Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religion that differs from the convert's previous religion. Changing from one denomination to another within the same religion (e.g., Christian Baptist to Methodist, Muslim Shia to Sunni, ''etc'') is usually described as ''reaffiliation'' rather than ''conversion''.

People convert to a different religion for various reasons, including: active conversion by free choice due to a change in beliefs, secondary conversion, deathbed conversion, conversion for convenience and marital conversion, and forced conversion.

Christians consider that conversion requires internalization of the new belief system. It implies a new reference point for the convert's self-identity, and is a matter of belief and social structure—of both faith and affiliation. This typically entails the sincere avowal of a new belief system, but may also present itself in other ways, such as adoption into an identity group or spiritual lineage.

Conversion or reaffiliation for convenience is an insincere act, sometimes for relatively trivial reasons such as a parent converting to enable a child to be admitted to a good school associated with a religion, or a person adopting a religion more in keeping with the social class he or she aspires to. When people marry one spouse may convert to the religion of the other.

Forced conversion is adoption under duress of a different religion. The convert may secretly retain the previous beliefs and continue, covertly, with the practices of the original religion, while outwardly maintaining the forms of the new religion. Over generations a family forced against their will to convert may wholeheartedly adopt the new religion.

''Proselytism'' is the act of attempting to convert by persuasion another individual from a different religion or belief system. (See proselyte).

Apostate is a pejorative term used by members of a religion or branch to refer to someone who has left that religion or branch.

Abrahamic religions

Judaism

Procedure

Jewish law guidelines for accepting new converts to Judaism are called "''giyur''." Potential converts should desire conversion to Judaism for its own sake, and for no other motives. A male convert needs to undergo a ritual circumcision conducted according to Jewish law (if already circumcised, a needle is used to draw a symbolic drop of blood while the appropriate blessings are said), and there has to be a commitment to observe the 613 mitzvot and Jewish law. A convert must join the Jewish community, and reject the previous theology he or she had prior to the conversion. Ritual immersion in a small pool of water known as a ''mikvah'' is required.

History

In Hellenistic and Roman times, some Pharisees were eager proselytizers, and had at least some success throughout the empire.

Some Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism outside the Mediterranean world. It is known that some Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians, as well as many Arabs, particularly in Yemen before, converted to Judaism in the past; today people all over the world convert to Judaism. The word "proselyte" originally meant a Greek who had converted to Judaism. As late as the 6th century the Eastern Roman empire (i.e., the Byzantine empire) was issuing decrees against conversion to Judaism, implying that this was still occurring.

In recent times, members of the Reform Judaism movement began a program to convert to Judaism the non-Jewish spouses of its intermarried members and non-Jews who have an interest in Judaism. Their rationale is that so many Jews were lost during the Holocaust that newcomers must be sought out and welcomed. This approach has been repudiated by Orthodox and Conservative Jews as unrealistic and posing a danger. They say that these efforts make Judaism seem an easy religion to join and observe when in reality being Jewish entails many difficulties and sacrifices.

Christianity

Conversion to Christianity is the religious conversion of a previously non-Christian person to some form of Christianity. The exact requirements vary between different churches and denominations. Protestant conversion primarily involves confession and repentance for sin and a decision to live a life that is holy and acceptable to God through faith in (the atoning death and resurrection of ) Jesus Christ. The process of converting to Catholicism involves religious education followed by initial participation in the sacraments. All of it is supposed to be done through a voluntary exercise of the will of the individual concerned. Converts are almost always expected to be baptized.

Baptism

Catholics, Orthodox and many Protestant denominations encourage infant baptism before children are aware of their status. In Roman Catholicism and certain high church forms of Protestantism, baptized children are expected to participate in confirmation classes as pre-teens. In Eastern Orthodoxy, the equivalent of confirmation, chrismation, is administered to all converts, adult and infant alike, immediately after baptism.

Methods of baptism include immersion, sprinkling (aspersion) and pouring (affusion). Baptism received by adults or younger people who have reached the age of accountability where they can make a personal religious decision is referred to as believer's baptism among conservative or evangelical Protestant groups. It is intended as a public statement of a person's prior decision to become a Christian. Some Christian groups such as Catholics, Churches of Christ, and Christadelphians believe baptism is essential to salvation.

Accepting Christ and renouncing sin

thumb|220px|The ''Augsburg Confession'' divides repentance into two parts: "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the [[Law and Gospel#The Book of Concord|knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors."]] Conversion is expected to be more than a simple change in religious identity, but a change in nature (regeneration), evidenced by a change in values. The Latin word ''conversio,'' translating the Greek ''metanoia'', literally means "going the other way" or "changing one's mind". According to Christianity a convert is one who renounces sin as worthless and treasures instead the supreme worth of Jesus Christ; the convert sees the worth of Christ in Jesus' sacrificial death and resurrection and renounces sin.

The Christian convert is expected to believe that his separation from God cannot be overcome by good deeds done out of a desire to achieve individual moral self-satisfaction; rather, he seeks the forgiveness of his sins in the blood of Christ and wishes to be clothed in the righteousness of Christ. Because conversion is a change in values that embraces God and rejects sin, it includes a personal commitment to a life of holiness as described by Paul of Tarsus and exemplified by Jesus. In some Protestant traditions, this is called "accepting Christ as one's Savior and following him as Lord." In another variation, the 1910 Catholic Dictionary defines "conversion" as "One who turns or changes from a state of sin to repentance, from a lax to a more earnest and serious way of life, from unbelief to faith, from heresy to the true faith." The Eastern Orthodox understanding of conversion is illustrated in the rite of baptism, in which the convert faces west while publicly renouncing and symbolically spitting upon Satan, and then turns to the east to worship Christ "as king and God".

Responsibilities

Most Christians believe that proselytism, understood to be sharing the Gospel, in word or in deed, of Jesus Christ, is a responsibility of all Christians. In the New Testament, Jesus commanded his disciples to "go and make disciples of all nations", generally known as the Great Commission. Accordingly, evangelism—"spreading the good news"—has been practiced by many Christians. Some evangelical Protestants consider that, in order to fulfill the Great Commission, every Christian must be prepared to try to convert nearly everyone they encounter. Other forms of Christianity such as Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy consider that the Gospel cannot accurately and faithfully be explained, instead favouring evangelism by example.

Reaffiliation

Transferring from one Christian denomination to another may consist of a relatively simple transfer of membership, especially if moving from one Trinitarian denomination to another, and if the person has received water baptism in the name of the Trinity. If not, then the person may be required to be baptized or rebaptized before acceptance by the new church. Some denominations, such as those in the Anabaptist tradition, require previously baptized Christians to be re-baptized. The Eastern Orthodox Church treats a transfer from another denomination of Christianity to Orthodoxy (conceived of as the one true Church) as a category of conversion and repentance, though re-baptism is not always required.

The process of conversion to Christianity varies somewhat among Christian denominations. Most Protestants believe in conversion by ''faith'' to attain salvation. According to this understanding, a person professes faith in Jesus Christ as Savior. While an individual may make such a decision privately, usually it entails being baptized and becoming a member of a denomination or church. In these traditions, a person is considered to become a Christian by publicly acknowledging the fundamental Christian doctrines that Jesus died, was buried, and was resurrected for the remission of sins.

Comparison between Protestants

This table summarizes the classical views of three different Protestant beliefs. {| style="width:75%; margin:auto; border:1px solid #333;"

Topic	Lutheranism	Calvinism	Arminianism
Conversion

|}

Mormonism

Much of the theology of Mormon baptism was established during the early Latter Day Saint movement founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. According to this theology, baptism must be by submersion for the remission of sins (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance. Mormon baptism does not purport to remit any sins other than personal ones, as adherents do not believe in original sin. Mormon baptisms also occur only after an "age of accountability" which is defined as the age of eight years. The theology thus rejects infant baptism.

In addition, Mormon theology requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God with priesthood authority. Because the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement operate under a lay priesthood, children raised in a Mormon family are usually baptized by a father or close male friend or family member who has achieved the office of priest, which in Mormonism is conferred upon worthy male members at least 16 years old.

Baptism is seen as symbolic both of Jesus' death, burial and resurrection and is also symbolic of the baptized individual putting off of the natural or sinful man and becoming spiritually reborn as a disciple of Jesus.

Membership into a Latter Day Saint church is granted only by baptism whether or not a person has been raised in the Church. Most Latter Day Saint churches do not recognize baptisms of other faiths as valid because they believe baptisms must be performed under the church's unique authority. Thus, all who come into one of the Latter Day Saint faiths as converts are baptized, even if they have previously received baptism in another faith.

When performing a Baptism, Latter Day Saints say the following prayer before performing the ordinance:

Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in a baptismal font, although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptized. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptized is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. In addition to the baptizer, two priesthood holders witness the baptism to ensure that it is performed properly.

Following baptism, Latter Day Saints receive the Gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands of a Melchizedek Priesthood holder.

Islam

A newly converted Muslim is called a ''Muallaf''. There are five pillars, or foundations, of Islam but the primary, and most important is to believe that there is only one God and creator, referred to as Allah (the word for the name of God in Arabic) and that the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, is His last and final messenger. A person is considered to have converted to Islam from the moment he or she sincerely makes this ''declaration of faith'', called the shahadah.

Islam teaches that everyone is Muslim at birth because every child that is born has a natural inclination to goodness and to worship the one true God alone, but his or her parents or society can cause him or her to deviate from the straight path. When someone accepts Islam he/she is considered to revert to his/her original condition. While conversion ''to'' Islam is among its most supported tenets, conversion ''from'' Islam to another religion is considered to be the sin of apostasy, and under some interpretations and in some jurisdictions is subject to the penalty of death.

In Islam circumcision is a ''Sunnah'' custom not mentioned in the Qur'an. The primary opinion is that it is not obligatory and is not a condition for entering into Islam. The Shafi`i and Hanbali schools regard it as obligatory, while the Maliki and Hanafi schools regard it as only recommended. However, it is not a precondition for the acceptance of a person's Islamic practices, nor does one sin if choosing to forgo circumcision. It is not one of the Five Pillars of Islam or the Six Fundamentals of Belief.

Bahá'í Faith

In sharing their faith with others, Bahá'ís are cautioned to "obtain a hearing" – meaning to make sure the person they are proposing to teach is open to hearing what they have to say. "Bahá'í pioneers", rather than attempting to supplant the cultural underpinnings of the people in their adopted communities, are encouraged to integrate into the society and apply Bahá'í principles in living and working with their neighbors.

Bahá'ís recognize the divine origins of all revealed religion, and believe that these religions occurred sequentially as part of a Divine plan (see Progressive revelation), with each new revelation superseding and fulfilling that of its predecessors. Bahá'ís regard their own faith as the most recent (but not the last), and believe its teachings – which are centered around the principle of the oneness of humanity – are most suited to meeting the needs of a global community.

In most countries conversion is a simple matter of filling out a card stating a declaration of belief. This includes acknowledgement of Bahá'u'llah – the Founder of the Faith – as the Messenger of God for this age, awareness and acceptance of His teachings, and intention to be obedient to the institutions and laws He established.

Conversion to the Bahá'í Faith carries with it an explicit belief in the common foundation of all revealed religion, a commitment to the unity of mankind, and active service to the community at large, especially in areas that will foster unity and concord. Since the Bahá'í Faith has no clergy, converts to this Faith are encouraged to be active in all aspects of community life. Even a recent convert may be elected to serve on a Local Spiritual Assembly – the guiding Bahá'í institution at the community level.

Dharmic (Indic) religions

Hinduism

The vratyastoma ceremony ("vow pronouncement"), dating back to the Tandya Brahmana of the Rig Veda, is performed for Hindus returning to India from abroad and for those who have embraced other faiths. One finds a wide range of converts in India, from communities such as the Syrian Malabar Christians, who adopted Christianity shortly after that religion's founding, to the Muslim converts of a thousand years ago, to Indians converted in the last few generations. Especially in the case of many recent converts, the conversion is often superficial, and the return to Hinduism is a simple matter of ceremonial recognition. In other cases, complete reeducation is required.

When such souls do return, it is the duty of established followers to shepherd them, blend them in and assist at every opportunity to make them successful members of the international extended family of our venerable faith. It is vital that reconversion campaigns are followed up with continuing education, social improvement, community temple building and priest training to create fully self-sustaining groups. It is one of the duties of the Hindu priesthood to stand guard at the gates of Sanatana Dharma and perform the sacred ceremonies for worthy souls to allow them entrance for the first time or reentrance into the Hindu fold in case they strayed into an alien faith and now desire to return. The priesthoods of all four major denominations of SanAtana Dharma -- Saivism, Vaishnavism, Smartism and Shaktism -- are performing the duty, empowered by the Gods, of bringing devotees back into the Hindu fold through a congregation of devotees.

When a person becomes Hindu is ill defined as Hinduism never saw other faiths as rivals. Many Hindus hold that 'to be a Hindu, one should be born a Hindu' and 'if born a Hindu, one is a Hindu forever'; however, Indian law approves anyone declaring to be a Hindu as Hindu. According to Hinduism, there is one universal truth (ignorance of this truth or Brahman is the cause of grief and souls are caught in the eternal cycle of rebirth until realization), and there are multiple paths—including as followed by other religions—to "reach" the truth. The Sanskrit word for religion "Marga" literally means path. The mere notion of conversion is an oxymoron because the Hindu texts Vedas and Upanishads conceive whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth.

The earliest account of revival of faith in Hinduism is from the 8th century in the times of Shankaracharya when Jainism and Buddhism became prevalent. There is no evidence of invasion and mass conversion in Hinduism. Many foreign groups including Gujjars, Ahoms, and Hunas converted to Hinduism after generations of Sanskritization. Sanskritization throughout the 18th century in Manipur resulted in Manipuri tribes identifying themselves as Hindus.

There is a recent notion of re-converting people who had converted from Hinduism. This re-conversion has always been as a reaction to the threat of evangelization, proselytism, and conversion activities of other major religions; many modern Hindus are opposed to the idea of conversion from their religion to (any) other. Reconversion among people who were formerly Hindus or whose ancestors were Hindus has picked up pace with the growth of Hindu revivalist movements. National organizations such as Arya Samaj (India) and Parisada Hindu Dharma (Indonesia) help those wanting to become Hindus by such reconversions.

American-born Hindu guru, Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami wrote a book entitled ''How to Become a Hindu - A Guide for Seekers and Born Hindus''. In it, Subramuniyaswami offers a systematical approach to, what he calls, "ethical conversion to Hinduism," testimonials of converts to Hinduism, definitions of Hindu authorities on what a Hindu truly is, etc.

Sikhism

Sikhism is not known to openly proselytize, but accepts converts.

Jainism

Jainism accepts anyone who wants to embrace the religion. Any person who wants to convert to Jainism must be a strict vegetarian and accept Arhats and Siddhas as their tirthankaras.

Buddhism

Persons newly adhering to Buddhism traditionally "take Refuge" (express faith in the Three Jewels — Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) before a monk, nun, or similar representative. Buddhists often hold multiple religious identities, combining the religion with Shinto (in Japan) or Taoism and Confucianism (in China; cf. Chinese traditional religion).

Throughout the timeline of Buddhism, conversions of entire countries and regions to Buddhism were frequent, as Buddhism spread throughout Asia. For example, in the 11th century in Burma, king Anoratha converted his entire country to Theravada Buddhism. At the end of the 12th century, Jayavarman VII set the stage for conversion of the Khmer people to Theravada Buddhism. In the 17th century, during the Edo period in Japan, Christianity (brought to Japan by the Portuguese) was outlawed, and all subjects had to register at Buddhist or Shinto temples. Mass conversions of areas and communities to Buddhism occur up to the present day, for example, in the Dalit Buddhist movement in India there have been organized mass conversions.

Exceptions to encouraging conversion may occur in some Buddhist movements. In Tibetan Buddhism, for example, the current Dalai Lama discourages active attempts to win converts.

Other religions and sects

Conversion to new religious movements (NRMs) is riddled with controversies. The anti-cult movement sometimes uses the term thought reform or even brainwashing. Often they will call certain NRMs cults. There are many different definitions for the word cult. NRMs are very diverse and it is not clear whether conversion to NRMs differs from conversion to mainstream religions. However, it is clear that for the first decade or so of any NRM's existence, the overwhelming majority of its members must be converts (because the NRM will not have been in existence long enough for a significant number of its members to have been brought up in it). It is also clear that every mainstream religion must have gone through this stage when it first emerged. See also Brainwashing controversy in new religious movements.

Research both in the USA and the Netherlands has shown there is a positive correlation between lack of involvement in mainstream churches in certain areas and provinces and the percentage of people who are a member of a new religious movement. This applies also for the presence of New Age centres. The Dutch research included Jehovah's Witnesses (though most JW's were previously religious including a number of former ministers, deacons, priests and nuns) and the Latter Day Saint movement/Mormonism in the NRMs (which was more indicative of the research).

The Church of Scientology attempts to gain converts by offering "free stress tests" (see picture at auditing). Unlike other religions Scientology requires converts to sign contracts before attending church.

On the other end of the scale are religions that do not accept any converts, or do so only very rarely. Often these are relatively small, close-knit minority religions such as the Yazidis, Druze, and Mandaeans.

Chinese traditional religion lacks clear criteria for membership, and hence for conversion. Several ethnic religions — including the Yazidis, Druze, and Mandaeans — appear to refuse all applicants for conversion. The Shakers and some Indian eunuch brotherhoods do not allow procreation, so that every member is a convert.

International law

The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights defines religious conversion as a human right: "Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief...." (Article 18). In spite of this some groups forbid or restrict religious conversion (see below).

Based on the declaration the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) drafted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a legally binding treaty. It states that "Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice..." (Article 18.1). "No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice" (Article 18.2).

The UNCHR issued a General Comment on this Article in 1993: "The Committee observes that the freedom to 'have or to adopt' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, ''including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another'' or to adopt atheistic views [...] Article 18.2 bars coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or belief ''or to convert''." (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, General Comment No. 22.; emphasis added)

Some countries distinguish voluntary, motivated conversion from organized proselytism, attempting to restrict the latter. The boundary between them is not easily defined: what one person considers legitimate evangelizing, or witness-bearing, another may consider intrusive and improper. Illustrating the problems that can arise from such subjective viewpoints is this extract from an article by Dr. C. Davis, published in Cleveland State University's 'Journal of Law and Health': "According to the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Jews for Jesus and Hebrew Christians constitute two of the most dangerous cults, and its members are appropriate candidates for deprogramming. Anti-cult evangelicals ... protest that 'aggressiveness and proselytizing ... are basic to authentic Christianity,' and that Jews for Jesus and Campus Crusade for Christ are not to be labeled as cults. Furthermore, certain Hassidic groups who physically attacked a meeting of the Hebrew Christian 'cult' have themselves been labeled a 'cult' and equated with the followers of Reverend Moon, by none other than the President of the Central Conference of American Rabbis."

Since the collapse of the former Soviet Union the Russian Orthodox Church has enjoyed a revival. However, it takes exception to what it considers illegitimate proselytizing by the Roman Catholic Church, the Salvation Army, Jehovah's Witnesses and other religious movements in what it refers to as its ''canonical territory''.

Greece has a long history of conflict, mostly with Jehovah's Witnesses but also with some Pentecostals over its laws on proselytism. This situation stems from a law passed in the 1930s by the dictator Ioannis Metaxas. A Jehovah's Witness, Minos Kokkinakis, won the equivalent of US $14,400 in damages from the Greek state after being arrested for trying to preach his faith from door to door. In another case, Larissis vs. Greece, a member of the Pentecostal church also won a case in the European Court of Human Rights.

Some Islamic countries with Islamic law outlaw and carry strict sentences for proselytizing. Several Islamic countries under Islamic law, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Egypt, Iran, and Maldives, outlaw apostasy and carry imprisonment or the death penalty for those leaving Islam and those enticing Muslims to leave Islam. Also, induced religious conversions in Indian States of Orissa has resulted in communal-riots.

Psychological approaches to religious conversion

Edwin Starbuck

Edwin Starbuck criticised the use of religious conversions as evidence to support religion. In 1894 and 1895, he presented two papers on his research into religious conversion. Starbuck found that the average age of a religious convert was 15.6. He also noted eight primary motivating factors in a religious conversion: #Fears #Other self-regarding motives #Altruistic motives #Following out a moral ideal #Remorse for and conviction of sin #Response to teaching #Example and imitation #Urging and social pressure It can, therefore, be argued that sociological factors can have a strong influence on religious conversion. It has been noted that, for every year a non-Christian grows older than 25, the likelihood of them converting decreases exponentially.

James H Leuba

James H Leuba was an American psychologist who studied religious conversion. In 1916, he started a study, intending to test the hypothesis that, the more people were educated, the less they believed in God. His studies compares undergraduates, professors and more distinguished professors; he found that, as one rises on the scale of age and culture, the proportion of unbelievers rises.

In 1997, Edward Larson and Harry Witham attempted to replicate Leuba's study. They studied a similar number of scientists, divided between physicists, biologists and mathematicians. Their results were very similar to Leuba's, in that scientists still seemed to be less likely to believe in religion than the average person. Whereas, in Leuba's study, the highest proportion of atheists were biologists, the later study revealed that physicists were now the most atheist group.

See also

References

Further reading

Barker, Eileen ''The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing?'' (1984)

Barrett, D. V. ''The New Believers — A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions'' (2001) UK, Cassell & Co ISBN 0-304-35592-5

Cooper, Richard S. "The Assessment and Collection of Kharaj Tax in Medieval Egypt" ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', Vol. 96, No. 3. (Jul – Sep., 1976), pp. 365–382.

Curtin, Phillip D. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Hoiberg, Dale, and Indu Ramachandran. Students' Britannica India. Popular Prakashan, 2000.

Rambo, Lewis R. Understanding Religious Conversion. Yale University Press, 1993.

Ramstedt, Martin. Hinduism in Modern Indonesia: A Minority Religion Between Local, National, and Global Interests. Routledge, 2004.

Rawat, Ajay S. StudentMan and Forests: The Khatta and Gujjar Settlements of Sub-Himalayan Tarai. Indus Publishing, 1993.

External links

Category:Religious conversion

ar:تحول ديني cs:Konverze (náboženství) da:Konversion de:Konversion (Religion) es:Conversión eo:Konverto (religio) fr:Conversion religieuse hi:धर्मांतरण ia:Conversion religiose it:Conversione religiosa he:המרת דת nl:Bekering ja:改宗 pl:Konwersja (religia) ru:Религиозное обращение sr:Конвертит fi:Kääntymys sv:Konvertering (religion) te:మత మార్పిడి

Coordinates	28°36′36″N77°13′48″N
birth name	William John Neeson
birth date	June 07, 1952
birth place	Ballymena, Northern Ireland
citizenship	American
alma mater	Queen's University Belfast
spouse	Natasha Richardson (m. 1994–2009; deceased)
religion	Roman Catholic
occupation	Actor
years active	1973–present }}

Liam John Neeson, OBE (born 7 June 1952) is an Irish actor who has been nominated for an Oscar, a BAFTA and three Golden Globe Awards.

He has starred in a number of notable roles including Oskar Schindler in ''Schindler's List'', Michael Collins in ''Michael Collins'', Peyton Westlake in ''Darkman'', Jean Valjean in ''Les Misérables'', Qui-Gon Jinn in ''Star Wars'' (the film ''Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace'' and an episode of ''Star Wars: The Clone Wars''), Alfred Kinsey in ''Kinsey'', Ras Al Ghul in ''Batman Begins'' and the voice of Aslan in ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' film series. He has also starred in several other notable films, from major Hollywood studio releases (eg. ''Excalibur'', ''The Dead Pool'', ''Nell'', ''Rob Roy'', ''The Haunting'', ''Love Actually'', ''Kingdom of Heaven'', ''Taken'', ''Clash of the Titans'', ''The A-Team'', ''Unknown'') to smaller arthouse films (eg. ''Deception'', ''Breakfast on Pluto'', ''Chloe'').

He was born in Ballymena, County Antrim, Northern Ireland and educated at Saint Patrick's College, Ballymena Technical College and Queen's University Belfast. He moved to Dublin after university to further his acting career, joining the renowned Abbey Theatre. In the early 1990s, he moved again to the United States, where the wide acclaim for his performance in ''Schindler's List'' led to more high-profile work. He is widowed and lives in New York with his two sons.

Early life

Neeson was born June 7, 1952 in Ballymena, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, and is the son of Katherine Kitty (née Brown), a cook, and Bernard "Barney" Neeson, a caretaker at the local Catholic boys' primary school (Ballymena Boys All Saints Primary School). He was raised Roman Catholic and was called Liam, short for William, after the local priest. He was the third child in the family and the only boy among four siblings; his sisters are Elizabeth, Bernadette, and Rosaline. At age nine, Neeson began boxing lessons at the All Saints Youth Club, and later became Ulster amateur senior boxing champion. At age eleven, Neeson first stepped on stage. His English teacher gave him the lead role in a school play, which he accepted because the girl he was attracted to would be starring. From then on, he kept acting in school productions for the following years. His interest in acting and decision to become an actor was also influenced by minister Ian Paisley, whose church Neeson would sneak into. Neeson has said of Paisley that "He had a magnificent presence and it was incredible to watch this six foot-plus man just bible-thumping away...It was acting but it was also great acting and stirring too."

Neeson was enrolled in 1971 as a physics and computer science undergraduate student at Queen's University Belfast in Belfast, Northern Ireland, before leaving to work for Guinness.

Liam found a talent for football while in University. He was spotted by Seán Thomas at Bohemian F.C.. There was a club trial in Dublin. He only played one game as a substitute against Shamrock Rovers and was not offered a contract to continue playing.

Career

1978–1999

After leaving university, Neeson returned to Ballymena where he worked in a variety of casual jobs, from a fork-lift operator at Guinness to a truck driver. He also attended teacher training college in Newcastle for two years before again returning to his home town. In 1976, Neeson joined the Lyric Players' Theatre in Belfast where he performed for two years. He got his first film experience in 1977, playing Jesus Christ and Evangelist in the religious film, ''Pilgrim's Progress'' directed by Ken Anderson. Neeson moved to Dublin in 1978 after he was offered a part in a production at the Project Arts Centre. The play was Ron Hutchinson's "Says I, Says He", a drama about The Troubles in Northern Ireland. Neeson acted in several other Project productions and joined the Abbey Theatre. In 1980, filmmaker John Boorman saw him on stage, acting as Lennie Small in ''Of Mice and Men'', and offered him the part of Sir Gawain in the upcoming Arthurian film, ''Excalibur''. After ''Excalibur'', Neeson moved to London, where he continued working on stage, small budget films and television series. He lived with the actress Helen Mirren at this time, whom he met working on ''Excalibur''. Between 1982 and 1987, Neeson starred in five films; most notably alongside Mel Gibson and Anthony Hopkins in 1984's ''The Bounty'' and Robert De Niro and Jeremy Irons in 1986's ''The Mission''. He also starred as a guest actor in the third season of the television series ''Miami Vice'' in 1986.

In 1987, Neeson made a conscious decision to move to Hollywood in order to star in high-profile roles. That year, he starred alongside Cher and Dennis Quaid in ''Suspect''. The role brought Neeson critical applause, but it was 1990's ''Darkman'' that would bring his name to public attention. Although the film was successful, Neeson's following years would not give him the same recognition. In 1993, he joined ''Ellis Island'' co-star and future wife Natasha Richardson in the Broadway play ''Anna Christie''. (They also worked together in ''Nell'', released the following year.) He recited the Van Morrison song "Coney Island" on the 1994 Van Morrison tribute album, ''No Prima Donna: The Songs of Van Morrison''. A single was also released with Neeson's version.

Director Steven Spielberg, impressed by his performance in ''Nell'', offered him the coveted role of Oskar Schindler in the film about the Holocaust, ''Schindler's List''. His critically acclaimed performance later earned him a nomination for a Best Actor Oscar; however, the award went to Tom Hanks for his performance in ''Philadelphia''. Neeson also garnered BAFTA and Golden Globes nominations for ''Schindler's List''.

''Schindler's List'' established Neeson as a widely sought-after leading actor. He later starred in period pieces ''Rob Roy'' (1995) and ''Michael Collins'' (1996), the latter earning him another Golden Globe nomination and a win for Best Starring Role at the Venice Film Festival. Neeson went on to star as Jean Valjean in the 1998 adaptation of Victor Hugo's ''Les Misérables'' and in ''The Haunting'' (1999) as Dr. David Marrow.

''Star Wars''

In 1999, Neeson starred as Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn, in director George Lucas' ''Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace''. As it was the first ''Star Wars'' film to be released in over sixteen years, it was surrounded by a large amount of anticipation from the media. Neeson's connection to the ''Star Wars'' films started in the Crown Bar, Belfast. Neeson stated to Ricki Lake, "I probably wouldn't have taken the role if it wasn't for the advice of Peter King in the Crown during a Lyric reunion." ''The Phantom Menace'' was an enormous box-office success and remains the most financially successful ''Star Wars'' film unadjusted for inflation. Qui-Gon's voice, provided by Neeson, would later be heard during a brief scene in ''Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones'' (2002). Qui-Gon was supposed to make an appearance in ''Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith'' (2005) as a Force Ghost, and Neeson had hinted at involvement. However, he was ultimately unable to appear due to a motorcycle injury, and his character is only mentioned in the film. In 2011, he reappeared as the voice of Qui-Gon in the animated television series ''Star Wars: The Clone Wars''.

2001–present

Neeson narrated the 2001 documentaries ''Journey Into Amazing Caves'' and ''The Endurance: Shackleton's Antarctic Adventure''. After being nominated for a Tony Award for his role opposite Laura Linney in ''The Crucible'', Neeson teamed up with Harrison Ford in Kathryn Bigelow's submarine thriller ''K-19: The Widowmaker'' (2002) as Captain Mikhail Polenin and appeared in Martin Scorsese's ''Gangs of New York'' (with Leonardo DiCaprio, Brendan Gleeson, Cameron Diaz and Daniel Day-Lewis). He also played a recently widowed writer in Richard Curtis' ensemble comedy ''Love Actually'' (2003). His role as Alfred Kinsey in ''Kinsey'' again put Neeson up for nomination for a Golden Globe Award but he lost out to Leonardo DiCaprio for ''The Aviator''. In 2004, Neeson hosted an episode of the NBC sketch show ''Saturday Night Live''. He starred as a redneck trucker, Marlon Weaver, in an "Appalachian Emergency Room" sketch and a hippie in a one-off sketch about two stoners (the other played by Amy Poehler) who attempt to borrow a police dog in order to find their lost stash of marijuana. Despite vowing not to play any characters who were Irish stereotypes, Neeson did play a stereotypically Irish man named Lorken McArdle in the home makeover show parody "You Call This A House, Do Ya?" In 2005, Neeson played Godfrey of Ibelin in Ridley Scott's epic adventure ''Kingdom of Heaven'', Ra's al Ghul, one of the main villains in ''Batman Begins'', and as Father Bernard in Neil Jordan's adaptation of Patrick McCabe's novel, ''Breakfast on Pluto''. Also in 2005, he voiced the role of a kindly priest on ''The Simpsons'', who converted Bart and Homer to Catholicism. That same year, he gave his voice to the lion Aslan in the blockbuster fantasy film ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''. A year later, he narrated the documentary ''Black Holes: The Other Side of Infinity''. Following a noticeable lull in his acting career, Neeson starred in the 2008 hit ''Taken'', which brought his image back into the public eye and resulted in his casting in many more mainstraim Hollywood movies.

In 2007, Neeson starred in the American Civil War epic ''Seraphim Falls'' alongside Pierce Brosnan and Anjelica Huston.

Neeson's voice is featured in the video game ''Fallout 3'' as the main character's father, James. The executive producer of the game, Todd Howard, said "This role was written with Liam in mind, and provides the dramatic tone for the entire game". ''Fallout 3'', the third game in the Fallout series, has been extremely well received by critics and shipped 4.7 million copies by the end of 2008, the year it was released.

In the director's commentary of the 2007 ''Transformers'' DVD, Michael Bay said that he had told the animators to seek inspiration from Liam Neeson in creating Optimus Prime's body language.

Neeson appeared as Alistair Little in the BBC Northern Ireland/Big Fish Films television drama ''Five Minutes of Heaven'', which tells the true story of a young Protestant man convicted of murdering a Catholic boy during The Troubles.

He starred in the action film ''Taken'' in 2008, which was a French film also starring Famke Janssen and Maggie Grace. It is based on a script by Luc Besson and Robert Mark Kamen and was directed by Pierre Morel. Neeson plays a retired Central Intelligence Agency operative from their elite Special Activities Division who sets about tracking down his teenage daughter after she is kidnapped for sexual slavery while traveling in Europe. ''Taken'' was a huge worldwide box office hit, grossing $223,882,658 worldwide and making almost $200,000,000 more than its initial budget. He again gave his voice to Aslan in ''The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian'' (2008).

Neeson has wrapped filming the psychological thriller ''After.Life'' with Christina Ricci and Justin Long. He also provided a voice for Hayao Miyazaki's anime film ''Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea'', which received an August 2009 release.

In 2010, Neeson played the Greek God Zeus in the remake of the 1981 film, ''Clash of the Titans''. The film went on becoming a huge box office hit and grossing $475 million worldwide.

Neeson also starred in the erotic thriller ''Chloe'', theatrically released by Sony Pictures Classics on March 26, 2010. ''Chloe'' had enjoyed commercial success and became director Atom Egoyan's biggest moneymaker ever. Later the same year, he played John "Hannibal" Smith in the spin-off movie from the TV series ''The A Team''.

In 2010, Neeson voiced the character Aslan again in the sequel ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader''. In late 2010, Neeson stated, "Aslan symbolises a Christlike figure, but he also symbolises for me Mohammed, Buddha and all the great spiritual leaders and prophets over the centuries"; this disappointed many fans of the series, who felt that he was "destroying the author's legacy to be politically correct".

In 2011, Neeson starred in ''Unknown'', a German British American co-production of a French book, it was filmed in Berlin in early 2010. It has been compared to ''Taken'', which was set in Paris. Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics, the film enjoyed box office success in the United States. It was largely funded by Dark Castle entertainment with smaller amounts coming from the Berlin film agency

He has played several characters based on real people, including Schindler, Collins, and Kinsey.

He was also set to reunite with director Steven Spielberg and star as Abraham Lincoln in the film based on the book ''Team of Rivals'' by Doris Kearns Goodwin. In preparation for the role, Neeson visited Washington, D.C., Springfield, Illinois where Lincoln lived prior to being elected, and read Lincoln's personal letters. He also visited Ford's Theatre, where the President was shot. However in July 2010 Neeson said in an interview with GMTV “I’m not actually playing Lincoln now. I was attached to it for a while, but it’s now I’m past my sell-by date.” He was later replaced in the role by two-time Academy Award winner, Daniel Day-Lewis.

Director Lee Daniels has confirmed that Neeson will play former U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson in Daniels' developing film ''Selma'', which is about Martin Luther King, Jr., Johnson, and the civil rights marches.

Neeson also starred as Ben Ryan in the drama ''Before and After'' alongside Meryl Streep. This film was about how a family dealt with the aftereffects of a murder their son was accused of committing.

It was announced in July 2010 that Neeson would guest-star on the new Showtime series ''The Big C''.

It was announced that Liam Neeson would reprise his role as Ra's Al Ghul for the film: ''The Dark Knight Rises''. While a younger version of his character is played by Josh Pence. He narrated the first trailer for the film that was released in July of this year.

Personal life

Neeson was married to actress Natasha Richardson from 3 July 1994 until her death on 18 March 2009, when she suffered a severe head injury in a skiing accident at the Mont Tremblant Resort in the Canadian province of Quebec. Richardson and Neeson have two sons: Michael and Daniel. Neeson lives in Millbrook, New York. In August 2004 Neeson and his wife purchased an additional 16 acres next to their estate.

A heavy smoker earlier in his career, Neeson has since quit smoking. When he took the role of Hannibal for the 2010 film adaptation of ''The A-Team'', Neeson had reservations about smoking cigars (which is a signature trait of the Hannibal character) in the film due to being an ex-smoker, but agreed to keep that personality trait of Hannibal intact for the film. In August 2009, Neeson stated on ABC's ''Good Morning America'' that he had been naturalized as a United States citizen.

Neeson is a fan of Liverpool F.C.

In March 2011, Neeson was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador for ''UNICEF''.

Honours and awards

Neeson was offered the 'Freedom of the Town of Ballymena' by Ballymena Borough Council, but because of objections made by members of the Democratic Unionist Party regarding his comments that he had felt like a 'second-class citizen' growing up as a Catholic in the town, he declined the award, citing tensions. Neeson continues to practice the Catholic faith and has raised his children as Catholics. He has also expressed admiration for The ''Spiritual Exercises'' of Saint Ignatius Loyola.

He was appointed as Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in her 1999 New Year's Honours List. The American Ireland Fund honoured Liam Neeson with their Performing Arts Award for the great distinction he has brought to Ireland at their 2008 Dinner Gala in New York.

Filmography

! Year	! Film	! Role	! Notes
1978		Evangelist and Jesus Christ
1979		Greatheart
1981		Gawain
1982	''Merlin and the Sword''	Grak	alternate title ''Arthur the King''
1983		Kegan
	''The Bounty''	Charles Churchill
''Ellis Island''	Kevin Murray	TV mini-series
		Michael Lamb
		Fielding
''Duet for One''	Totter
		Carl Anderson
''A Prayer for the Dying''	Liam Docherty
		Martin Falcon
	Martin Brogan
''The Dead Pool''	Peter Swan
	Leo Cutter
1989		Briar Gates
	''Darkman''	Peyton Westlake/Darkman	Nominated — Saturn Award for Best Actor
''The Big Man''	Danny Scoular
1991		Tony Aaron
	''Husbands and Wives''	Michael Gates
	Will
''Shining Through''	Franz-Otto Dietrich
		Ethan Frome
''Ruby Cairo''	Dr. Fergus Lamb	released on video as ''Deception''
''Schindler's List''	Oskar Schindler	Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Nominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture DramaNominated — London Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor
1994		Dr. Jerome 'Jerry' Lovell
1995		Robert Roy MacGregor
	Ben Ryan
		Jean Valjean
	Narrator
		Dr. David Marrow
''Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace''	Qui-Gon Jinn	Nominated — Saturn Award for Best Actor
		Charlie Mayo
''The Endurance: Shackleton's Legendary Antarctic Expedition''	Narrator
2001	''Journey into Amazing Caves''	Narrator
	''K-19: The Widowmaker''	Mikhail Polenin
''Gangs of New York''	'Priest' Vallon
''Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones''	Qui-Gon Jinn	voice only, uncredited
''Evolution: What About God?''	Narrator
	''Love Actually''	Daniel	Nominated — Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Cast
''Coral Reef Adventure''	Narrator
2004		Alfred Kinsey	Irish Film and Television Awards#Awards in acting 3
	''[[The Simpsons''	Father Sean
''Batman Begins''	Henri Ducard/Ra's al Ghul	Nominated — Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor
	Father Liam
''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe''	Aslan	voice
	''Seraphim Falls''	Carver
''The Birth of Christ''	Narrator
	''The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian''	Aslan	voice
	Peter
''Fallout 3''	James (Dad)	Video game (voice)
	Bryan Mills
	''Five Minutes of Heaven''	Alistair Little
	Fujimoto	voice (English dub; original Japanese version 2008)
''After.Life''	Eliot
	David
		Zeus
	Narrator
	John "Hannibal" Smith
''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader''	Aslan	voice
''The Next Three Days''	Damon	Special Appearance
''The Wildest Dream''	Narrator
		Dr. Martin Harris
	Qui-Gon Jinn	Special Guest Voice, Season Three episodes ''Overlords'' and ''Ghosts of Mortis''
		Ottoway	Post-production
''Wrath of the Titans''	Zeus	Post-production
	Admiral Shane	Post-production
''The Dark Knight Rises''	Ra's al Ghul	filming
	''Taken II''	Bryan Mills	Pre-production

References

External links

ITV Local Interview at premiere of Taken

The American Ireland Fund Performing Arts Award 2008

Liam Neeson Interview for "The A Team"

Liam Neeson is Today's Greatest Action Hero

Category:1952 births Category:Alumni of Queen's University Belfast Category:Bohemian F.C. players Category:Immigrants to the United States from Northern Ireland Category:Film actors from Northern Ireland Category:Television actors from Northern Ireland Category:Irish film actors Category:Irish television actors Category:Irish voice actors Category:Living people Category:Expatriates from Northern Ireland in the United States Category:American people of Irish descent Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire Category:People from Ballymena Category:People from County Antrim Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States

ar:ليام نيسون an:Liam Neeson zh-min-nan:Liam Neeson bg:Лиъм Нийсън ca:Liam Neeson cs:Liam Neeson cy:Liam Neeson da:Liam Neeson de:Liam Neeson el:Λίαμ Νίσον es:Liam Neeson eu:Liam Neeson fa:لیام نیسون fr:Liam Neeson ga:Liam Neeson gl:Liam Neeson hr:Liam Neeson id:Liam Neeson it:Liam Neeson he:ליאם ניסן sw:Liam Neeson la:Gulielmus Neeson hu:Liam Neeson nl:Liam Neeson ja:リーアム・ニーソン no:Liam Neeson pl:Liam Neeson pt:Liam Neeson ro:Liam Neeson ru:Нисон, Лиам sq:Liam Neeson simple:Liam Neeson sk:Liam Neeson sl:Liam Neeson sr:Лијам Нисон sh:Liam Neeson fi:Liam Neeson sv:Liam Neeson tl:Liam Neeson th:เลียม นีสัน tr:Liam Neeson uk:Ліам Нісон zh:連恩·尼遜

Coordinates	28°36′36″N77°13′48″N
name	Police officer
official names
activity sector	Law enforcement
competencies	Physical fitness, sense of justice
formation	Secondary or tertiary education
employment field	Public areas
related occupation	gendarmerie, military police, security guard, bodyguard
average salary	$55,000–$100,000 }}

A police officer (also known as a policeman or policewoman, and constable in some forces, particularly in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth nations) is a warranted employee of a police force. In the United States "officer" is the formal name of the lowest police rank; in many other countries "officer" is a generic term not specifying a particular rank, and the lowest rank is often "constable". Police officers are generally charged with the apprehension of criminals and the prevention and detection of crime, and the maintenance of public order. Police officers may be sworn to an oath, and have the power to arrest people and detain them for a limited time, along with other duties and powers.

Some police officers may also be trained in special duties, such as counter-terrorism, surveillance, child protection, VIP protection, and investigation techniques into major crime, including fraud, rape, murder and drug trafficking.

Duties and functions

Responsibilities of a police officer are varied, and may differ greatly from within one political context to another. Typical duties relate to keeping the peace, law enforcement, protection of persons and property, and the investigation of crimes. Officers are expected to respond to a variety of situations that may arise while they are on duty. Rules and guidelines dictate how an officer should behave within the community, and in many contexts restrictions are placed on what the uniformed officer wears. In some countries, rules and procedures dictate that a police officer is obliged to intervene in a criminal incident, even if they are off-duty. Police officers in nearly all countries retain their lawful powers, while off duty.

In the community

In the majority of Western legal systems, the major role of the police is to maintain order, keeping the peace through surveillance of the public, and the subsequent reporting and apprehension of suspected violators of the law. They also function to discourage crimes through high-visibility policing, and most police forces have an investigative capability. Police have the legal authority to arrest, usually granted by magistrates. Police officers also respond to emergency calls, along with routine community policing.

Police are often used as an emergency service and may provide a public safety function at large gatherings, as well as in emergencies, disasters, search and rescue situations, and Road Traffic Collisions. To provide a prompt response in emergencies, the police often coordinate their operations with fire and emergency medical services. In some countries, individuals serve jointly as police officers as well as firefighters (creating the role of Fire Police) or paramedics. In many countries, there is a common emergency service number that allows the police, firefighters, or medical services to be summoned to an emergency. Some countries, such as the United Kingdom have outlined command procedures, for the use in major emergencies or disorder. The Gold Silver Bronze command structure is a system set up to improve communications between ground based officers and the control room, typically, Bronze Commander would be a senior officer on the ground, coordinating the efforts in the center of the emergency, Silver Commanders would be positioned in an 'Incident Control Room' erected to improve better communications at the scene, and a Gold Commander who would be in the Control Room.

Police are also responsible for reprimanding minor offenders by issuing citations which typically may result in the imposition of fines, particularly for violations of traffic law. Traffic enforcement is often and effectively accomplished by police officers on motorcycles—called ''motor officers,'' these officers refer to the motorcycles they ride on duty as simply ''motors.'' Police are also trained to assist persons in distress, such as motorists whose car has broken down and people experiencing a medical emergency. Police are typically trained in basic ffirst aid such as CPR.

In addition, some park rangers are commissioned as law enforcement officers and carry out a law-enforcement role within national parks and other back-country wilderness and recreational areas, whereas Military police perform law enforcement functions within the military.

Entry and promotion qualifications

In most countries, candidates for the police force must have completed some formal education. Increasing numbers of people are joining the police force who possess tertiary education and in response to this many police forces have developed a "fast-track" scheme whereby those with university degrees spend two to three years as a Constable before receiving promotion to higher ranks, such as Sergeants or Inspectors. (Officers who work within investigative divisions or plainclothes are not necessarily of a higher rank but merely have different duties.) Police officers are also recruited from those with experience in the military or security services. In the United States state laws may codify state-wide qualification standards regarding age, education, criminal record, and training but in other places requirements are set by local police agencies. Each local Police agency has different requirements.

Promotion is not automatic and usually requires the candidate to pass some kind of examination, interview board or other selection procedure. Although promotion normally includes an increase in salary, it also brings with it an increase in responsibility and for most, an increase in administrative paperwork. There is no stigma attached to this, as experienced line patrol officers are highly regarded.

Dependent upon each agency, but generally after completing two years of service, officers may also apply for specialist positions, such as detective, police dog handler, mounted police officer, motorcycle officer, water police officer, or firearms officer (in countries where police are not routinely armed).

In some countries such as in Singapore, police ranks may also be supplemented through conscription, similar to national service in the military. Qualifications may thus be relaxed or enhanced depending on the target mix of conscripts. In Singapore, for example, conscripts face tougher physical requirements in areas such as eyesight, but are less stringent with minimum academic qualification requirements. Some police officers join as volunteers, who again may do so via differing qualification requirements.

Police pay

In some societies, police officers are paid relatively well compared to other occupations; their pay depends on what rank they are with in their police force and how many years service they have.

Occupational hazards

Line of duty deaths

Line of duty deaths are deaths which occur while an officer is conducting his or her appointed duties. Despite the increased risk of being a victim of a homicide, automobile accidents are the most common cause of officer deaths. Officers are more likely to be involved in traffic accidents because of their large amount of time spent conducting vehicle patrols, or directing traffic, as well as their work outside their vehicles alongside or on the roadway, or in dangerous pursuits. Officers killed by suspects make up a smaller proportion of deaths. In the U.S. in 2005, 156 line of duty deaths were recorded of which 44% were from assaults on officers, 35% vehicle related (only 3% during vehicular pursuits) and the rest from other causes: heart attacks during arrests/foot pursuits, diseases contracted from suspects' body fluids or, more rarely, emergency blood transfusions, accidental gun discharges, falls, and drownings.

Police officers who die in the line of duty, especially those who die from the actions of suspects, are often given elaborate funerals, attended by large numbers of fellow officers. Their families may also be entitled to special pensions. Fallen officers are often remembered in public memorials, such as the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial in the U.S., the National Police Memorial in the U.K. and the Scottish Police Memorial, at the Scottish Police College.

In the United Kingdom, in the 10 years from April 2000 there were 143 line of duty deaths: 54 in road accidents travelling to or from duty, 46 in road accidents on duty, 23 from natural causes on duty, 15 from criminal acts, and 5 in other accidents. (In the United Kingdom, police do not normally carry firearms.)

The Singapore Police Force registered just over 100 deaths in a century up to the year 2000. There have been 28 New Zealand police officers killed by criminal act since 1890. Despite perceived dangers, policing has never been listed among the top ten most dangerous jobs in the U.S. In terms of deaths per capita, driver-sales work such as food delivery is a more dangerous profession than being a police officer, although some people say police work is more dangerous in some larger U.S. cities than in foreign military deployment ( e.g. during the Vietnam War, "early out" programs in certain cities were offered to recruits as alternatives to Vietnam deployment, but many soldiers chose Vietnam, figuring their chances of survival would be better).

Work stress

Indicators

The actual presence of stress in police work is well documented and evidenced by certain statistics. Researchers typically use suicide, divorce and alcoholism rates as three key indexes of stress in a group of people. These factors paint a compelling picture of police officers demonstrating signs of significant stress, for example:

A study in the United States, by National Surveillance of Police Suicide Study (NSOPS), showed 141 suicides in 2008 and 143 in 2009. This yields a suicide rate of 17/100,000, a figure that holds up under scrutiny and is consistent with CDC/NOMS data. The overall suicide rate in the United States was 11.3 suicide deaths per 100,000 people. There is some speculation or controversy that this official rate may understate the actual rate as it is often other police officers that report facts that lead to a cause of death determination, and death benefits, institutional image, and other factors may be incentives to misreport incident facts. It is speculated that some suicides are reported by fellow officers as accidents or as deaths in the line of duty perpetrated by unknown assailants. Also, many jurisdictions simply don't keep suicide statistics. Even though the information is incomplete, the raw numbers are highly compelling that police officers are much more likely to commit suicide than other occupations. However there is still controversy in the interpretation of these statistics. When comparisons are made within age, gender, and racial cohorts, the differences are much less dramatic. Although suicides may be notably more prevalent among police, it is not clear whether police suicides are the result of work stress or the consequence of other variables, such as the influence of a subculture of violence Police officers are much more likely to experience interpersonal relationship problems. Relationship problems are most dramatically demonstrated by the divorce rate among police officers, which is usually reported as being the second highest of all occupations. However in a 2009 study, the divorce rates of law enforcement personnel were compared with the rates for other occupations, where data was analyzed from the 2000 U.S. Census. The results of the analysis indicate that the divorce rate for law enforcement personnel is lower than that of the general population, even after controlling for demographic and other job-related variables. The propensity to domestic violence is also thought to be higher for police officers than the general population, though the statistics are very fuzzy and controversial. Police officers also seem to have relationship problems at work, typically with superiors or with political oversight, though the evidence is largely anecdotal and controversial.

Alcoholism is considered another aberrant statistic for police officers. Although the statistics are fuzzy, clinically treated alcohol addiction rates are usually calculated to be about twice as high for police officers than for the general population in the United States. In contrast, statistics documenting alcohol abuse are less precise. Rates for arrest for driving under the influence of alcohol, or DUI or DWI, are somewhat higher for police officers than for other drivers, but the statistics are not widely trusted outside of the insurance industry since it is other police officers that make DUI arrests. Some departments and even some individual officers tend to hold police officers to a higher behavioral and ethical standard while others will recognize a 'blue line' behind which those within the 'brotherhood' are not held to the same standards as the rest of society. Despite the controversies in the interpretation of the statistics, it is generally considered evident that police officers are more susceptible to alcohol abuse than other occupations. The same conclusions are usually made regarding the police abuse of other substances, though the statistics are even less accurate, and even though the higher rates of substance abuse may be due in part to the more ready access to drugs and the more permissive atmosphere 'behind the blue line' rather than to occupational stresses.

Hans Selye, the foremost researcher in stress in the world, said that police work is "the most stressful occupation in America even surpassing the formidable stresses of air traffic control."

Other researchers, though, claim that police officers are more psychologically healthy than the general population. Police officers are increasingly more educated, more likely to engage in a regular program of exercise and to consume less alcohol and tobacco, and increasingly family-oriented. Healthy behavior patterns typically observed at entry training usually continue throughout the career of an officer. Even though the presence of occupation related stress seems to be well documented, it is highly controversial. Many within the law enforcement industry claim the propagation of incorrect suicide, divorce, and substance abuse statistics comes from people or organizations with political or social agendas, and that the presence of these beliefs within the industry makes it hard for health workers to help police officers in need of treatment to deal with the fear of negative consequences from police work which is necessary to enable police officers to develop a healthy expectancy of success in treatment.

Sources

Even though the presence of occupational stresses appear to be well documented, though not without controversy, the causes of workplace stress are comparatively unclear or even a matter of conjecture.

Although individual policemen and institutional public relations typically cite the risks of being killed in the line of duty as the predominant source of stress for individual policemen, there is significant controversy regarding the causes of personal workplace stress due to the fact that the actual risk of being killed is so small relative to other occupations.

It is charged that the myth of the high risks of occupational mortality connected with police work is often propagated by the law enforcement community as part of its institutional advancement and a central element in its public relations. Actual homicides of police are comparatively rare, but the reports of such incidents are typically reported in the press along with quotes by police officials or police officer family members stressing the notion that police officers 'put their lives on the line for the public' or 'risk their lives everyday', making it look like individual policemen routinely place themselves in mortal danger for low pay and little recognition, and that the view of police work as 'combat' is the source of police occupational stress indications.

Another explanation often advanced is the idea that police officers will undergo some traumatic experience in their police work that they never recover from, leading to suicide, divorce, etc. However, since the effects of such traumatic stresses is readily recognized, there are usually proactive programs in place to help individual police officers deal with the psychological effects of a traumatic event. Unfortunately, there is some evidence that such programs are actually ineffective, especially group therapies, may re-traumatize the participant, weaken coping mechanisms, and contribute to the development of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Observations where police officers and other emergency workers, such as firemen, experience the same traumatic event, it is more likely that the police officer will have difficulty dealing with the long term emotional effects of the traumatic event. On this observation, some of the academic literature suggests that along these lines the causes of occupational stress is more complex for police officers. Stress in police work is often present in other occupations, but not in an ongoing capacity. One line of thinking is that the individual stresses of police work produce a condition of chronic stress. Police officers encounter stressors in call after call which sap their emotional strength. Debilitation from this daily stress accumulates making officers more vulnerable to traumatic incidents and normal pressures of life. The weakening process is often too slow to see; neither a person nor his friends are aware of the damage being done. The effects of chronic stresses is two-fold:

First, prolonged stress causes people to regress. Their psychological growth reverses, and they become more immature. They rapidly become more childish and primitive, much like a person being sick for several days becoming more irritable and childish in its demands on other people.

Second, chronic stress numbs people's sensitivity. They can't stand to continually see human misery. They must stop feeling or they won't survive. The mind has this defense mechanism so people can continue working in horrible situations. If they kept their normal sensitivity, they would fall apart. As they become insensitive to their own suffering, they become insensitive to the suffering of others. When treated with indignity, they lose not only a sense of their own dignity but also the dignity of others. The pain of others stops bothering them, and they are no longer bothered when they hurt others.

The daily work of a police officer involves certain paradoxes and conflicts which may be difficult to deal with, the predominant examples are

Any interaction with a member of the public, whether socially or officially, such as in a traffic stop, involves a non-trivial risk of verbal abuse or physical harm. Treating a person with common respect or normal social graces requires the officer to be off guard and unprepared for an attack. Being on guard for an attack and treating every interpersonal situation with safety procedures and affirmative commands makes the police officer appear cynical, brutal, and detached, and limits his actual effectiveness with the public. Considering someone a friend or an enemy produces opposite mental states, an unnatural no-win situation engendering chronic stress.

A police department is both a professional and military organization, and these two aspects oppose each other. As a professional, he is considered to be an expert in his field and is expected to use his expertise for the good of his public. He has much discretion in how he serves the people who call upon him. However, the dangers and complexities of the work require a military structure of the organization and a military leaning in the training. Although some are actually educated, all police officers are well trained. Policies, regulations, and procedures cover every facet of police work. Everything is expected to be done by the book with substantial repercussions, including civil and criminal liability, for varying from the expectations of operating procedures. Often the facts of a situation require a course of action that does not follow procedures. If he follows procedures exactly, he knows he won't fully help the public, and the public will think he is shirking his responsibility. If the officer follows his own judgment, he is taking a risk. The community and department expect officers to use judgment, but when they do, there is a danger they will be disciplined; another unnatural no-win situation engendering chronic stress.

Police officers tend to become socially isolated. The reasons given for this isolation are varied and mostly anecdotal. One theory is that police work is not balanced. Most occupations involve a combination of good and bad results. In police work, almost everything is bad, and everybody you deal with is perceived either inherently bad or at least foolish. Another is that police officers develop a 'street wisdom' and by fiat possess a degree of authority that tends to make them perceive themselves as being morally superior to the rest of society. Whatever the reason, the public that the police deal with clearly perceive it and tend to reinforce the divide. Classically when a group of people are isolated, they become disoriented and confused. Their behavior changes drastically. Ironically an isolated class are usually the ones who are losing real world wisdom and tend to judge the world incorrectly from a very limited perspective, leading to interpersonal mistakes and more chronic stress.

A more colloquial view looks at specific sources of stress in police work. The sources of stress most often actually cited are:

The fear of killing someone in the line of duty.

Having your partner or somebody else that you feel at least partly responsible for killed in the line of duty.

Lack of support by the department or superiors.

The scheduling of work and irregular work demands resulting in a disruption of family time or family events or rituals.

The daily grind of dealing with the stupidity of the public, or the "asshole factor".

Other more academic studies have produced similar lists, but may include items that the more colloquial surveys do not reveal, such as 'exposure to neglected, battered, or dead children'

Again, the actual fear of occupational death or physical harm is not high on the list of stress sources.

There have been numerous academic studies on the specific sources of police stress, and most conclude organizational culture and workload as the key issues in officer stress. Traumatic events are usually concluded to not be of sufficient scope or prevalence to account for prevalence of suicide, divorce, and substance abuse abnormalities.

Personality theories

Some of the more esoteric, least documented or cited, and more longstanding theories for police stress symptoms involves the interaction of the specifics of police work with the personalities of individual police officers. There has been a raging debate on the fringes of psychiatry as to whether there is something about police work that causes psychiatric symptomology and personality disorders or whether there are certain personalities susceptible to disorders that are attracted to police work. There are four general possibilities:

There is something about police work, the social structure, the work atmosphere, etc., which causes stresses or presents traumas that cause personality or psychiatric disorders resulting in symptoms such as suicide, divorce, violence, substance abuse, etc. (the foundations of this possibility are outlined above)

There is one or more personality types or people with certain tendencies or proclivities who are susceptible of developing personality or psychiatric disorders, regardless of their occupation, who because of their personality or preferences are attracted to police work, and then display symptoms of stress or disorders.

There is a combination of the two.

Or there is a combination and synergistic interaction of the two.

There are personality traits that have been used to determine police applicant desirability, specifically:

openness

conscientiousness

extroversion

agreeableness

neuroticism

Personality traits considered undesirable include:

hostility

lack of impulse control

substance abuse

psychosis

paranoia

There are other personality traits that are specifically not desired for police work that are equally well documented. However, there has been relatively little academic work cited regarding the personality traits attracted to police work. The nature of personality traits of people attracted to police work tends to be a matter of conjecture and anecdotal observations. The personalities of people who are actually in police work tends to be different from that which is purported to be desired by police departments. Police officers tend to be isolated and suspicious, view expression of emotions as a weakness, and find it hard to trust and confide in others. For example, police officers are often viewed by the public to be domineering, narcissistic, authoritarian, physically oppressive, and basically the opposite of the personality traits most often cited as being desirable in a police officer. There are studies that suggest that people who take risks are attracted to police work. There is a corresponding theory that police officers actually tend to be people seeking security and stability and are attracted to the job for the steady government paycheck and government pension and adverse to the risks of business, sales, or other occupations. There is ample evidence that there is something in police work that alters personality.

The theory that there is an interaction between the personality attracted to the work and the work itself is mostly conjecture. For example, people attracted to police work are thought to crave the respect and authority that they expect with a badge, gun, uniform, and commission, but most of the people that police officers come in contact with do not respect them, and their authority is strongly regulated and limited by law, policies, and procedures, setting up a conflict resulting in chronic stress.

Abuse of power

As police officers have considerable powers and are often supported by authorities who oversee them if accused of wrongdoing, abuses are inevitable on occasion.

Systematic cases

In dictatorial, corrupt, or weak states, police officers may carry out many criminal acts for the ruling regime with impunity. Examples are the Gestapo secret police in Nazi Germany, and the role of the police in the military dictatorship in Argentina in the 1970s. Institutional racism has been found in modern police forces.

Individual cases

Individual officers, or sometimes whole units, can be corrupt or carry out various other forms of misconduct; this occasionally happens in many forces, but is particularly problematic where police pay is very low unless supplemented by bribes. Police sometimes act with unwarranted brutality when they overreact to confrontational situations, to extract a confession from a person they may or may not genuinely suspect of being guilty, or in other circumstances. Instances of racism occur, even when the police force as a whole is not found to be racist.

See also

Cops (TV series)

Fictional police officers

Field Training Officer

List of slang terms for police officers

Military police

Peace officer

Police brutality

Police rank

Police procedural

President Grover Cleveland—former Sheriff of Erie County, New York

President Theodore Roosevelt—Deputy Sheriff in the Dakota Territory, and New York City Police Commissioner

References

External links

http://www.discoverpolicing.org

Metropolitan Police history

http://www.newscotlandyard.police.uk/foi/pdfs/other_information/corporate/operational_uniform_and_equipment.pdf

http://www.west-midlands.police.uk/publications/freedom-of-information/policy.asp?id=144

http://www.gmp.police.uk/mainsite/pages/pcsouniform.htm,ts=2

http://www.policelink.com

Category:Law enforcement occupations Category:People in law enforcement Officer

bg:Полицай cs:Policista da:Politibetjent de:Polizeibeamter eo:Policisto fr:Policier io:Policistaro he:שוטר lt:Policijos tarnautojas nl:Politieagent ja:警察官 scn:Custurinu simple:Police officer sk:Policajt sl:Policist sv:Polisman i Sverige tr:Polis memuru vi:Cảnh sát

Coordinates	28°36′36″N77°13′48″N
Name	Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips
Birth name	Dennis Bradley Philips
Birth date	January 07, 1947
Birth place	Kingston, Jamaica
Occupation	Islamic preacher
Religion	Sunni Islam
Website	www.bilalphilips.com
Footnotes	}}

Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips (born Dennis Bradley Philips January 7, 1947) in Jamaica is a contemporary Islamistic scholar, teacher, speaker, and author, resident in Qatar. He appears on Peace TV, which is a 24-hour Islamic satellite TV channel broadcasted to many countries around the world. According to Investigative Project on Terrorism he follows a strong anti-Western agenda and is connected to radical and terrorist Islamistics.

Biography

Education

Philips was born January 7, 1947 in Jamaica, but grew up in Canada, where he converted to Islam in 1972. He received his B.A. degree from the Islamic University of Medina and his M.A. in Aqeedah (Islamic Theology) from the King Saud University in Riyadh, then to the University of Wales, where he completed a PhD in Islamic Theology in the early 1990's. Philips comes from a family of educators, as both his parents were teachers and his grandfather was a Christian minister and Bible scholar.

Islamic Information Center

In 1994 he founded (and continues to direct) an Islamic Information Center, now known as Discover Islam, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.

Islamic Online University

The Islamic Online University has been founded by Dr. Bilal Philips as a completely tuition-free institution that is offering an online intensive, undergraduate, and graduate courses in Islamic Studies. The university offers a four year bachelor of arts degree in Islamic studies program.

The IOU was initially launched in 2001 from UAE with an offering of a few short courses. After a five year interlude, it was restarted in 2007 from Qatar with a greater offering of completely free short courses.

Controversies

In an interview given, Philips accused the Australian authorities of "blindly following American allegations and unsubstantiated false accusations" claiming that investigations in the UK, Canada and Australia had found no evidence that he was in any way connected with terrorism. In this interview, he also pointed out that he had not entered the USA since 1995, characterizing media claims that he had been deported in 2004 as an "outright lie". Philips also called the statement that he was an "unindicted co-conspirator” in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing "really a joke", claiming that it was based on a "supposedly leaked report" of over 100 prominent Muslims who were never charged. In April 2011 he has been banned from re-entering Germany as persona non grata.

At a conference in Toronto during the city's Pride Parade on July 3, 2011, Philips briefly reiterated his view that homosexuals caught in the act should be executed in countries governed by Islamic law.

Publications

Books

'' Fundamentals of TAWHEED (Islamic Monotheism) International Islamic Publishing House; ISBN 9960964809 '' The Evolution of Fiqh (Islamic Law & The Madh-habs) International Islamic Publishing House (Edited by Bradley Philips); ISBN 9960672867 '' True Message of Jesus Christ Islamic Book Services 2006; ISBN 8172313608 '' Purpose of Creation 84pp, Islamic Book Services 2002; ISBN 8172313586 '' Funeral Rites International Islamic Publishing House; ASIN 9960850846 '' Polygamy in Islam Islamic Book Services; ISBN 8172317158 '' Islamic Studies Al-Basheer 2002; ISBN 1898649197

Videos

Sundry videos at LightUponLight.com

See also

List of Da'ees

Dawah

Islam in Canada

Zakir Naik

Jamaal al-Din M. Zarabozo

Muhammad bin Jamil Zeno

References

External links

Bilal Philips' official website

Bilal Philips' Blog

Bilal Philips audio and video lectures

Interview with Bilal Philips on Famous Muslims

Lecture: Hardening of the Heart

Bilal Philips' Islamic Online University

Category:Converts to Islam Category:Canadian Muslims Category:Canadian people of Jamaican descent Category:Alumni of the University of Wales Category:Living people Category:1947 births Category:Muslim scholars Category:Islamic studies scholars Category:21st-century imams Category:Salafis

ar:بلال فيلبس da:Bilal Philips de:Bilal Philips ms:Bilal Philips ur:بلال فلپس