In linguistics, idioms are usually presumed to be figures of speech contradicting the principle of compositionality; yet the matter remains debated. In phraseology, they are defined in a similar way as a sub-type of phraseme whose meaning is not the regular sum of the meanings of its components. John Saeed defines an "idiom" as words collocated that became affixed to each other until metamorphosing into a fossilised term. This collocation—words commonly used in a group—redefines each component word in the word-group and becomes an ''idiomatic expression''. The words develop a specialized meaning as an entity, as an ''idiom''. Moreover, an idiom is an expression, word, or phrase whose sense means something different from what the words literally imply. The idiom "beating around the bush" means to hint or discuss obliquely; nobody is literally beating any person or thing, and the bush is a metaphor. When a speaker uses an idiom, the listener might mistake its actual meaning, if he or she has not heard this figure of speech before. Idioms usually do not translate well; in some cases, when an idiom is translated into another language, either its meaning is changed or it is meaningless.

Background

Literal translation (word-by-word) of opaque idioms will not convey the same meaning in other languages – an analogous expression in Polish is ''kopnąć w kalendarz'' ("to kick the calendar"), with "calendar" detached from its usual meaning, just like "bucket" in the English phrase. In Bulgarian the closest analogous phrase is ''da ritnesh kambanata'' ("да ритнеш камбаната", "to kick the bell"); in Dutch, ''het loodje leggen'' ("to lay the piece of lead"); in Finnish, ''potkaista tyhjää'' ("to kick nothing", or more literally "to kick the absence of something"); in French, ''manger des pissenlits par la racine'' ("to eat dandelions by the root"); in Spanish, ''estirar la pata'' (to stretch the foot); in German, ''den Löffel abgeben'' ("to give the spoon away") or ''ins Gras beißen'' ("to bite into the grass"); in Latvian, ''nolikt karoti'' ("to put the spoon down"); in Portuguese, ''bater as botas'' ("to beat the boots"); in Danish, ''at stille træskoene'' ("to take off the clogs"); in Swedish, ''trilla av pinnen'' ("to fall off the stick"); and in Greek, ''τινάζω τα πέταλα'' ("to shake the horse-shoes"). In Brazil, the expression "to kick the bucket" (''chutar o balde'') has a completely different meaning (to give up on something complicated, as a bucket kicked makes too much noise, demonstrating impatience).

Some idioms, in contrast, are "transparent idioms" : much of their meaning does get through if they are taken (or translated) literally. For example, "lay one's cards on the table" meaning to reveal previously unknown intentions, or to reveal a secret. Transparency is a matter of degree; "spill the beans" and "leave no stone unturned" are not entirely literally interpretable, but only involve a slight metaphorical broadening.

Another category of idioms is a word having several meanings, sometimes simultaneously, sometimes discerned from the context of its usage. This is seen in the (mostly un-inflected) English language in polysemes, the common use of the same word for an activity, for those engaged in it, for the product used, for the place or time of an activity, and sometimes for a verb.

Idioms tend to confuse those unfamiliar with them; students of a new language must learn its idiomatic expressions as vocabulary. Many natural language words have ''idiomatic origins'', but are assimilated, so losing their figurative senses.

Relation with culture

As defined by ''The New International Webster’s College Dictionary'', an idiom is an expression not readily analyzable from its grammatical construction or from the meaning of its component parts. It is the part of the distinctive form or construction of a particular language that has a specific form or style present only in that language. ''Random House Webster’s College Dictionary'' seems to agree with this definition, even expanding it further, stating that an idiom is an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual grammatical rules of a language or from the usual meanings of its constituent elements. Unlike many other aspects of language, an idiom does not readily change as time passes. Some idioms gain and lose favor in popular culture, but they rarely have any actual shift in their construction. People also have a natural tendency to over exaggerate what they mean sometimes, also giving birth to new idioms by accident.

Many idiomatic expressions are based upon conceptual metaphors such as "time as a substance", "time as a path", "love as war", and "up is more"; the metaphor is essential, not the idioms. For example, "spend time", "battle of the sexes", and "back in the day" are idiomatic and based upon essential metaphors. These "deep metaphors" and their relationship to human cognition are discussed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in ''Metaphors We Live By'' (1980).

In forms such as "profits are up", the metaphor is carried by "up" itself. The phrase "profits are up" is not an idiom; anything measurable can supplant "profits": "crime is up", "satisfaction is up", "complaints are up" et cetera. Essential idioms generally involve prepositions, e.g. "out of" and "turn into".

Likewise, many Chinese characters are idiomatic constructs, since their meanings often not traceable to a literal (pictographic) meaning of their ''radicals.'' Because characters are composed from a small base of some 214 radicals, their assembled meanings follow different interpretation modes – from the pictographic to the metaphoric to those that have lost their original meanings.

See also

References

External links

Category:Lexical units