess's godparents were King Christian X of Denmark, Prince Knud of Denmark, Prince Axel of Denmark, King Gustaf V of Sweden, Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden, Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden and Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn.

Margrethe has two younger sisters: Princess Benedikte (born 1944), who lives in Germany, and Queen Anne-Marie of Greece (born 1946), who lives in London.

In mid-1960, together with the Princesses of Sweden and Norway, she traveled to the United States, which included a visit to Los Angeles, California, and to the Paramount Studios, where they were met by several celebrities, including Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis and Elvis Presley.

Heiress presumptive

Margrethe was not born to be Monarch of Denmark. At the time of her birth, only males could ascend the throne of Denmark, owing to the changes in succession laws enacted in the 1850s when the Glücksburg branch was chosen to succeed. As she had no brothers, it was assumed that her uncle Prince Knud would one day assume the throne.

The process of changing the constitution started in 1947, not long after her father ascended the throne as Frederick IX and it became clear that Queen Ingrid would have no more children. The popularity of Frederik and his daughters and the more prominent role of women in Danish life started the complicated process of altering the constitution. That proposal had to be passed by two Parliaments in succession and then by a referendum, which was held on 27 March 1953. The new Act of Succession permitted female succession to the throne of Denmark, according to male-preference primogeniture, where a female can ascend to the throne only if she does not have a brother. Princess Margrethe therefore became the Heiress Presumptive. On her eighteenth birthday, 16 April 1958, the Heiress Presumptive was given a seat in the Council of State, and the Princess subsequently chaired the meetings of the Council in the absence of the King.

Education and marriage

She studied prehistoric archaeology at Girton College, Cambridge during 1960–61, political science at Aarhus University between 1961–1962, at the Sorbonne in 1963, and at the London School of Economics in 1965, and is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London.

On 10 June 1967, Princess Margrethe of Denmark married a French diplomat, Count Henri de Laborde de Monpezat, at the Naval Church of Copenhagen. Laborde de Monpezat received the style and title of "His Royal Highness Prince Henrik of Denmark" because of his new position as the spouse of the Heiress Presumptive to the Danish throne.

Queen Margrethe is fluent in her native tongue, Danish; the native tongue of her husband, French; as well as English, Swedish and German.

Reign

Her father King Frederik IX died on 14 January 1972. On the occasion of her accession to the throne, Queen Margrethe II became the first female Danish Sovereign under the new Act of Succession. She was proclaimed Queen from the balcony of Christiansborg Palace Square by Prime Minister Jens Otto Krag on 15 January 1972. The Queen chose the motto: ''God's help, the love of The People, Denmark's strength.''

In 2008 the Queen announced that her male-line descendants would bear the additional title of Count of Monpezat, which they inherit from the Queen's husband and consort, Henri-Marie-Jean André ''Count de Laborde de Monpezat''.

She is the 1,188th Dame of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and the 961st Lady of the Order of the Garter.

Constitutional role

After an election where the incumbent Prime Minister does not have a majority behind him, a “Dronningerunde” (Queen's meeting) between the chairmen of each of the Danish political parties attends a meeting with the monarch.

Each party has the choice of selecting a Royal Investigator to lead these negotiations or alternatively, give the incumbent Prime Minister the mandate to continue his government as is.

In theory each party could choose its own leader as Royal Investigator, the globalistic party Det Radikale Venstre did so in 2006, but often only one Royal Investigator is chosen plus the Prime Minister, before each election.

The leader who, at that meeting succeeds in securing a majority of the seats in the Folketing, is by royal decree charged with the task of forming a new government. (It has never happened in more modern history that any party has held a majority on its own.)

Once the government has been formed, it is formally appointed by the Queen. Officially, it is the Queen who is the head of government, and she therefore presides over the Council of State, where the acts of legislation which have been passed by the parliament are signed into law. In practice, however, nearly all of the Queen's formal powers are exercised by the Council of State, and she is required by convention to act on its advice.

The Queen's main tasks are to represent the Kingdom abroad and to be a unifying figurehead at home. The queen performs the latter task by accepting invitations to open exhibitions, attending anniversaries, inaugurating bridges, etc. As an unelected public official, the Queen takes no part in party politics and does not express any political opinions. Although she has the right to vote, she opts not to do so to avoid even the appearance of partisanship.

In addition to her roles in her own country, the queen is also the Colonel-in-Chief of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment (Queen's and Royal Hampshires), an infantry regiment of the British Army, following a tradition in her family.

Personal life and interests

The official residences of the Queen and the Prince Consort are Amalienborg Palace and Fredensborg Palace in Copenhagen. Their summer residence is Gravenstein Castle near Sønderborg, the dower of the Queen's mother, Ingrid, who died in 2000.

The Queen is an accomplished painter, and has held many art shows over the years . Her illustrations—under the pseudonym Ingahild Grathmer—were used for the Danish edition of ''The Lord of the Rings'' published in 1977 and the re-issue in 2002. She is also an accomplished translator and is said to have participated in the Danish translation of ''The Lord of the Rings''. She is also a costume designer and designs some of her own clothes.

Margrethe is a chain smoker, and she is famous for her tobacco habit.. However, on 23 November 2006 the Danish newspaper B.T. reported an announcement from the Royal Court stating that the queen would never again be seen smoking in public. Still, the queen does continue to smoke but in the future she will do so only privately. The announcement is probably due to the fact that the Danish parliament recently has decided on strict rules concerning smoking.

She suffers from arthritis and has had both her knees replaced as a result.

A statement in a 2005 authorized biography about the Queen (entitled ''Margrethe'') focused on her views of Islam: "We are being challenged by Islam these years. Globally as well as locally. There is something impressive about people for whom religion imbues their existence, from dusk to dawn, from cradle to grave. There are also Christians who feel this way. There is something endearing about people who give themselves up completely to their faith. But there is likewise something frightening about such a totality, which also is a feature of Islam. A counterbalance has to be found, and one has to, at times, run the risk of having unflattering labels placed on you. For there are some things for which one should display no tolerance. And when we are tolerant, we must know whether it is because of convenience or conviction."

Honours and decorations

Danish decorations

:Order of the Elephant :Grand Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog :One hundred anniversary Commemorative Medal of King Frederik IX's birth :One hundred anniversary Commemorative Medal of King Christian X's birth :Queen Ingrid's Commemorative Medal :Commemorative Medal for the 50-year anniversary of Her Majesty Queen Ingrid's arrival in Denmark :Home Guard fortjensttegn :Home Guard 25-year mark :Civil Defense League glory sign :Danish Reserve Officers Association Medal

Foreign decorations

:Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator San Martin (Argentina) :Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold (Belgium) :Order of the Southern Cross with chain (Brazil) :Order of Stara Planina with scarf (Bulgaria) :Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Chile) :Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (Estonia) :Order of Al Kamal (United Arab Emirates) :Chain of the Order of the Nile (Egypt) :Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of Finland :Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France) :Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (Greece) :Order of Saints Olga and Sophia (Greece) :Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of the Falcon (Iceland) :Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic :Order of the Precious Crown, First Class (Japan)) :Order of the Chrysanthemum with chain (Japan) :Order of al-Hussain ibn-Ali (Jordan) :Order of the Yugoslav Grand Star :Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of the Three Stars (Latvia) :Grand Cross of the Order of Vytautas the Great (Lithuania) :Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau (Luxembourg) :Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite (Morocco) :Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (Netherlands) :Order of Pratap Bhasker first class (Nepal) :Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of St. Olav (Norway) :Order of the White Eagle (Poland) :Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland :Grand Cross with chain of the Order of Prince Henry (Portugal) :Grand Cross with chain of the Order of Saint James of the Sword (Portugal) :Grand Cross with chain of the Order of the Star of Romania :Collar of the Order of Abdulaziz al Saud (Saudi Arabia) :Golden Order of Freedom of the Republic of Slovenia :Order of the Golden Fleece (Spain) :Grand Cross with chain of the Order of Charles III (Spain) :Knight of the Order of the Garter (United Kingdom) :Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (Commonwealth realms) :Chain of the Order of the Seraphim (Sweden) :Grand Cross with chain of the Order of Good Hope (South Africa) :Order of Maha Chakrkri first pm. with chain (Thailand) :Order of Rajamitrabhorn (Thailand) :Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany :Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Austria)

Symbols of Margrethe II

Family

The Queen and The Prince Consort have two children and seven grandchildren:

''His Royal Highness'' Frederik André Henrik Christian, Crown Prince of Denmark, Count of Monpezat, born on 26 May 1968. He was married on 14 May 2004 to Mary Elizabeth Donaldson, who was born on 5 February 1972. They have four children:

* ''His Royal Highness'' Prince Christian Valdemar Henri John of Denmark, Count of Monpezat, born on 15 October 2005.

* ''Her Royal Highness'' Princess Isabella Henrietta Ingrid Margrethe of Denmark, Countess of Monpezat, born on 21 April 2007.

* ''His Royal Highness'' Prince Vincent Frederik Minik Alexander of Denmark, Count of Monpezat, born on 8 January 2011.

* ''Her Royal Highness'' Princess Josephine Sophia Ivalo Mathilda of Denmark, Countess of Monpezat, born on 8 January 2011.

''His Royal Highness'' Prince Joachim Holger Waldemar Christian of Denmark, Count of Monpezat, born on 7 June 1969. He was married on 18 November 1995 to Alexandra Christina Manley, who was born on 30 June 1964. They divorced on 8 April 2005. He was married on 24 May 2008 to Marie Agathe Odile Cavallier, who was born on 6 February 1976. He has three sons:

* ''His Highness'' Prince Nikolai William Alexander Frederik of Denmark, Count of Monpezat, born on 28 August 1999.

* ''His Highness'' Prince Felix Henrik Valdemar Christian of Denmark, Count of Monpezat, born on 22 July 2002.

* ''His Highness'' Prince Henrik Carl Joachim Alain of Denmark, Count of Monpezat, born on 4 May 2009.

Ancestry

{{ahnentafel-compact5 |style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%; |border=1 |boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0; |boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc; |boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9; |boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc; |boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe; |1= 1. Margrethe II of Denmark |2= 2. Frederick IX of Denmark |3= 3. Princess Ingrid of Sweden |4= 4. Christian X of Denmark |5= 5. Duchess Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin |6= 6. Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden |7= 7. Princess Margaret of Connaught |8= 8. Frederick VIII of Denmark |9= 9. Princess Louise of Sweden |10= 10. Frederick Francis III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin |11= 11. Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia |12= 12. Gustav V of Sweden |13= 13. Princess Victoria of Baden |14= 14. Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn |15= 15. Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia |16= 16. Christian IX of Denmark |17= 17. Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel |18= 18. Charles XV of Sweden |19= 19. Princess Louise of the Netherlands |20= 20. Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin |21= 21. Princess Augusta Reuss of Köstritz |22= 22. Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia |23= 23. Princess Cecilie of Baden |24= 24. Oscar II of Sweden |25= 25. Princess Sophia of Nassau |26= 26. Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden |27= 27. Princess Louise of Prussia |28= 28. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha |29= 29. Victoria of the United Kingdom |30= 30. Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia |31= 31. Princess Maria Anna of Anhalt-Dessau }}

Patrilineal descent

See also

List of national leaders

References

External links

The Queen's Homepage

The Official Website of The Danish Monarchy

The Ancestry of Henri de Laborde de Monpezat

Illustrations - Lord of the Rings

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Category:1940 births Category:Living people Category:Danish monarchs Category:Danish Lutherans Category:Current national leaders Category:Female heads of state Category:Reigning monarchs Category:House of Glücksburg (Denmark) Category:Queens regnant Category:Tolkien artists Category:Alumni of Girton College, Cambridge Category:Aarhus University alumni Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics Category:Protestant monarchs Category:People from Copenhagen Category:House of Monpezat Category:Honorary Fellows of Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge Category:Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Category:Knights of the Elephant Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece Category:Recipients of the Royal Victorian Chain Category:Recipients of the Order of the Falcon Category:Recipients of the Order of the Three Stars, 1st Class Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland) Category:Extra Ladies of the Order of the Garter Category:Honorary Dames Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order Category:Dames of the Order of the Rajamitrabhorn Category:Grand Commanders of the Order of the Dannebrog Category:Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of St. Olav Category:Recipients of the Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana Category:Recipients of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Leopold (Belgium) Category:Grand Collars of the Order of the Southern Cross Category:Recipients of the Order of Stara Planina Category:Recipients of the Order of Merit (Chile) Category:Recipients of the Order of Al Kamal Category:Grand Cordons of the Order of the Nile Category:Commanders Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of Finland Category:Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Redeemer Category:Order of SS. Olga and Sophia Category:Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic Category:Order of the Precious Crown members Category:Recipients of the Order of the Chrysanthemum Category:Recipients of the Order of al-Hussain ibn-Ali Category:Recipients of the Order of the Yugoslav Grand Star Category:Recipients of the Order of Vytautas the Great Category:Recipients of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau Category:Recipients of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion Category:Recipients of the Order of Pratap Bhasker Category:Grand Cordons of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland Category:Recipients of the Order of Prince Henry Category:Recipients of the Order of Saint James of the Sword Category:Sashes of the Order of the Star of Romania Category:Recipients of the Order of Abdulaziz al Saud Category:Recipients of the Order of Freedom of the Republic of Slovenia Category:Grand Crosses with Collar of the Order of Charles III Category:Recipients of the Order of the Seraphim Category:Recipients of the Order of Good Hope Category:Recipients of the Order of Maha Chakrkri Category:Recipients of the Order of Merit (Austria)

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