Coordinates	56°09′″N40°25′″N
name	Robert Koch
birth date	December 11, 1843
birth place	Clausthal, Kingdom of Hanover
death date	May 27, 1910
death place	Baden-Baden, Grand Duchy of Baden
nationality	German
field	Microbiology
work institutions	Imperial Health Office, Berlin, University of Berlin
alma mater	University of Göttingen
doctoral advisor	Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
Influenced	Friedrich Loeffler
known for	Discovery bacteriologyKoch's postulates of germ theoryIsolation of anthrax, tuberculosis and cholera
prizes	Nobel Prize in Medicine (1905) }}

Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (; 11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German physician. He became famous for isolating ''Bacillus anthracis'' (1877), the Tuberculosis bacillus (1882) and the Vibrio cholerae (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his tuberculosis findings in 1905. He is considered one of the founders of microbiology, inspiring such major figures as Paul Ehrlich and Gerhard Domagk.

Biography

Koch was born in Clausthal, Prussia, one of the German states, as the son of a mining official. He studied medicine under Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle at the University of Göttingen and graduated in 1866. He then served in the Franco-Prussian War and later became district medical officer, Wollstein (Wolsztyn), Prussian Poland. Working with very limited resources, he became one of the founders of bacteriology, the other major figure being Louis Pasteur.

After Casimir Davaine showed the direct transmission of the anthrax bacillus between cows, Koch studied anthrax more closely. He invented methods to purify the bacillus from blood samples and grow pure cultures. He found that, while it could not survive outside a host for long, anthrax built persisting endospores that could last a long time.

These endospores, embedded in soil, were the cause of unexplained "spontaneous" outbreaks of anthrax. Koch published his findings in 1876, and was rewarded with a job at the Imperial Health Office in Berlin in 1880. In 1881, he urged the sterilization of surgical instruments using heat.

In Berlin, he improved the methods he used in Wollstein, including staining and purification techniques, and bacterial growth media, including agar plates (thanks to the advice of Angelina and Walther Hesse) and the Petri dish, named after its inventor, his assistant Julius Richard Petri. These devices are still used today. With these techniques, he was able to discover the bacterium causing tuberculosis (''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'') in 1882 (he announced the discovery on 24 March). Tuberculosis was the cause of one in seven deaths in the mid-19th century.

In 1883, Koch worked with a French research team in Alexandria, Egypt, studying cholera. Koch identified the vibrio bacterium that caused cholera, though he never managed to prove it in experiments. The bacterium had been previously isolated by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini in 1854, but his work had been ignored due to the predominance of the miasma theory of disease. Koch was unaware of Pacini's work and made an independent discovery, and his greater preeminence allowed the discovery to be widely spread for the benefit of others. In 1965, however, the bacterium was formally renamed ''Vibrio cholera Pacini 1854''.

In 1885, he became professor of hygiene at the University of Berlin, then in 1891 he was made Honorary Professor of the medical faculty and Director of the new Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (eventually renamed as the Robert Koch Institute), a position from which he resigned in 1904. He started travelling around the world, studying diseases in South Africa, India, and Java. He visited what is now called the Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Mukteshwar on request from the Government of India to investigate on cattle plague. The microscope used by him during that period was kept in the museum maintained by IVRI.

Probably as important as his work on tuberculosis, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize (1905), are ''Koch's postulates'', which say that ''to establish that an organism is the cause of a disease, it must be'':

found in all cases of the disease examined, while absent in healthy organisms

prepared and maintained in a pure culture

capable of producing the original infection, even after several generations in culture

retrievable from an inoculated animal and cultured again.

Koch's pupils found the organisms responsible for diphtheria, typhoid, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, cerebrospinal meningitis, leprosy, bubonic plague, tetanus, and syphilis, among others, by using his methods.

Robert Koch died on 27 May 1910 from a heart-attack in Baden-Baden, aged 66.

Honors and awards

The crater Koch on the Moon is named after him. The Robert Koch Prize and Medal were created to honour Microbiologists who make groundbreaking discoveries or who contribute to global health in a unique way. The now-defunct Robert Koch Hospital at Koch, Missouri (south of St. Louis, Missouri), was also named in his honor. A hagiographic account of Koch's career can be found in the 1939 Nazi propaganda film ''Robert Koch, der Bekämpfer des Todes'' (The fighter against death), directed by Hans Steinhoff and starring Emil Jannings as Koch.

Because the construction efforts were jeopardized by malaria outbreaks on Veliki Brijun Island which occurred during summer months, and even Austrian steel industrialist Paul Kupelweiser himself fell ill with the disease, at the turn of the century Kupelweiser invited Koch, who at the time studied different forms of malaria and quinine-based treatments. Koch accepted the invitation and spent two years, from 1900 to 1902, on the Brijuni Islands Archipelago.

According to Koch’s instructions, all the ponds and swamps where malaria-carrying mosquitoes hatched were reclaimed and patients were treated with quinine. Malaria was thus eradicated by 1902 and Kupelwieser erected a monument to Koch, which still stands in vicinity of the 15th century Church of St. German on Veliki Brijun Island.

Postage stamps and coins

See also

German inventors and discoverers

References

External links

Robert Koch Biography at the Nobel Foundation website

MPIWG-Berlin, Robert Koch Biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science

Musoptin.com, original microscope out of the laboratory Robert Koch used in Wollstein (1877)

Musoptin.com, microscope objectives: as they were used by Robert Koch for his first photos of microorganisms (1877–1878)

Category:1843 births Category:1910 deaths Category:People from the District of Goslar Category:Deaths from myocardial infarction Category:German biologists Category:German inventors Category:German microbiologists Category:German military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War Category:German Nobel laureates Category:German physicians Category:Humboldt University of Berlin faculty Category:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine Category:People from the Kingdom of Hanover Category:Phthisiatrists Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Category:Tuberculosis Category:University of Göttingen alumni Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society

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Coordinates	56°09′″N40°25′″N
name	Louis Pasteur
quotation	In the fields f observation, chance favors only the prepared mind.
birth date	December 27, 1822
birth place	Dole, Jura, Franche-Comté, France
death date	September 28, 1895
death place	Marnes-la-Coquette, Hauts-de-Seine, France
nationality	French
Fields	ChemistryMicrobiology
Workplaces	Dijon LycéeUniversity of StrasbourgUniversité Lille Nord de FranceÉcole Normale Supérieure
Alma mater	École Normale Supérieure
Notable students	Charles Friedel
religion	Catholic
signature	Louis Pasteur Signature.svg}}

Louis Pasteur (, ; December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist born in Dole. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first vaccine for rabies and anthrax. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease. He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to stop milk and wine from causing sickness, a process that came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. Pasteur also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals. His body lies beneath the Institute Pasteur in Paris in a spectacular vault covered in depictions of his accomplishments in Byzantine mosaics.

Early life and biography

Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822, in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the family of a poor tanner. Louis grew up in the town of Arbois. He gained degrees in Letters and in Mathematical Sciences before entering the École Normale Supérieure, an elite college. After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector, in 1849. They were married on May 29, 1849, and together had five children, only two of whom survived to adulthood; the other three died of typhoid. These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseases such as typhoid.

Work on chirality and the polarization of light

In Pasteur's early work as a chemist, he resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid (1848). A solution of this compound derived from living things (specifically, wine lees) rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The mystery was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same. This was the first time anyone had demonstrated chiral molecules.

Pasteur's doctoral thesis on crystallography attracted the attention of W. T. Fuillet and he helped Pasteur garner a position of professor of chemistry at the ''Faculté'' (College) of Strasbourg.

In the year of 1854, Louis was named Dean of the new Faculty of Sciences in Lille. (It was on this occasion that Pasteur uttered his oft-quoted remark: "...dans les champs de l'observation, le hasard ne favorise que les esprits préparés" (In the field of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind.)) In 1856, he was made administrator and director of scientific studies of the École Normale Supérieure.

Germ theory of disease

Pasteur demonstrated that fermentation is caused by the growth of micro-organisms, and that the emergent growth of bacteria in nutrient broths is not due to spontaneous generation but rather to biogenesis (Omne vivum ex ovo).

He exposed boiled broths to air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through to the growth medium, and even in vessels with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not allow dust particles to pass. Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks were broken open; therefore, the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. This was one of the last and most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. The experiment also supported germ theory.

While Pasteur was not the first to propose germ theory (Girolamo Fracastoro, Agostino Bassi, Friedrich Henle and others had suggested it earlier), he developed it and conducted experiments that clearly indicated its correctness and managed to convince most of Europe it was true. Today he is often regarded as the father of germ theory and bacteriology, together with Robert Koch.

Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to kill most bacteria and moulds already present within them. He and Claude Bernard completed the first test on April 20, 1862. This process was soon afterwards known as pasteurization.

Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro-organisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery.

In 1865, two parasitic diseases called pébrine and flacherie were killing great numbers of silkworms at Alais (now Alès). Pasteur worked several years proving it was a microbe attacking silkworm eggs which caused the disease, and that eliminating this microbe within silkworm nurseries would eradicate the disease.

Pasteur also discovered anaerobiosis, whereby some micro organisms can develop and live without air or oxygen, called the Pasteur effect.

Immunology and vaccination

Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled and failed to induce the disease in some chickens he was infecting with the disease. Upon reusing these healthy chickens, Pasteur discovered that he could not infect them, even with fresh bacteria; the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease, even though they had caused only mild symptoms.

His assistant Charles Chamberland (of French origin) had been instructed to inoculate the chickens after Pasteur went on holiday. Chamberland failed to do this, but instead went on holiday himself. On his return, the month-old cultures made the chickens unwell, but instead of the infection's being fatal, as it usually was, the chickens recovered completely. Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discard the apparently faulty culture when Pasteur stopped him. Pasteur guessed the recovered animals now might be immune to the disease, as were the animals at Eure-et-Loir that had recovered from anthrax.

In the 1870s, he applied this immunization method to anthrax, which affected cattle, and aroused interest in combating other diseases.

Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine by exposing the bacillus to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, in fact show Pasteur used the method of rival Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, a Toulouse veterinary surgeon, to create the anthrax vaccine. This method used the oxidizing agent potassium dichromate. Pasteur's oxygen method did eventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded a patent on the production of an anthrax vaccine.

The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox. Inoculation with smallpox was known to result in far less scarring, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with the naturally acquired disease. Edward Jenner had also discovered vaccination, using cowpox to give cross-immunity to smallpox (in 1796), and by Pasteur's time this had generally replaced the use of actual smallpox material in inoculation. The difference between smallpox vaccination and anthrax or chicken cholera vaccination was that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been ''generated artificially'', and so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found.

This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of ''vaccines'', in honour of Jenner's discovery. Pasteur produced the first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue.

The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux, a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur who had been working with a killed vaccine produced by desiccating the spinal cords of infected rabbits. The vaccine had been tested only on eleven dogs before its first human trial.

This vaccine was first used on 9-year old Joseph Meister, on July 6, 1885, after the boy was badly mauled by a rabid dog. This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy. After consulting with colleagues, Pasteur decided to go ahead with the treatment. Meister did not contract the disease. It is sometimes said that Pasteur saved the boy's life; but this cannot be maintained with certainty, since the risk of contracting rabies after such an exposure is estimated at around 15%. Nonetheless, Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter was not pursued. The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines. The first of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement.

Legal risk was not the only kind Pasteur undertook. In ''The Story of San Michele'', Axel Munthe writes of the rabies vaccine research:

Because of his study in germs, Pasteur encouraged doctors to sanitize their hands and equipment before surgery. Prior to this, few doctors or their assistants practiced the procedure of washing their hands and equipment.

Allegations of deception

In 1995, the centennial of the death of Louis Pasteur, the ''New York Times'' ran an article titled "Pasteur's Deception". After having thoroughly read Pasteur's lab notes, the science historian Gerald L. Geison declared that Pasteur had given a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort. Max Perutz published a vigorous defense of Pasteur in the New York Review of Books.

Faith and spirituality

Although his grandson, Louis Pasteur Vallery-Radot, wrote that Pasteur had only kept from his Catholic background a spiritualism without religious practice, Catholic observers often said that Louis Pasteur remained throughout his whole life an ardent Christian, and his son-in-law, in perhaps the most complete biography of Louis Pasteur, writes:

Maurice Vallery-Radot, grandson of the brother of the son-in-law of Pasteur and outspoken Catholic, also holds that Pasteur fundamentally remained Catholic. According to both Pasteur Vallery-Radot and Maurice Vallery-Radot, the well-known quotation attributed to Pasteur: "The more I know, the more nearly is my faith that of the Breton peasant. Could I but know all I would have the faith of a Breton peasant's wife." is apocryphal.

Principal works

Pasteur's principal works are: "Etudes sur le Vin", (1866); "Etudes sur le Vinaigre" (1868); "Etudes sur la Maladie des Vers à Soie" (2 vols., 1870); "Quelques Réflexions sur la Science en France" (1871); "Etudes sur la Bière" (1876); "Les Microbes organisés, leur rôle dans la Fermentation, la Putréfaction et la Contagion" (1878); "Discours de Réception de M.L. Pasteur à l'Académie Française" (1882); "Traitement de la Rage" (1886).

Honors and final days

His death occurred in 1895, near Paris, from complications of a series of strokes that had started in 1868. He died while listening to the story of St Vincent de Paul, whom he admired and sought to emulate. He was buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, but his remains were reinterred in a crypt in the Institut Pasteur, Paris, where he is remembered for his life-saving work.

Pasteur won the Leeuwenhoek medal, microbiology's highest Dutch honor in Arts and Sciences, in 1895. He was a Grand Croix of the Legion of Honor–one of only 75 in all of France. Both Institute Pasteur and Université Louis Pasteur were named after him.

In many localities worldwide, there are streets named in his honor. For example, in the USA: the Medical school at Stanford University, Palo Alto and Irvine, California, Boston, Massachusetts and Polk, Florida, adjacent to the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio; Jonquière, Québec; San Salvador de Jujuy and Buenos Aires (Argentina), Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, in the United Kingdom, Jericho and Wulguru in Queensland, (Australia); Phnom Penh in Cambodia; Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam; Batna in Algeria; Bandung in Indonesia, Tehran in Iran, adjacent to the Odessa State Medical University in Odessa, Ukraine; Milan in Italy and Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca and Timişoara in Romania. A large university hospital is named after him in Košice, Slovakia.

In his honor, there is a statue for him located on the campus of San Rafael High School in San Rafael, California. Also there is a Pasteur institute in Ootakamund, a hill station in south India, which is involved in vaccine trials and also rabies diagnosis.

Statements

In his triumphal lecture at the Sorbonne in 1864, Pasteur said "Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow struck by this simple experiment" (referring to his swan-neck flask experiment wherein he proved that fermenting micro-organisms would not form in a flask containing fermentable juice until an entry path was created for them).

Remembrances

''Avenue Louis Pasteur'' in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area in Boston, Massachusetts is named in his honor in the French manner with "Avenue" preceding the name of the dedicatee.

The Avenue Pasteur in Saigon, Vietnam, is one of the few streets in that city to retain its French name.

In the television program ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'', the show's main characters complete the final mission aboard the U.S.S. Pasteur. The show's chief medical officer is portrayed as being the captain of this ship in the future (relative to the show's main story line), which can be seen as a tribute to Pasteur by selecting his name for this medical ship.

In Fiction

In the TV series ''True Blood'', it is revealed that in 1982 Pasteur is a ''vampire'' working on a synthetic blood substitute for the purpose of allowing vampires to live without needing to feed on humans.

See also

Pasteurization

Infection control

Infectious disease

Modern medicine

Pasteur Institute

''The Story of Louis Pasteur'' (a 1936 biographical film).

References

Further reading

External links

The Institut Pasteur – Foundation Dedicated to the prevention and treatment of diseases through biological research, education and public health activities

The Pasteur Foundation – A US nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting the mission of the Institut Pasteur in Paris. Full archive of newsletters available online containing examples of US Tributes to Louis Pasteur.

Pasteur's Papers on the Germ Theory

The Life and Work of Louis Pasteur, Pasteur Brewing

The Pasteur Galaxy

Louis Pasteur featured on the 5 French Franc banknote from 1966.

Germ Theory and Its Applications to Medicine and Surgery, 1878

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) profile, AccessExcellence.org

The complete work of Pasteur, BNF (Bibliothèque nationale de France) ''Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences'' Articles published by Pasteur

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