Coordinates	30°19′10″N81°39′36″N
name	Zodiac
director	David Fincher
producer	Ceán ChaffinBrad FischerMike MedavoyArnold MesserJames Vanderbilt
screenplay	James Vanderbilt
based on
starring	Jake GyllenhaalMark RuffaloRobert Downey, Jr.Anthony EdwardsBrian CoxJohn Carroll LynchChloë SevignyElias KoteasDermot MulroneyDonal Logue
music	David Shire
cinematography	Harris Savides
editing	Angus Wall
studio	Phoenix PicturesRoad Rebel
distributor	Paramount Pictures(North America)Warner Bros. Pictures(International)
released
runtime	Theatrical release157 minutesDirector's cut162 minutes
country
language	English
budget	$65 million
gross	$84,785,914 }}

''Zodiac'' is a 2007 American mystery-thriller film directed by David Fincher and based on Robert Graysmith's non-fiction book of the same name. The Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. joint production stars Jake Gyllenhaal, Mark Ruffalo, and Robert Downey, Jr.

''Zodiac'' tells the story of the hunt for a notorious serial killer known as "Zodiac" who killed in and around the San Francisco Bay Area during the late 1960s and early 1970s, leaving several victims in his wake and taunting police with letters and ciphers mailed to newspapers. The case remains one of San Francisco's most infamous unsolved crimes.

Fincher, screenwriter James Vanderbilt, and producer Brad Fischer spent 18 months conducting their own investigation and research into the Zodiac murders. During filming, Fincher employed the digital Thomson Viper Filmstream camera to shoot the film. Contrary to popular belief, ''Zodiac'' was not shot entirely digitally; traditional high-speed film cameras were used for slow-motion murder sequences.

Reviews for the film were highly positive. However, it did not perform strongly at the North American box office, grossing only USD $33 million. It performed better in other parts of the world, earning $51 million. This brought its box office total to $84 million, with a budget of $65 million spent on its production.

Plot

The film starts on July 4, 1969, with the Zodiac killer’s second attack, the shooting of Darlene Ferrin and Mike Mageau at a lovers' lane in Vallejo, California. Mageau survives while Ferrin dies from her injuries.

One month later, a letter written by the Zodiac arrives at the ''San Francisco Chronicle''. Paul Avery (Robert Downey, Jr.) is a ''Chronicle'' crime reporter. Robert Graysmith (Jake Gyllenhaal) is a political cartoonist there. The newspaper receives encrypted letters that the killer sends, taunting the police. Because of Graysmith's status as a cartoonist, he is not taken seriously by Avery and the editors and is excluded from the initial details about the killings despite his interest in the case. In particular, he is drawn to the encrypted code that is included with the letters and is given access to one. When he is able to crack one of the codes and makes several correct guesses about the killer's actions, Avery begins sharing information with him.

The Zodiac killer attacks again, stabbing Bryan Hartnell (Patrick Scott Lewis) and Cecelia Shepard (Pell James) at Lake Berryessa in Napa County. Shepard dies as a result of the attack, while Hartnell survives. Soon afterward, San Francisco taxicab driver Paul Stine is shot and killed in the city's Presidio Heights district. San Francisco police detectives Dave Toschi (Mark Ruffalo) and his partner Bill Armstrong (Anthony Edwards) are assigned to the case, liaising with other detectives such as Jack Mulanax (Elias Koteas) in Vallejo and Ken Narlow (Donal Logue) in Napa. The killer, or someone posing as him, continues to toy with authorities by speaking on the phone with celebrity lawyer Melvin Belli (Brian Cox) when he makes an appearance on a television talk show. Avery and Graysmith form an alliance, delving deeper into the case.

In 1971, Toschi, Armstrong and Mulanax question Arthur Leigh Allen (John Carroll Lynch), a potential suspect in the case. However, a handwriting expert (Philip Baker Hall) insists that Allen did not write the Zodiac letters. Avery receives a new letter threatening his life. He becomes increasingly paranoid and turns to drugs and alcohol. At one point, he shares information with a rival police force which angers Toschi and Armstrong.

By 1975, Avery leaves the ''Chronicle''. Armstrong quits the homicide division, and Toschi is demoted for supposedly forging a Zodiac letter. Graysmith, meanwhile, continues his own in-depth investigation, interviewing witnesses and police detectives involved in the case. Obsessing over the unsolved case, he begins receiving anonymous phone calls with heavy breathing (on the night of Ferrin's death, Graysmith discovered that someone prank-called the victim's family and did the same thing). Because of his submersion in the case, Graysmith loses his job and his wife Melanie (Chloë Sevigny) leaves him, taking their children with her.

Graysmith persistently contacts Toschi about the Zodiac murders and eventually impresses the veteran detective with his knowledge of the case. While Toschi cannot directly give Graysmith access to the information he discovered over the years, he provides contacts of other police departments in counties where the other murders occurred. The cartoonist acquires more information that points to Allen as the Zodiac, and although circumstantial evidence seems to indicate his guilt, the hard evidence, such as fingerprints and handwriting samples, exonerate him.

In December 1983, a full 14 years after the original slayings, Graysmith tracks down Allen to a Vallejo hardware store, where he is employed as a salesclerk. After Allen asks if he can help Graysmith with anything, they stare at each other for a moment with blank expressions before Graysmith simply replies with a 'No,' and leaves the hardware store.

Eight years later, in 1991, Mageau (Jimmi Simpson) meets with authorities and identifies Allen from a police mugshot.

Final title cards, however, inform the audience that Allen died in 1992 before he could be further questioned by police, and that DNA tests performed in 2002 did not match samples gathered from the Zodiac letters.

Cast

Jake Gyllenhaal as Robert Graysmith, a cartoonist for the ''San Francisco Chronicle''. While researching the film, Fincher considered Gyllenhaal to play Graysmith. According to the director, "I really liked him in ''Donnie Darko'' and I thought, He’s an interesting double-sided coin. He can do that naive thing but he can also do possessed." To prepare for his role, Gyllenhaal met Graysmith and videotaped him in order to study his mannerisms and behavior.

Mark Ruffalo as SFPD Inspector David Toschi, initially Ruffalo was not interested in the project but Fincher wanted him to play Toschi. He met with the actor and told him that he was rewriting the screenplay. "I loved what he was saying and loved where he was going with it," the actor remembers. For research, he read every report on the case and read all the books on the subject. Ruffalo met Toschi and found out that he had "perfect recall of the details and what happened when, where, who was there, what he was wearing. He always knew what he was wearing. I think it is seared into who he is and it was a big deal for him."

Robert Downey, Jr. as Paul Avery, a journalist at the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' who covered the Zodiac killer case. Originally, Fincher had wanted to cast frequent collaborator Brad Pitt as Avery, given the physical resemblance between the two men.

Anthony Edwards as SFPD Inspector William Armstrong. When casting the role, Fincher said he thought of Edwards because "I knew I needed the most decent person I could find, because he would be the balance of the movie. In a weird way, this movie wouldn’t exist without Bill Armstrong. Everything we know about the Zodiac case, we know because of his notes. So in casting the part, I wanted to get someone who is totally reliable."

Brian Cox as Melvin Belli, a prominent defense attorney who received a letter from the Zodiac killer.

John Carroll Lynch as Arthur Leigh Allen, a prime suspect in the case. Allen was never charged with these crimes.

Chloë Sevigny as Melanie Graysmith, Graysmith's wife.

John Getz as Templeton Peck, ''Chronicle'' managing editor.

John Terry as Charles Thieriot, another editor at the Chronicle, who is involved with the first Zodiac letter.

Elias Koteas as Sgt. Jack Mulanax, a police detective from Vallejo.

Dermot Mulroney as Captain Marty Lee, Armstrong's and Toschi's supervisor in the SFPD homicide division.

Donal Logue as Ken Narlow, a police detective in Napa.

Philip Baker Hall as Sherwood Morrill, a handwriting analyst.

Adam Goldberg as Duffy Jennings, a real life journalist who replaced Avery at the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' when the latter went to the ''San Francisco Examiner''. He received a letter from the Zodiac in 1978.

Zach Grenier as Mel Nicolai

Jimmi Simpson as Micheal Mageau

Ciara Hughes as Darlene Ferrin

Pell James as Cecelia Shepard

Patrick Scott Lewis as Bryan Hartnell

Production

Development

James Vanderbilt had read Robert Graysmith's book ''Zodiac'' in 1986 while in high school. Years later, he became a screenwriter, met Graysmith and became fascinated by the folklore surrounding the Zodiac killer and attempted to translate that into his script. Vanderbilt had endured bad experiences with the endings of his scripts being changed and wanted more control over his material. He pitched his adaptation of ''Zodiac'' to Mike Medavoy and Bradley J. Fischer from Phoenix Pictures, by agreeing to write a spec script if he could have more creative control over it.

Graysmith first met Fischer and Vanderbilt at the premiere of Paul Schrader's film, ''Auto Focus'', which was based on Graysmith's 1991 book about the life and death of actor Bob Crane. A deal was made and they optioned the rights to ''Zodiac'' and ''Zodiac Unmasked'' when they became available after languishing at Disney for nearly a decade.

David Fincher was their first choice to direct based on his work on ''Se7en''. Originally, he was going to direct an adaptation of James Ellroy’s novel, ''The Black Dahlia'' (later filmed by Brian De Palma), and envisioned a five-hour, $80 million mini-series with movie stars. When the studio backing it did not agree, the director left the project and moved on to ''Zodiac''. He was given Vanderbilt’s 158-page screenplay in late 2003.

Fincher was drawn to this story because he spent much of his childhood in San Anselmo in Marin County during the initial Zodiac murders. "I remember coming home and saying the highway patrol had been following our school buses for a couple weeks now. And my dad, who worked from home, and who was very dry, not one to soft-pedal things, turned slowly in his chair and said: ‘Oh yeah. There’s a serial killer who has killed four or five people, who calls himself Zodiac, who’s threatened to take a high-powered rifle and shoot out the tires of a school bus, and then shoot the children as they come off the bus.’". For Fincher as a young boy, the killer "was the ultimate boogeyman". The director was also drawn to the unresolved ending of Vanderbilt's screenplay because it felt true to real life where cases are not always solved.

Fincher realized that his job was to dispel the mythic stature the case had taken on over the years by clearly defining what was fact and what was fiction. He told Vanderbilt that he wanted the screenplay re-written but with additional research done from the original police reports. Fincher found that there was a lot of speculation and hearsay and wanted to interview people directly involved in the case in person to see if he believed what they were telling him. Fincher did this because he felt a burden of responsibility in making a film that convicted someone posthumously.

The director, Fischer and Vanderbilt spent months interviewing witnesses, family members of suspects, retired and current investigators, the only two surviving victims, and the mayors of San Francisco and Vallejo. Fincher said, “Even when we did our own interviews, we would talk to two people. One would confirm some aspects of it and another would deny it. Plus, so much time had passed, memories are affected and the different telling of the stories would change perception. So when there was any doubt we always went with the police reports”. During the course of their research, Fincher and Fischer hired Gerald McMenamin, an internationally known forensic linguistics expert and professor of linguistics at California State University Fresno, to analyze the Zodiac’s letters. Unlike document examiners in the 1970s, he focused on the language of the Zodiac and how he formed his sentences in terms of word structure and spelling.

Fincher and Fischer approached Sony Pictures Entertainment to finance the film but talks with them fell through because the studio wanted the running time fixed at two hours and fifteen minutes. They then approached other studios, and Warner Bros. and Paramount Pictures agreed to share the production costs and were willing to be more flexible about the running time. The film was a tough sell to the studios and the executives were concerned about the heavy amount of dialogue and the lack of action scenes, as well as the inconclusive nature of the story arc.

When Dave Toschi met Fincher, Fischer and Vanderbilt, the director told him that he was not going to make another ''Dirty Harry'' (which had been loosely based on the Zodiac case). Toschi was impressed with their knowledge of the case and afterwards, he realized that he had learned a lot from them. In addition, the Zodiac’s two surviving victims, Mike Mageau and Bryan Hartnell were consultants on the film.

Alan J. Pakula’s film ''All the President's Men'' was the template for ''Zodiac'' as Fincher felt that it was also “the story of a reporter determined to get the story at any cost and one who was new to being an investigative reporter. It was all about his obsession to know the truth”. And like in that film, he did not want to spend time telling the back story of any of the characters, focusing, instead, on what they did in regards to the case.”

Vanderbilt was drawn to the notion that Graysmith went from a cartoonist to one of the most significant investigators of the case. He pitched the story as: “What if Garry Trudeau woke up one morning and tried to solve the Son of Sam”? As he worked on the script, he became friends with Graysmith and consulted him often. The filmmakers were able to get the cooperation of the Vallejo Police Department (one of the key investigators at the time) because they hoped that the movie would inspire someone to come forward with a crucial bit of information that might help solve this decades-old cold case.

Casting

While researching the film, Fincher considered Jake Gyllenhaal to play Robert Graysmith. According to the director, “I really liked him in ''Donnie Darko'' and I thought, ‘He’s an interesting double-sided coin. He can do that naive thing but he can also do possessed.’” To prepare for his role, Gyllenhaal met Graysmith and videotaped him in order to study his mannerisms and behavior.

Initially, Mark Ruffalo was not interested in the project but Fincher wanted him to play David Toschi. He met with the actor and told him that he was rewriting the screenplay. “I loved what he was saying and loved where he was going with it”, the actor remembers. For research, he read every report on the case and read all the books on the subject. Ruffalo met Toschi and found out that he had “perfect recall of the details and what happened when, where, who was there, what he was wearing. He always knew what he was wearing. I think it is seared into who he is and it was a big deal for him.”

When casting the role of Inspector William Armstrong, Fincher said he thought of Anthony Edwards because "I knew I needed the most decent person I could find, because he would be the balance of the movie. In a weird way, this movie wouldn’t exist without Bill Armstrong. Everything we know about the Zodiac case, we know because of his notes. So in casting the part, I wanted to get someone who is totally reliable."

Originally, Gary Oldman was to play Melvin Belli but "he went to a lot of trouble, they had appliances, but just physically it wasn't going to work, he just didn't have the girth", Graysmith remembers. Brian Cox was cast instead.

The finished film has an unusually large cast of characters. In a May 15, 2007, film review, ''Variety'' noted, "Performances and casting are impeccable down to the smallest role."

Principal photography

Fincher decided to use the digital Thomson Viper Filmstream camera to shoot the film. Fincher had previously used the Thomson Viper over the past three years on commercials for Nike, Hewlett Packard, Heineken and Lexus which allowed him to get used to and experiment with the equipment. Working with digital cameras allowed him to watch what he had just shot in full resolution, experience less equipment failure than with film, and thereby eliminated things like film negative damage, and reduce costs in post-production. He was able to use inexpensive desktop software like Final Cut Pro to edit ''Zodiac''. Fincher remarked in an interview, "Dailies almost always end up being disappointing, like the veil is pierced and you look at it for the first time and think, 'Oh my god, this is what I really have to work with.' But when you can see what you have as it's gathered, it can be a much less neurotic process."

''Zodiac'' was the first production to employ the Filmstream camera in its native Filmstream mode, which records an uncompressed video stream, allowing for exceptional quality.

Contrary to popular belief, ''Zodiac'' was not shot entirely digitally; traditional high-speed film cameras were used for slow-motion murder sequences. Michael Mann's ''Miami Vice'', as well as his previous effort, ''Collateral'' (a co-production of Paramount and its current sister studio DreamWorks, and which also starred Mark Ruffalo), were also shot with the camera but mixed in other formats. Once shot on the Viper camera, the files were converted to DVCPro HD 1080i and edited in Final Cut Pro. This was for editorial decisions only. During the later stages of editing the original uncompressed 1080p 4:4:4 RAW digital source footage was assembled automatically to maintain an up-to-date digital "negative" of the movie. Other digital productions like ''Superman Returns'' or ''Apocalypto'' recorded to the HDCAM tape format.

Fincher had previously worked with director of photography Harris Savides on ''Se7en'' (he shot the opening credits) and ''The Game''. Savides loved the script but realized, “there was so much exposition, just people talking on the phone or having conversations. It was difficult to imagine how it could be done in a visual way.” Fincher and Savides did not want to repeat the look of ''Se7en''. The director's approach to ''Zodiac'' was to create a look mundane enough that audiences would accept that what they were watching was the truth. The filmmakers also did not want to glamorize the killer or tell the story through his eyes. “That would have turned the story into a first-person-shooter video game. We didn’t want to make the sort of movie that serial killers would want to own,” Fincher said.

CG was also used to recreate the San Francisco neighborhood at Washington and Cherry Streets where cab driver Paul Stine was killed. The area had changed significantly over the years and residents didn't want the murder to be re-created in their neighborhood, so Fincher shot the six-minute sequence on a bluescreen stage. Production designer Donald Burt gave the visual effects team detailed drawings of the intersection as it was in 1969. Photographs of every possible angle of the area were shot with a high-resolution digital camera, allowing the effects crew to build computer-based geometric models of homes that were then textured with period facades. 3-D vintage police motorcycles, squad cars, a firetruck and street lights were added to the final shot.

The film's establishing shots of the Bay Area were created by Matte World Digital. The "helicopter shots" of the fireworks-laden sky over Vallejo, the San Francisco waterfront, and the cab driving through San Francisco were CG, as was the shot looking down from the tower of the Golden Gate Bridge.

A time-lapse sequence showing the building of the Transamerica Pyramid was a hybrid of 2D and 3D matte painting. The shot was initially created using reference photos of the Pyramid taken from the rooftop of Francis Ford Coppola's Sentinel Building. MWD's visual effects supervisor, Craig Barron, then researched the Pyramid's original construction techniques for accuracy in the animated sequence.

The art for the ''Zodiac'' poster was also provided by Matte World Digital at Fincher's request. Barron and his crew shot digital photos of the city skyline at night and composited them with a stock photo taken from the top of the Golden Gate Bridge. Layers of fog were added for the final image.

Soundtrack

Originally, Fincher envisioned the film’s soundtrack to be composed of 40 cues of vintage music spanning the nearly three decades of the Zodiac story. With music supervisor George Drakoulias, the director searched for the right pop songs that reflected the era, including Three Dog Night’s cover of “Easy to Be Hard” because “it’s so ingrained in my psyche as being what the summer of ’69 sounded like in northern California”. The director told the studio that he did not need a composer and would buy various songs instead. They agreed, but as the film developed, sound designer and longtime Fincher collaborator Ren Klyce felt there were places in some scenes that could have used music. Fincher said that this scene would probably be put back on the DVD.

To promote ''Zodiac'', Paramount posted on light-poles in major cities original sketches of the actual Zodiac killer with the words, "In theaters March 2nd," at the bottom. The film was screened in competition at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival on May 17, 2007 with Fincher and Gyllenhaal participating in a press conference afterwards. The director's cut of ''Zodiac'' was given a rare screening at the Walter Reade Theater in New York City on November 19, 2007 with Fincher being interviewed by film critic Kent Jones afterwards.

Home video

The DVD for ''Zodiac'' was released on July 24, 2007 and is available widescreen or fullscreen, presented in anamorphic widescreen, and an English Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround track. There are no extra materials included.

According to David Prior, producer of the subsequent two-disc special edition, the initial bare bones edition "was only reluctantly agreed to by Fincher because I needed more time on the bonus material. The studio was locked into their release date, so Fincher allowed that version to be released first. It had nothing to do with Fincher 'double dipping his own movie before it even makes it to stores' and everything to do with buying more time for the special edition". He stated that the theatrical cut would only be available on the single-disc edition. Prior elaborated further: "Nobody wants fans feeling like they're being taken advantage of, and I know that double-dipping creates that impression. That's why it was so important to me that consumers be told there was another version coming. In this case it really was a rock-and-a-hard place situation, and delaying the second release was done strictly for the benefit of the final product... But this is a very ambitious project, easily the most far-reaching I've ever worked on, and owing largely to studio snafus that I can't really elaborate on, I didn't have enough time to do it properly. Thus Fincher bought me the extra time by agreeing to a staggered release, which I'm very grateful for". In its first week, rentals for the DVD earned $6.7 million.

The two-disc director's cut DVD and HD DVD were released on January 8, 2008, with its UK release on Blu-ray and DVD announced for September 29, 2008. Disc 1 features, in addition to a longer cut of the film, a commentary by Fincher and a second commentary by Gyllenhaal, Downey, Fischer, Vanderbilt, and Ellroy. Disc 2 includes a trailer, a "Zodiac Deciphered" documentary, a "Visual Effects of Zodiac" featurette, previsualization split-screen comparisons for the Blue Rock Springs, Lake Berryessa, and San Francisco murder sequences, a "This is the Zodiac Speaking" featurette, and a "His Name Was Arthur Leigh Allen" featurette. Other extras apparently originally intended for the set, including TV spots and featurettes on "Digital Workflow," "Linguistic Analysis," "Jeopardy Surface: Geographic Profiling" (Dr. Kim Rossmo's geographic profile of the Zodiac), and "The Psychology of Aggression: Behavioral Profiling" (Special Agent Sharon Pagaling-Hagan's behavioral profile of the Zodiac) were omitted. However, the latter three featurettes were made available on the film's website. This new version runs five minutes longer than the theatrical cut. For Oscar contention, Paramount distributed the Director's Cut DVD to the Producers Guild of America, the Writers Guild of America and the Screen Actors Guild, instead of the official release version. This was the first time that the studio had done this.

Reception

Box office

Opening in 2,362 theaters on March 2, 2007, the film grossed USD $13.3 million in its opening weekend, placing second and posting a decent per-theater average of $5,671. The film was easily outgrossed by fellow opener ''Wild Hogs'' and saw a decline of over 50% in its second weekend, losing out to the record-breaking ''300''. It grossed $33 million in North America and $51 million in the rest of the world, bringing its current total to $84 million, above its estimated $75 million production budget. In an interview with ''Sight & Sound'' magazine, Fincher addressed the film's disaster at the North American box office: "Even with the box office being what it is, I still think there's an audience out there for this movie. Everyone has a different idea about marketing, but my philosophy is that if you market a movie to 16-year-old boys and don't deliver ''Saw'' or ''Se7en'', they're going to be the most vociferous ones coming out of the screening saying 'This movie sucks.' And you're saying goodbye to the audience who would get it because they're going to look at the ads and say, 'I don't want to see some slasher movie.'" (81% for their "Cream of the Crop" designation) dubbing it "Certified Fresh", and a 78 metascore at Metacritic. ''Entertainment Weekly'' critic Owen Gleiberman awarded the film an "A" grade, hailing the film as a "procedural thriller for the information age" that "spins your head in a new way, luring you into a vortex and then deeper still." Nathan Lee in his review for the ''Village Voice'' wrote, "Yet it's his very lack of pretense, coupled with a determination to get the facts down with maximum economy and objectivity, that gives ''Zodiac'' its hard, bright integrity. As a crime saga, newspaper drama, and period piece, it works just fine. As an allegory of life in the information age, it blew my mind." Todd McCarthy's review in ''Variety'' praised the film's "almost unerringly accurate evocation of the workaday San Francisco of 35–40 years ago. Forget the distorted emphasis on hippies and flower-power that many such films indulge in; this is the city as it was experienced by most people who lived and worked there." David Ansen, in his review for ''Newsweek'' magazine, wrote, "''Zodiac'' is meticulously crafted – Harris Savides's state-of-the-art digital cinematography has a richness indistinguishable from film – and it runs almost two hours and 40 minutes. Still, the movie holds you in its grip from start to finish. Fincher boldly (and some may think perversely) withholds the emotional and forensic payoff we're conditioned to expect from a big studio movie."

Some critics, however, were displeased with the film's long running time and lack of action scenes. "The film gets mired in the inevitable red tape of police investigations," wrote Bob Longino of the ''Atlanta Journal-Constitution'', who also felt that the film "stumbles to a rather unfulfilling conclusion" and "seems to last as long as the Oscars." Andrew Sarris of the ''New York Observer'' felt that "Mr. Fincher’s flair for casting is the major asset of his curiously attenuated return to the serial-killer genre. I keep saying 'curiously' with regard to Mr. Fincher, because I can’t really figure out what he is up to in ''Zodiac'' – with its two-hour-and-37-minute running time for what struck me as a shaggy-dog narrative." Christy Lemire wrote in the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' that "Jake Gyllenhaal is both the central figure and the weakest link... But he's never fleshed out sufficiently to make you believe that he'd sacrifice his safety and that of his family to find the truth. We are told repeatedly that the former Eagle Scout is just a genuinely good guy, but that's not enough."

In the United Kingdom, ''Time Out'' magazine wrote, "''Zodiac'' isn’t a puzzle film in quite that way; instead its subject is the compulsion to solve puzzles, and its coup is the creeping recognition, quite contrary to the flow of crime cinema, of how fruitless that compulsion can be." Peter Bradshaw in his review for ''The Guardian'' commended the film for its "sheer cinematic virility," and gave it four stars out of five. In his review for ''Empire'' magazine, Kim Newman gave the film four out of five stars and wrote, "You’ll need patience with the film’s approach, which follows its main characters by poring over details, and be prepared to put up with a couple of rote family arguments and weary cop conversations, but this gripping character study becomes more agonisingly suspenseful as it gets closer to an answer that can’t be confirmed." Graham Fuller in ''Sight and Sound'' magazine wrote, "the tone is pleasingly flat and mundane, evoking the demoralising grind of police work in a pre-feminist, pre-technological era. As such, ''Zodiac'' is considerably more adult than both ''Se7en'', which salivates over the macabre cat-and-mouse game it plays with the audience, and the macho brinkmanship of ''Fight Club''." Not all British critics liked the film. David Thompson in the ''Guardian'' felt that in relation to the rest of Fincher's career, ''Zodiac'' was "the worst yet, a terrible disappointment in which an ingenious and deserving all-American serial killer nearly gets lost in the meandering treatment of cops and journalists obsessed with the case."

In France, ''Le Monde'' newspaper praised Fincher for having "obtained a maturity that impresses by his mastery of form," while ''Libération'' described the film as "a thriller of elegance magnificently photographed by the great Harry Savides." However, ''Le Figaro'' wrote, "No audacity, no invention, nothing but a plot which intrigues without captivating, disturbs without terrifying, interests without exciting." Some of the notable top-ten list appearances are:

1st — Joshua Rothkopf, ''Time Out New York''

1st — Desson Thomson, ''The Washington Post''

2nd — Manohla Dargis, ''The New York Times''

2nd — Mike Russell, ''The Oregonian''

2nd — Nathan Lee, ''The Village Voice''

2nd — Wesley Morris, ''The Boston Globe''

3rd — Nathan Rabin, ''The A.V. Club''

3rd — Scott Tobias, ''The A.V. Club''

3rd — ''Film Comment''

3rd — ''Sight & Sound''

4th — Scott Foundas, ''LA Weekly''

5th — Philip Martin, ''Arkansas Democrat-Gazette''

6th — ''Empire''

6th — Lisa Schwarzbaum, ''Entertainment Weekly''

6th — Lou Lumenick, ''New York Post''

7th — Richard Roeper, ''At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper''

7th — Glenn Kenny, ''Premiere''

7th — Keith Phipps, ''The A.V. Club''

9th — Marc Mohan, ''The Oregonian''

9th — Noel Murray, ''The A.V. Club''

9th — Ty Burr, ''The Boston Globe''

10th — Claudia Puig, ''USA Today''

10th — Liam Lacey and Rick Groen, ''The Globe and Mail''

10th — Owen Gleiberman, ''Entertainment Weekly''

10th — Rene Rodriguez, ''The Miami Herald''

Awards

James Vanderbilt was nominated for Adapted Screenplay by the Writers Guild of America, Chicago Film Critics Association, and the Satellite Awards.

See also

List of films based on crime books

2007 in film

References

Further reading

Film & Video: VFX for ''Zodiac''

''Premiere'' magazine article

''San Francisco Chronicle'' set visit

''Cineaste'' review

Building Suspense Along the Trail of an Invisible Man - an analysis of a scene from the film

External links

Official UK site

Category:2000s drama films Category:2007 films Category:American drama films Category:Docudramas Category:English-language films Category:Films based on actual events Category:Films based on non-fiction books Category:Films directed by David Fincher Category:Films set in San Francisco, California Category:Films set in the 1960s Category:Films set in the 1970s Category:Films set in the 1980s Category:Films set in the 1990s Category:Films shot digitally Category:Films shot in multiple formats Category:Films shot in San Francisco, California Category:Mystery films Category:Paramount Pictures films Category:Procedural films Category:Serial killer films Category:True crime films Category:Warner Bros. films

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Coordinates	30°19′10″N81°39′36″N
name	Zodiac Killer
birthname	Unknown
alias	Zodiac
birth date	Unknown
death date	Unknown
cause	Unknown
victims	5 killed, 2 injured (claimed to have killed 37)
country	United States
states	California, possibly also Nevada
beginyear	December 20, 1968 (possibly June 4, 1966), (letters 1969)
endyear	October 11, 1969 (possibly 1972), (letters 1974)
apprehended	N/A
conviction	N/A
sentence	N/A }}

The Zodiac Killer was a serial killer who operated in Northern California in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The killer's identity remains unknown. The Zodiac murdered victims in Benicia, Vallejo, Lake Berryessa and San Francisco between December 1968 and October 1969. Four men and three women between the ages of 16 and 29 were targeted. Numerous suspects have been named by law enforcement and amateur investigators but no conclusive evidence has surfaced. The killer originated the name "Zodiac" in a series of taunting letters sent to the local Bay Area press. These letters included four cryptograms (or ciphers). Of the four cryptograms sent, only one has been confirmed to have been decoded.

In April 2004, the San Francisco Police Department marked the case "inactive", yet re-opened the case at some point prior to March 2007. The case also remains open in the city of Vallejo as well as in Napa County and Solano County. The California Department of Justice has maintained an open case file on the Zodiac murders since 1969.

Victims

Confirmed victims

Although the Zodiac claimed 37 murders in letters to the newspapers, investigators agree on only seven confirmed victims, two of whom survived. They are:

David Arthur Faraday, 17, and Betty Lou Jensen, 16: shot and killed on December 20, 1968, on Lake Herman Road, within the city limits of Benicia.

Michael Mageau Renault, 19, and Darlene Elizabeth Ferrin, 22: shot on July 4, 1969, in the parking lot of Blue Rock Springs Park in Vallejo. While Mageau survived the attack, Ferrin was pronounced dead on arrival at Kaiser Foundation Hospital.

Bryan Calvin Hartnell, 20, and Cecelia Ann Shepard, 22: stabbed on September 27, 1969, at Lake Berryessa in Napa County. Hartnell survived eight stab wounds to the back, but Shepard died as a result of her injuries on September 29, 1969.

Paul Lee Stine, 29: shot and killed on October 11, 1969, in the Presidio Heights neighborhood in San Francisco.

Suspected victims

The following murder victims are suspected to be victims of Zodiac, though none have been confirmed:

Robert Domingos, 18, and Linda Edwards, 17: shot and killed on June 4, 1963, on a beach near Lompoc. Edwards and Domingos were identified as possible Zodiac victims because of specific similarities between their attack and the Zodiac's attack at Lake Berryessa six years later. Cheri Jo Bates, 18: stabbed to death and nearly decapitated on October 30, 1966, at Riverside City College in Riverside. Bates' possible connection to the Zodiac only appeared four years after her murder when ''San Francisco Chronicle'' reporter Paul Avery received a tip regarding similarities between the Zodiac killings and the circumstances surrounding Bates' death. Donna Lass, 25: last seen September 6, 1970, in Stateline, Nevada. A postcard with an advertisement from Forest Pines condominiums (near Incline Village at Lake Tahoe) pasted on the back was received at the ''Chronicle'' on March 22, 1971, and has been interpreted as the Zodiac claiming Lass' disappearance as a victim. No evidence has been uncovered to definitively connect Donna Lass' disappearance with the Zodiac Killer.

There is also a suspected third escapee from the Zodiac Killer:

Kathleen Johns, 22: allegedly abducted on March 22, 1970, on Highway 132 near I-580, in an area west of Modesto. Johns escaped from the car of a man who drove her, and her infant daughter, around in the area between Stockton and Patterson for approximately three hours.

Timeline

Lake Herman Road attack

The first murders widely attributed to the Zodiac Killer were the shootings of high school students Betty Lou Jensen and David Faraday on December 20, 1968, on Lake Herman Road, just inside Benicia city limits.

The couple were on their first date and planned to attend a Christmas concert at Hogan High School about three blocks from Jensen's home. The couple, instead, visited a friend before stopping at a local restaurant, and then driving out on Lake Herman Road. At about 10:15 p.m., Faraday parked his mother's Rambler in a gravel turnout, which was a well-known lovers' lane.

Shortly after 11:00 p.m., their bodies were found by Stella Borges, who lived nearby. The Solano County Sheriff's Department investigated the crime but no leads developed.

Utilizing available forensic data, Robert Graysmith postulated that another car pulled into the turnout, just prior to 11:00 pm and parked beside the couple. The killer apparently exited the second car and walked toward the Rambler, possibly ordering the couple out of the Rambler. Jensen appeared to have exited the car first, yet when Faraday was halfway out, the killer apparently shot Faraday in the head. Fleeing from the killer, Jensen was gunned down twenty-eight feet from the car with five shots through her back. The killer then drove off.

Blue Rock Springs attack

Just before midnight on July 4, 1969, Darlene Ferrin and Michael Mageau drove into the Blue Rock Springs Park in Vallejo, four miles from the Lake Herman Road murder site, and parked. While the couple sat in Ferrin's car, a second car drove into the lot and parked alongside them but almost immediately drove away. Returning about 10 minutes later, this second car parked behind them. The driver of the second car then exited the vehicle, approaching the passenger side door of Ferrin's car, carrying a flashlight and a 9 mm Luger. The killer directed the flashlight into Mageau's and Ferrin's eyes before shooting at them, firing five times. Both victims were hit, several bullets passing through Mageau and into Ferrin. The killer walked away from the car but upon hearing Mageau's moaning, returned and shot each victim twice more before driving off.

On July 5, 1969, at 12:40 a.m., a man phoned the Vallejo Police Department to report and claim responsibility for the attack. The caller also took credit for the murders of Jensen and Faraday six-and-a-half months earlier. The police traced the call to a phone booth at a gas station at Springs Road and Tuolumne, about three-tenths of a mile from Ferrin's home and only a few blocks from the Vallejo Police Department.

Ferrin was pronounced dead at the hospital. Mageau survived the attack despite being shot in the face, neck and chest.

The Zodiac letters begin

On August 1, 1969, three letters prepared by the killer were received at the ''Vallejo Times Herald'', the ''San Francisco Chronicle'', and ''The San Francisco Examiner''. The nearly identical letters took credit for the shootings at Lake Herman Road and Blue Rock Springs. Each letter also included one-third of a 408-symbol cryptogram which the killer claimed contained his identity. The killer demanded they be printed on each paper's front page or he would "cruse [sic] around all weekend killing lone people in the night then move on to kill again, until I end up with a dozen people over the weekend." The ''Chronicle'' published its third of the cryptogram on page four of the next day's edition. An article printed alongside the code quoted Vallejo Police Chief Jack E. Stiltz as saying "We're not satisfied that the letter was written by the murderer" and requested the writer send a second letter with more facts to prove his identity. The threatened murders did not happen, and all three parts were eventually published.

On August 7, 1969, another letter was received at ''The San Francisco Examiner'' with the salutation "Dear Editor This is the Zodiac speaking". This was the first time the killer had used this name for identification. The letter was a response to Chief Stiltz's request for more details to prove he had killed Faraday, Jensen and Ferrin. In it, the Zodiac included details about the murders which had not been released to the public, as well as a message to the police that when they cracked his code "they will have me".

On August 8, 1969, Donald and Bettye Harden of Salinas, California, cracked the 408-symbol cryptogram. It contained a misspelled message in which the killer claimed to be collecting slaves for the afterlife. No name appears in the decoded text, and the killer said that he would not give away his identity because it would slow down or stop his slave collection.

Lake Berryessa attack

On September 27, 1969, Bryan Hartnell and Cecelia Shepard were picnicking at Lake Berryessa on a small island connected by a sand spit to Twin Oak Ridge. A man approached them wearing a black executioner's-type hood with clip-on sunglasses over the eye-holes and a bib-like device on his chest that had a white 3"x3" cross-circle symbol on it. He approached them with a gun which Hartnell believed to be a .45. The hooded man claimed to be an escaped convict from Deer Lodge, Montana; where he killed a guard and stole a car, explaining that he needed their car and money to go to Mexico. He had brought precut lengths of plastic clothesline and told Shepard to tie up Hartnell, before he tied her up. The killer checked, and tightened, Hartnell's bonds after discovering Shepard had bound Hartnell's hands loosely. Hartnell initially believed it to be a weird robbery, but the man drew a knife and stabbed them both repeatedly. The killer then hiked 500 yards back up to Knoxville Road, drew the cross-circle symbol on Hartnell's car door with a black felt-tip pen, and wrote beneath it: "Vallejo/12-20-68/7-4-69/Sept 27-69-6:30/by knife."

At 7:40 p.m., the killer called the Napa County Sheriff's office from a pay telephone to report this latest crime. The phone was found, still off the hook, minutes later at the Napa Car Wash on Main Street in Napa by KVON radio reporter Pat Stanley, only a few blocks from the sheriff's office, yet 27 miles from the crime scene. Detectives were able to lift a still-wet palm print from the telephone but were never able to match it to any suspect.

After hearing their screams for help, a man and his son who were fishing in a nearby cove discovered the victims and summoned help by contacting park rangers. Napa County Sheriff's deputies Dave Collins and Ray Land were the first law enforcement officers to arrive at the crime scene. Cecelia Shepard was conscious when Collins arrived, providing him with a detailed description of the attacker. Hartnell and Shepard were taken to Queen of the Valley Hospital in Napa by ambulance. Shepard lapsed into a coma during transport to the hospital and never regained consciousness. She died two days later, but Hartnell survived to recount his tale to the press. Napa County Sheriff Detective Ken Narlow, who was assigned to the case from the outset, worked on solving the crime until his retirement from the department in 1987.

Presidio Heights attack

On October 11, 1969, a passenger entered the cab driven by Paul Stine at the intersection of Mason and Geary Streets in San Francisco requesting to be taken to Washington and Maple Streets in Presidio Heights. For reasons unknown, Stine drove one block past Maple to Cherry Street; the passenger then shot Stine once in the head with a 9 mm, took Stine's wallet, car keys and tore away a section of Stine's bloodstained shirt tail. This passenger was observed by three teenagers across the street at 9:55 p.m., who called the police while the crime was in progress. They observed a man wiping the cab down before walking away towards the Presidio, one block to the north.

Two blocks from the crime scene, Officer Don Fouke, responding to the call, observed a white man walking along the sidewalk stepping onto a stairway leading up to the front yard of one of the homes on the north side of the street; the encounter lasted only five to ten seconds. The radio dispatcher had alerted to be on the lookout for a black suspect, so they drove past him without stopping; the mix-up in descriptions remains unexplained to this day. A search ensued, but no possible suspects were found. The three teen witnesses worked with a police artist to prepare a composite sketch of Stine's killer; then, a few days later, this police artist returned, working with the witnesses to prepare a second composite sketch of the killer.

Detectives Bill Armstrong and Dave Toschi were assigned to the case.

The San Francisco Police Department investigated an estimated 2,500 suspects over a period of years.

Letter Threatening Schoolchildren

On October 14, 1969, the ''Chronicle'' received another letter from the Zodiac, this time containing a swatch of Paul Stine's shirt tail as proof he was the killer; it also included a threat about killing schoolchildren on a school bus. To do this, Zodiac wrote, "just shoot out the front tire & then pick off the kiddies as they come bouncing out."

Call to Talk Show

At 2:00 p.m. on October 20, 1969, someone claiming to be the Zodiac called Oakland PD demanding that one of two prominent lawyers, F. Lee Bailey or Melvin Belli, appear on Jim Dunbar's television talk show in the morning. Bailey was not available, but Belli did appear on the show. Dunbar appealed to the viewers to keep the lines open, and eventually, someone claiming to be the Zodiac called several times and said his name was "Sam." Belli agreed to meet with him in Daly City, but the suspect never showed up.

340-Character Cryptogram

On November 8, 1969, the Zodiac mailed a card with another cryptogram consisting of 340 characters. The 340-character cipher has never been decoded.

Numerous possible "solutions" have been suggested, but none can be claimed as definitive.

Second Stine Killing Letter

On November 9, 1969, the Zodiac mailed a seven-page letter claiming that two policemen stopped and actually spoke with him three minutes after shooting Stine. Excerpts from the letter were published in the ''Chronicle'' on November 12 including the Zodiac's claim; that same day, Don Fouke wrote a memo explaining what had happened that night.

Melvin Belli Letter

On December 20, 1969, exactly one year after the murders of David Faraday and Betty Lou Jensen, the Zodiac mailed a letter to Belli, including another swatch of Stine's shirt; the Zodiac claimed he wanted Belli to help him.

Modesto attack

On the night of March 22, 1970, Kathleen Johns was driving from San Bernardino to Petaluma to visit her mother. She was seven months pregnant and had her 10-month-old daughter beside her. While heading west on Highway 132 near Modesto, a car behind her began honking and flashing its lights. She pulled off the road and stopped. The man in the car parked behind her stated her right rear wheel was wobbling, and offered to tighten the lugs. After finishing his work, the man drove off; yet when Johns pulled forward to re-enter the highway the wheel almost immediately came off of the car. The man returned, offering to drive her to the nearest gas station for help. She and her daughter climbed into his car. During the ride the car passed several service stations but the man did not stop. For about 90 minutes he drove back and forth around the backroads near Tracy. When Johns asked why he was not stopping, he would change the subject. When the driver finally stopped at an intersection, Johns jumped out with her daughter and hid in a field. The driver then closed the car door and drove off. Johns hitched a ride to the police station in Patterson.

When Johns gave her statement to the sergeant on duty, she noticed the police composite sketch of Paul Stine's killer and recognized him as the man who abducted her and her child. Fearing the Zodiac might come back and kill them all, the sergeant had Johns wait, in the dark, at the nearby Mil's Restaurant. When her car was found, it had been gutted and torched.

Most accounts claim he threatened to kill her and her daughter while driving them around, but at least one police report disputes that. Johns' account to Paul Avery of the ''Chronicle'' indicates her abductor left his car and searched for her in the dark with a flashlight; however, in one report she made to the police, she stated he did not leave the vehicle.

Further Zodiac communications

Zodiac continued to communicate with authorities for the remainder of 1970 via letters and greeting cards to the press. In a letter postmarked April 20, 1970, the Zodiac wrote, "My name is _____", followed by a 13-character cipher. The Zodiac went on to state that he was not responsible for the recent bombing of a police station in San Francisco (referring to the February 18, 1970, death of Sgt. Brian McDonnell two days after the bombing at Park Station in Golden Gate Park) but added "there is more glory to killing a cop than a cid [''sic''] because a cop can shoot back." The letter included a diagram of a bomb the Zodiac claimed he would use to blow up a school bus. At the bottom of the diagram, he wrote: "30px = 10, SFPD = 0".

Zodiac sent a greeting card postmarked April 28, 1970, to the ''Chronicle''. Written on the card was, "I hope you enjoy yourselves when I have my BLAST", followed by the Zodiac's cross circle signature. On the back of the card, the Zodiac threatened to use the bus bomb soon unless the newspaper published the full details he wrote. He also wanted to start seeing people wearing "some nice Zodiac butons [''sic'']".

In a letter postmarked June 26, 1970, the Zodiac stated he was upset that he did not see people wearing Zodiac buttons. He wrote, "I shot a man sitting in a parked car with a .38." The Zodiac was possibly referring to the murder of Sgt. Richard Radetich, a week earlier, on June 19. At 5:25 am, Radetich was writing a parking ticket in his squad car when an assailant shot him in the head with a .38-caliber pistol. Radetich died 15 hours later. SFPD denies the Zodiac was involved in this murder; it remains unsolved.

Included with the letter was a Phillips 66 map of the San Francisco Bay Area. On the image of Mount Diablo, the Zodiac had drawn a crossed-circle similar to the ones he had included in previous correspondence. At the top of the crossed circle, he placed a zero, and then a three, six, and a nine. The accompanying instructions stated that the zero was "to be set to Mag. N." The letter also included a 32-letter cipher that the killer claimed would, in conjunction with the code, lead to the location of a bomb he had buried and set to go off in the fall. The cipher was never decoded, and the alleged bomb was never located. The killer signed the note with "30px = 12, SFPD = 0."

In a letter to the ''Chronicle'' postmarked July 24, 1970, the Zodiac took credit for Kathleen Johns' abduction, four months after the incident.

In a July 26, 1970 letter, the Zodiac paraphrased a song from ''The Mikado'', adding his own lyrics about making a "little list" of the ways he planned to torture his "slaves" in "paradice." The letter was signed with a large, exaggerated cross circle symbol and a new score: "30px = 13, SFPD = 0." A final note at the bottom of the letter stated, "P.S. The Mt. Diablo code concerns Radians + # inches along the radians." In 1981, a close examination of the radian hint by Zodiac researcher Gareth Penn led to the discovery that a radian angle, when placed over the map per Zodiac's instructions, pointed to the locations of two Zodiac attacks.

On October 7, 1970, the ''Chronicle'' received a three-by-five inch card signed by the Zodiac with the 30px drawn with blood. The card's message was formed by pasting words and letters from an edition of the ''Chronicle'', and thirteen holes were punched across the card. Inspectors Armstrong and Toschi agreed it was "highly probable" the card came from the Zodiac.

Zodiac letter to Chronicle reporter Paul Avery

On October 27, 1970, ''Chronicle'' reporter Paul Avery (who had been covering the Zodiac case) received a Halloween card signed with a letter 'Z' and the Zodiac's cross circle symbol. Handwritten on the card was the note "Peek-a-boo, you are doomed". The threat was taken seriously and received a front-page story on the ''Chronicle''. Soon after receiving this letter, Avery received an anonymous letter alerting him to the similarities between the Zodiac's activities and the unsolved murder of Cheri Jo Bates, which had occurred four years earlier at the city college in Riverside in the Greater Los Angeles Area, more than 400 miles south of San Francisco. He reported his findings in the ''Chronicle'' on November 16, 1970.

Riverside attack

On October 30, 1966, 18-year-old Cheri Jo Bates spent the evening at the campus library annex until it closed at 9:00 pm. Neighbors reported hearing a scream around 10:30 pm. Bates was found dead the next morning, a short distance from the library, between two abandoned houses slated to be demolished for campus renovations. The wires in her Volkswagen's distributor cap had been pulled out. She was brutally beaten and stabbed to death. A man's Timex watch with a torn wristband was found nearby. The watch had stopped at 12:24 pm, but police believe the attack occurred much earlier.

A month later, on November 29, 1966, nearly identical typewritten letters were mailed to the Riverside police and the Riverside Press-Enterprise, titled ''"The Confession"''. The author claimed responsibility for the Bates murder, providing details of the crime not released to the public. The author warned that Bates ''"is not the first and she will not be the last"''.

In December 1966, a poem was discovered carved into the bottom side of a desktop in the Riverside City College library. Titled "Sick of living/unwilling to die", the poem's language and handwriting resembled those of the Zodiac's letters. It was signed with what were assumed to be the initials, "rh". Sherwood Morrill, California's top "Questioned Documents" examiner, expressed his opinion that the poem was written by the Zodiac.

On April 30, 1967, exactly six months after the Bates' murder, Bates' father Joseph, the Press-Enterprise, and the Riverside police all received nearly identical letters. In handwritten scrawl, the Press-Enterprise and police copies read, "Bates had to die there will be more", with a small scribble at the bottom that resembled the letter 'Z'. Joseph Bates' copy read "She had to die there will be more" without a "Z" signature.

On March 13, 1971, nearly four months after Paul Avery's first article on Bates, the Zodiac mailed a letter to the ''Los Angeles Times''. In the letter he credited the police, instead of Avery, for discovering his "Riverside activity, but they are only finding the easy ones, there are a hell of a lot more down there".

The connection between Cheri Jo Bates, Riverside and the Zodiac remains uncertain. Paul Avery and the Riverside Police Department maintain that the Bates homicide was not committed by the Zodiac, but did concede some of the Bates letters may have been his work to falsely claim credit.

Lake Tahoe disappearance

On March 22, 1971 a postcard to the ''Chronicle'', addressed to "Paul Averly", and believed to be from the Zodiac, appeared to take credit for the disappearance of Donna Lass on September 6, 1970.

Lass was a nurse at the Sierra Tahoe hotel and casino. She worked until about 2:00 a.m. on September 6, 1970, treating her last patient at 1:40. Later that same day, both Lass's employer and her landlord received phone calls from an unknown male falsely claiming Lass had left town due to a family emergency. Lass was never found. What appeared to be a grave site was discovered near the Claire Tappan Lodge in Norden, California, on Sierra Club property, but an excavation yielded only a pair of sunglasses.

No evidence has been uncovered to definitively connect Donna Lass' disappearance with the Zodiac Killer.

Santa Barbara attack

In a ''Vallejo Times-Herald'' story appearing on November 13, 1972, Santa Barbara Sheriff's Detective Bill Baker (ret.) postulated that the murders of a young couple in Santa Barbara County might have been the work of the Zodiac Killer.

On June 4, 1963, high school senior Robert Domingos and fiancée Linda Edwards were shot dead on a beach near Lompoc, having skipped school that day for "Senior Ditch Day". Police believed that the assailant attempted to bind the victims, but when they freed themselves and attempted to flee, the killer shot them repeatedly in the back and chest with a .22-caliber weapon. The killer then placed their bodies in a small shack and tried, unsuccessfully, to burn it down.

Final Zodiac letter

After the "Pines" card, the Zodiac remained silent for nearly three years. The ''Chronicle'' then received a letter from the Zodiac, postmarked January 29, 1974, praising ''The Exorcist'' as "the best saterical comidy [sic]" that he had ever seen. The letter included a snippet of verse from ''The Mikado'' and an unusual symbol at the bottom that has remained unexplained by researchers. Zodiac concluded the letter with a new score, "Me = 37, SFPD = 0".

Later letters of suspicious authorship

Of further communications sent by the public to members of the news media, some contained similar characteristics of previous Zodiac writings. The ''Chronicle'' received a letter postmarked February 14, 1974, informing the editor that the initials for the Symbionese Liberation Army spelled out an Old Norse word meaning "kill". However, the handwriting was not authenticated as the Zodiac's.

A letter to the ''Chronicle'', postmarked May 8, 1974, featured a complaint that the movie ''Badlands'' was "murder-glorification" and asked the paper to cut its advertisements. Signed only "A citizen", the handwriting, tone, and surface irony were all similar to earlier Zodiac communications.

The ''Chronicle'' subsequently received an anonymous letter postmarked July 8, 1974, complaining about one of its columnists, Marco Spinelli. The letter was signed "the Red Phantom (red with rage)". The Zodiac's authorship of this letter is debated.

A letter, dated April 24, 1978, was initially deemed authentic, but was declared a hoax less than three months later by three experts. Dave Toschi, the SFPD homicide detective who had worked the case since the Stine murder, was thought to have forged the letter, because author Armistead Maupin believed the letter to be similar to "fan mail" he received in 1976 which he believed was authored by Toschi. While he admitted to writing the fan mail, Toschi denied forging the Zodiac letter and was eventually cleared of any charges. The authenticity of this letter remains unverified.

On March 3, 2007, an American Greetings Christmas card sent to the ''Chronicle'', postmarked 1990 in Eureka had recently been discovered in their photo files by editorial assistant Daniel King. Inside the envelope, with the card, was a photocopy of two U.S. Postal keys on a magnet keychain. The handwriting on the envelope resembles Zodiac's print, but was declared inauthentic by forensic document examiner Lloyd Cunningham. Not all Zodiac experts, however, agree with Cunningham's analysis. There is no return address on the envelope nor is his crossed-circle signature to be found. The card itself is unmarked. The ''Chronicle'' turned over all the material to the Vallejo Police Department for further analysis.

Prime suspect Arthur Leigh Allen

Arthur Leigh Allen was the only suspect in the Zodiac murders to be served search warrants by police. He was never charged with any Zodiac-related crime and his fingerprints did not match those left by the killer of taxi cab driver Paul Stine. In 1991, 22 years after the shootings, survivor Michael Mageau identified Allen as the man who shot him, from a photo lineup of 1968 driver's licenses. Mageau stated he had never been shown a photo line up prior to that appointment in 1991. Allen, who suffered from diabetes, died on August 26, 1992 from kidney failure.

Current status of Zodiac Killer investigations

In 2002, SFPD developed a partial DNA profile from the saliva on stamps and envelopes of Zodiac's letters. SFPD compared this partial DNA to the DNA of Vallejo Police Department's lead suspect, Arthur Leigh Allen. A DNA comparison was also made with Don Cheney's DNA, who was Allen's former close friend and the first person to suggest Allen may be the Zodiac Killer. Since neither test result indicated a match, Allen and Cheney were excluded as the contributors of the DNA, though it cannot be stated definitively that it is DNA from the Zodiac on the envelopes. Additionally in 2002, a partial palm print (called "Writer's Palm") was lifted from "The Exorcist" letter and then compared to a palm print of Allen's. Again, test results showed the palm prints did not match. Even though DNA samples taken from the letters sent by the Zodiac ruled out Allen as the person who handled them, neither the Vallejo nor the San Francisco Police Departments have ruled out Allen as a suspect.

In April 2004, the SFPD marked the case "inactive", citing caseload pressure and resource demands. However, they re-opened their case sometime before March, 2007.

In 2007, Jack Tarrance's stepson, Dennis Kaufman, claimed that his stepfather was the Zodiac. Kaufman turned several items over to the FBI including a hood similar to the one worn by the Zodiac. According to news sources, DNA analysis conducted by the FBI on the items were deemed inconclusive in 2010. Kaufman's claims have later been widely discredited. He claimed to have incriminating rolls of film taken by his stepfather. The photos allegedly showed victims of the crimes. Kaufman later published some of these photos on his own web page. The photos were very small, had low resolution, and were so blurry that nothing could be positively identified.

In 2009, Deborah Perez claimed that her father, Guy Ward Hendrickson, was the Zodiac. However, Perez also allegedly previously claimed that she was the illegitimate daughter of John F. Kennedy, so her claim that her father was the Zodiac has been viewed as unlikely.

In 2009, a lawyer named Robert Tarbox (who in 1975 would have his law license suspended in California for failure to pay some clients) said that in 1972 a merchant marine walked into his office and confessed to him that he was the Zodiac Killer. The seemingly lucid seaman (whose name Tarbox wouldn't reveal due to confidentiality) described his crimes briefly but persuasively enough to convince Tarbox. The man claimed he was trying to stop himself from his "opportunistic" murder spree but never returned to see Tarbox again. Tarbox put out a full page in the Vallejo Times Herald in which he cleared the name of Arthur Leigh Allen as a killer, his only reason for revealing the story 30 years after the fact. Robert Graysmith, the author of several books on Zodiac, said Tarbox's story was "entirely plausible". Retired police handwriting expert Lloyd Cunningham, who worked the Zodiac case for decades, added "they gave me banana boxes full of Allen's writing, and none of his writing even came close to the Zodiac. Nor did DNA extracted from the envelopes (on the Zodiac letters) come close to Arthur Leigh Allen."

In 2009, an episode of the History Channel television series ''MysteryQuest'' looks at newspaper editor Richard Gaikowski (1936–2004). During the time of the murders, Gaikowski worked for Good Times, a San Francisco counterculture newspaper. His appearance resembles the composite sketch and Nancy Slover, the Vallejo police dispatcher who was contacted by the Zodiac shortly after the Blue Rock Springs Attack, has identified a recording of Gaikowski's voice as being the same as the Zodiac's. Additional circumstantial evidence exists but cannot definitively connect Gaikowski to the murders.

The Vallejo Police Department website maintains a link for providing Zodiac crime tips. The case is also open in Napa County and also in the city of Riverside.

Retired police detective Steve Hodel argues a case in his book ''The Black Dahlia Avenger'' that his father, George Hill Hodel, was the Black Dahlia suspect whose victims include Elizabeth Short. The book caused the release of previously suppressed files and wire recordings by the LA district attorney's office of his father which showed that he was a prime suspect in Short's murder. The LA District Attorney subsequently wrote a letter which is published in the revised edition stating that if he were still alive he would be prosecuted for the crimes. In a follow up book, Hodel argues a circumstantial case that his father was also the Zodiac Killer based upon a police sketch, the similarity of the style of the Zodiac letters to the Black Dahlia Avenger letters and questioned document examination.

On February 19, 2011, ''America's Most Wanted'' featured a story about the Zodiac Killer. A picture has recently surfaced of known Zodiac victim Darlene Ferrin and a man who closely resembles the composite sketch, formed based on eyewitness' descriptions, of the Zodiac Killer. Police believe the photo was taken in San Francisco in the summer of 1966 or 1967. Police hope someone can identify the man in the photo. It has been suspected that the man in the photo is Darlene Ferrin's ex-husband, James Phillips. This has not been confirmed.

Popular culture

The Zodiac Killer's crimes, letters and cryptograms to police and newspapers inspired many movies, novels, television productions and other serial killers.

References

Primary sources

FBI Files:

FBI Case File (1 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 89 pages.

FBI Case File (2 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 109 pages.

FBI Case File (3 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 258 pages.

FBI Case File (4 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 208 pages.

FBI Case File (5 of 5) on the Zodiac Killer. 373 pages.

Further reading

Adams, Charles F. (2004). ''Murder by the Bay: Historic Homicide in and about the City of San Francisco.'' Quill Driver Books. ISBN 978-1884995460.

Davis, Howard. (1997). ''The Zodiac/Manson Connection'' (9-Edge Publishing, Lomita, CA). ISBN 0-9629084-2-8.

Graysmith, Robert. (2007). ''Zodiac'' (Berkeley; reissue edition). ISBN 0-425-21218-1.

Graysmith, Robert. (2007). ''Zodiac Unmasked: The Identity of America's Most Elusive Serial Killer'' (Berkeley; reissue edition). ISBN 0-425-21273-4.

Kelleher, Michael D. and Van Nuys, David. (2002). ''"This is the Zodiac Speaking": Into the Mind of a Serial Killer'' (Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT). ISBN 0-275-97338-7.

Penn, Gareth. (1987). ''Times 17: The Amazing Story of the Zodiac Murders in California and Massachusetts, 1966–1981'' (The Foxglove Press, CA). ISBN 0-9618494-0-1.

Rasmussen, William T. (2006). ''Corroborating Evidence II'' (Sunstone Press). ISBN 0-86534-536-8.

Renner, James (2008). ''The Serial Killer's Apprentice: And 12 Other True Stories of Cleveland's Most Intriguing Unsolved Crimes''. Cleveland, OH: Gray & Company, Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59851-046-1

Rowlett, Curt. (2006). ''Labyrinth13: True Tales of the Occult, Crime & Conspiracy'' Chapter 9, ''The Z Files: Labyrinth13 Examines the Zodiac Murders'' (Lulu Press). ISBN 1-4116-6083-8.

External links

"Zodiac Murder Map" – Google Map plotting definite and possible Zodiac attacks (with details).

Zodiac Cipher Cryptanalysis Tool

FBI file on the Zodiac Killer

Category:1968 murders in the United States Category:1960s in the United States Category:1970s in the United States Category:American serial killers Category:History of Napa County, California Category:News stories in Riverside County, California Category:Possibly living people Category:Uncracked codes and ciphers Category:Unidentified serial killers Category:Vallejo, California Category:History of Riverside, California Category:Unsolved murders in the United States

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Karlheinz Stockhausen (; 22 August 1928 – 5 December 2007) was a German composer, widely acknowledged by critics as one of the most important (Barrett 1988, 45; Harvey 1975b, 705; Hopkins 1972, 33; Klein 1968, 117) but also controversial (Power 1990, 30) composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries. Another critic calls him "one of the great visionaries of 20th-century music" (Hewett 2007). He is known for his ground-breaking work in electronic music, aleatory (controlled chance) in serial composition, and musical spatialization.

He was educated at the Hochschule für Musik Köln and the University of Cologne, and later studied with Olivier Messiaen in Paris, and with Werner Meyer-Eppler at the University of Bonn.

One of the leading figures of the Darmstadt School, his compositions and theories were and remain widely influential, not only on composers of art music, but also on jazz and popular-music artists. His works, composed over a period of nearly sixty years, eschew traditional forms. In addition to electronic music—both with and without live performers—they range from miniatures for musical boxes through works for solo instruments, songs, chamber music, choral and orchestral music, to a cycle of seven full-length operas. His theoretical and other writings comprise ten large volumes. He received numerous prizes and distinctions for his compositions, recordings, and for the scores produced by his publishing company.

Some of his notable compositions include the series of nineteen ''Klavierstücke'' (Piano Pieces), ''Kontra-Punkte'' for ten instruments, the electronic/musique-concrète ''Gesang der Jünglinge'', ''Gruppen'' for three orchestras, the percussion solo ''Zyklus'', ''Kontakte'', the cantata ''Momente'', the live-electronic Mikrophonie I, ''Hymnen'', ''Stimmung'' for six vocalists, ''Aus den sieben Tagen'', ''Mantra'' for two pianos and electronics, ''Tierkreis'', ''Inori'' for soloists and orchestra, and the gigantic opera cycle ''Licht''.

He died of sudden heart failure at the age of 79, on 5 December 2007 at his home in Kürten, Germany.

Biography

Childhood

Stockhausen was born in the Burg Mödrath, the so-called castle of the village of Mödrath, which served at the time as the maternity home of the Bergheim district. The village, located near Kerpen in the vicinity of Cologne, was displaced in 1956 by the strip mining of lignite in the region, although the castle itself still exists. His father, Simon Stockhausen, was a schoolteacher, and his mother Gertrud (née Stupp) was the daughter of a prosperous family of farmers in Neurath in the Cologne Bight. A daughter, Katherina, was born the year after Karlheinz, and a second son, Hermann-Josef ("Hermännchen") followed in 1932. Gertrud played the piano and accompanied her own singing but, after three pregnancies in as many years, experienced a mental breakdown and was institutionalized in December 1932, followed a few months later by the death of her younger son, Hermann (Kurtz 1992, 8, 11, & 13).

From the age of seven, Stockhausen grew up in Altenberg, where he received his first piano lessons from the Protestant organist of the Altenberg Cathedral, Franz-Josef Kloth (Kurtz 1992, 14). In 1938 his father remarried. His new wife, Luzia, had been the family's housekeeper. The couple had two daughters (Kurtz 1992, 18). Because his relationship with his new stepmother was less than happy, in January 1942 Karlheinz became a boarder at the teachers' training college in Xanten, where he continued his piano training and also studied oboe and violin (Kurtz 1992, 18). In the first half of 1942, he learned that his mother had died, ostensibly from leukemia, although everyone at the same hospital had supposedly died of the same disease. It was generally understood that she had been a victim of the Nazi policy of killing "useless eaters" (Stockhausen 1989a, 20–21; Kurtz 1992, 19). Stockhausen later dramatized his mother's death in hospital by lethal injection, in Act 1 scene 2 ("Mondeva") of the opera Donnerstag aus Licht (Kurtz 1992, 213). According to one source, as a young teenager he worked as a cobbler (Prendergast 2000, 52). In the autumn of 1944, he was conscripted to serve as a stretcher bearer in Bedburg (Kurtz 1992, 18). In February 1945, he met his father for the last time in Altenberg. Simon, who was on leave from the front, told his son, "I'm not coming back. Look after things". By the end of the war, his father was regarded as missing in action, and may have been killed in Hungary (Kurtz 1992, 19). A comrade later reported to Karlheinz that he saw his father wounded in action (Maconie 2005, 19). Fifty-five years after the fact, a journalist writing for the ''Guardian'' newspaper stated unequivocally, though without offering any fresh evidence, that Simon Stockhausen was killed in Hungary in 1945 (O'Mahony 2001).

Education

From 1947 to 1951, Stockhausen studied music pedagogy and piano at the Hochschule für Musik Köln (Cologne Conservatory of Music) and musicology, philosophy, and Germanics at the University of Cologne. He had training in harmony and counterpoint, the latter with Hermann Schroeder, but he did not develop a real interest in composition until 1950. He was admitted at the end of that year to the class of Swiss composer Frank Martin, who had just begun a seven-year tenure in Cologne (Kurtz 1992, 28). At the Darmstädter Ferienkurse in 1951, Stockhausen met Belgian composer Karel Goeyvaerts, who had just completed studies with Olivier Messiaen (analysis) and Darius Milhaud (composition) in Paris, and Stockhausen resolved to do likewise (Kurtz 1992, 34–36). He arrived in Paris on 8 January 1952 and began attending Messiaen's courses in aesthetics and analysis, as well as Milhaud's composition classes. He continued with Messiaen for a year, but he was disappointed with Milhaud and abandoned his lessons after a few weeks (Kurtz 1992, 45–48). In March 1953, he left Paris to take up a position as assistant to Herbert Eimert at the newly established Electronic Music Studio of Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR) (from 1 January 1955, Westdeutscher Rundfunk, or WDR) in Cologne (Kurtz 1992, 56–57). In 1962, he succeeded Eimert as director of the studio (Morawska-Büngeler 1988, 19). From 1954 to 1956, he studied phonetics, acoustics, and information theory with Werner Meyer-Eppler at the University of Bonn (Kurtz 1992, 68–72). Together with Eimert, Stockhausen edited the influential journal Die Reihe from 1955 to 1962 (Grant 2001, 1–2).

Career and adult life

Family and home

On 29 December 1951, in Hamburg, he married Doris Andreae (Kurtz 1992, 45; Maconie 2005, 47). Together they had four children: Suja (b. 1953), Christel (b. 1956), Markus (b. 1957), and Majella (b. 1961) (Kurtz 1992, 90; Tannenbaum 1987, 94). On 3 April 1967, in San Francisco, he married Mary Bauermeister, with whom he had two children: Julika (b. 22 January 1966) and Simon (b. 1967) (Kurtz 1992, 141 & 149; Tannenbaum 1987, 95).

Four of Stockhausen's children became professional musicians (Kurtz 1992, 202), and he composed some of his works specifically for them. A large number of pieces for the trumpet—from ''Sirius'' (1975–77) to the trumpet version of ''In Freundschaft'' (1997)—were composed for and premièred by his son Markus (Kurtz 1992, 208; Markus Stockhausen 1998, 13–16; Tannenbaum 1987, 61). Markus, at the age of 4 years, had performed the part of The Child in the Cologne première of ''Originale'', alternating performances with his sister Christel (Maconie 2005, 220). ''Klavierstück XII'' and ''Klavierstück XIII'' (and their versions as scenes from the operas ''Donnerstag aus Licht'' and ''Samstag aus Licht'') were written for his daughter Majella, and were first performed by her at the ages of 16 and 20, respectively (Maconie 2005, 430 & 443; Stockhausen ''Texte'' 5:190, 255, 274; Stockhausen ''Texte'' 6:64, 373). The saxophone duet in the second act of ''Donnerstag aus Licht'', and a number of synthesizer parts in the ''Licht'' operas, including ''Klavierstück XV'' ("Synthi-Fou") from ''Dienstag'', were composed for his son Simon (Kurtz 1992, 222; Maconie 2005, 480 & 489; Stockhausen ''Texte'' 5:186, 529), who also assisted his father in the production of the electronic music from ''Freitag aus Licht''. His daughter Christel is a flautist who performed and gave a course on interpretation of ''Tierkreis'' in 1977 (Stockhausen ''Texte'' 5:105), later published as an article (C. Stockhausen 1978).

In 1961, Stockhausen acquired a parcel of land in the vicinity of Kürten, a village east of Cologne, near Bergisch Gladbach in the Bergisches Land. He had a house built there, which was designed to his specifications by the architect Erich Schneider-Wessling, and he resided there since its completion in the autumn of 1965 (Kurtz 1992, 116–17, 137–38).

Teaching

After lecturing at the Internationale Ferienkurse für Neue Musik at Darmstadt (first in 1953), Stockhausen gave lectures and concerts in Europe, North America, and Asia (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 2, 14–15). He was guest professor of composition at the University of Pennsylvania in 1965 and at the University of California, Davis in 1966–67 (Kramer 1998; Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 2–3). He founded and directed the Cologne Courses for New Music from 1963 to 1968, and was appointed Professor of Composition at the Hochschule für Musik Köln in 1971, where he taught until 1977 (Kurtz 1992, 126–28 & 194; Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 3). In 1998, he founded the Stockhausen Courses, which are held annually in Kürten (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 6–9, 15).

Publishing activities

From the mid-1950s onward, Stockhausen designed (and in some cases had had printed) his own musical scores for his publisher, Universal Edition, which often involved unconventional devices. The score for his piece ''Refrain'', for instance, includes a rotatable (refrain) on a transparent plastic strip. Early in the 1970s, he ended his agreement with Universal Edition and began publishing his own scores under the Stockhausen-Verlag imprint (Kurtz 1992, 184). This arrangement allowed him to extend his notational innovations (for example, dynamics in ''Weltparlament'' [the first scene of ''Mittwoch aus Licht''] are coded in colour) and resulted in eight German Music Publishers Society Awards between 1992 (''Luzifers Tanz'') and 2005 (''Hoch-Zeiten'', from ''Sonntag aus Licht'') (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 12–13). The score of ''Momente'', published just before the composer's death in 2007, won this prize for the ninth time (Deutscher Musikeditionspreis 2009)

In the early 1990s, Stockhausen reacquired the licenses to most of the recordings of his music he had made to that point, and started his own record company to make this music permanently available on Compact Disc (Maconie 2005, 477–78).

Death

Stockhausen died of sudden heart failure on the morning of 5 December 2007 in Kürten, North Rhine-Westphalia. He had just the night before finished a work recently commissioned for performance by the Mozart Orchestra of Bologna (Bäumer 2007).

Compositions

Stockhausen wrote 370 individual works. He often departs radically from musical tradition and his work is influenced by Olivier Messiaen, Edgard Varèse, and Anton Webern, as well as by film (Stockhausen 1996b) and by painters such as Piet Mondrian (Stockhausen 1996a, 94; ''Texte'' 3, 92–93; Toop 1998) and Paul Klee (Maconie 2005, 187).

1950s

Stockhausen began to compose in earnest only during his third year at the conservatory (Kurtz 1992, 26–27). His early student compositions remained out of the public eye until, in 1971, he published ''Chöre für Doris'', ''Drei Lieder'' for alto voice and chamber orchestra, ''Choral'' for a capella choir (all three from 1950), and a Sonatine for Violin and Piano (1951) (Maconie 1990, 5–6 and 11).

In August 1951, just after his first Darmstadt visit, Stockhausen began working with a form of athematic serial composition that rejected the twelve-tone technique of Schoenberg (Felder 1977, 92). He characterized many of these earliest compositions (together with the music of other, like-minded composers of the period) as ''punktuelle'' ("punctual" or "pointist" music, commonly mistranslated as "pointillist") ''Musik'', though one critic concluded after analysing several of these early works that Stockhausen "never really composed punctually" (Sabbe 1981). Compositions from this phase include ''Kreuzspiel'' (1951), the ''Klavierstücke I–IV'' (1952—the fourth of this first set of four ''Klavierstücke'', titled ''Klavierstück IV'', is specifically cited by Stockhausen as an example of "punctual music" in ''Texte'' 2, 19), and the first (unpublished) versions of ''Punkte'' and ''Kontra-Punkte'' (1952) (''Texte'' 2, 20). However, several works from these same years show Stockhausen formulating his "first really ground-breaking contribution to the theory and, above all, practice of composition" (Toop 2005, 3), that of "group composition" (Toop 2005, 3), found in Stockhausen's works as early as 1952 and continuing to the present time (Toop 2005, 3). This principle was first publicly described by Stockhausen in a radio talk from December 1955, titled "Gruppenkomposition: ''Klavierstück I''" (''Texte 1'', 63–74).

In December 1952, he composed a ''Konkrete Etüde'', realized in Pierre Schaeffer's Paris musique concrète studio. In March 1953, he moved to the NWDR studio in Cologne and turned to electronic music with two ''Electronic Studies'' (1953 and 1954), and then introducing spatial placements of sound sources with his mixed ''concrète'' and electronic work ''Gesang der Jünglinge'' (1955–56). Experiences gained from the ''Studies'' made plain that it was an unacceptable oversimplification to regard timbres as stable entities (''Texte 1'', 56). Reinforced by his studies with Meyer-Eppler, beginning in 1955, Stockhausen formulated new "statistical" criteria for composition, focussing attention on the aleatoric, directional tendencies of sound movement, "the change from one state to another, with or without returning motion, as opposed to a fixed state" (Decroupet and Ungeheuer 1998, 98–99). Stockhausen later wrote, describing this period in his compositional work, "The first revolution occurred from 1952/53 as ''musique concrète'', ''electronic tape music'', and ''space music'', entailing composition with transformers, generators, modulators, magnetophones, etc; the integration of all concrete and abstract (synthetic) sound possibilities (also all noises), and the controlled projection of sound in space" (Stockhausen 1989b, 127; reprinted in Schwartz & Childs 1998, 374). His position as "the leading German composer of his generation" (Toop 2001) was established with ''Gesang der Jünglinge'' and three concurrently composed pieces in different media: ''Zeitmaße'' for five woodwinds, ''Gruppen'' for three orchestras, and ''Klavierstück XI'' (Kohl 1998a, 61). The principles underlying the latter three compositions are presented in Stockhausen's best-known theoretical article, ". . . wie die Zeit vergeht . . ." (". . . How Time Passes . . ."), first published in 1957 in vol. 3 of Die Reihe (''Texte 1'', 99–139).

His work with electronic music and its utter fixity led him to explore modes of instrumental and vocal music in which performers' individual capabilities and the circumstances of a particular performance (e.g., hall acoustics) may determine certain aspects of a composition. He called this "variable form" (Wörner 1973, 101–105). In other cases, a work may be presented from a number of different perspectives. In ''Zyklus'' (1959), for example, he began using graphic notation for instrumental music. The score is written so that the performance can start on any page, and it may be read upside down, or from right to left, as the performer chooses (Stockhausen, ''Texte'' 2, 73–100). Still other works permit different routes through the constituent parts. Stockhausen called both of these possibilities "polyvalent form" (Stockhausen, ''Texte'' 1, 241–51), which may be either open form (essentially incomplete, pointing beyond its frame), as with ''Klavierstück XI'' (1956), or "closed form" (complete and self-contained) as with ''Momente'' (1962–64/69) (Kaletha 2004, 97–98).

In many of his works, elements are played off against one another, simultaneously and successively: in ''Kontra-Punkte'' ("Against Points", 1952–53), which, in its revised form became his official "opus 1", a process leading from an initial "point" texture of isolated notes toward a florid, ornamental ending is opposed by a tendency from diversity (six timbres, dynamics, and durations) toward uniformity (timbre of solo piano, a nearly constant soft dynamic, and fairly even durations). In ''Gruppen'' (1955–57), fanfares and passages of varying speed (superimposed durations based on the harmonic series) are occasionally flung between three full orchestras, giving the impression of movement in space (Maconie 2005, 486).

In his ''Kontakte'' for electronic sounds (optionally with piano and percussion) (1958–60), he achieved for the first time an isomorphism of the four parameters of pitch, duration, dynamics, and timbre (Stockhausen 1962, 40).

1960s

In 1960, Stockhausen returned to the composition of vocal music (for the first time since ''Gesang der Jünglinge'') with ''Carré'' for four choirs and four orchestras (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 18). Two years later, he began an expansive cantata titled ''Momente'' (1962–64/69), for solo soprano, four choir groups and thirteen instrumentalists (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 18). In 1963, Stockhausen created ''Plus-Minus'', "2 × 7 pages for realisation" containing basic note materials and a complex system of transformations to which those materials are to be subjected in order to produce an unlimited number of different compositions (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 20; Toop 2005, 175–78). Through the rest of the 1960s, he continued to explore such possibilities of "process composition" in works for live performance, such as ''Prozession'' (1967), ''Kurzwellen'', and ''Spiral'' (both 1968), culminating in the verbally described "intuitive music" compositions of ''Aus den sieben Tagen'' (1968) and ''Für kommende Zeiten'' (1968–70) (Fritsch 1979; Kohl 1981, 192–93, 227–51; Kohl 1998b, 7; Toop 2005, 191–92). Some of his later works, such as ''Ylem'' (1972) and the first three parts of ''Herbstmusik'' (1974), also fall under this rubric (Maconie 2005, 254 and 366–68). Several of these process compositions were featured in the all-day programmes presented at Expo 70, for which Stockhausen composed two more similar pieces, ''Pole'' for two players, and ''Expo'' for three (Kohl 1981, 192–93; Maconie 2005, 323–24). In other compositions, such as ''Stop'' for orchestra (1965), ''Adieu'' for wind quintet (1966), and the ''Dr. K Sextett'', which was written in 1968–69 in honour of Alfred Kalmus of Universal Edition, he presented his performers with more restricted improvisational possibilities (Maconie 2005, 262, 267–68, 319–20).

He pioneered live electronics in ''Mixtur'' (1964/67/2003) for orchestra and electronics (Kohl 1981, 51–163), ''Mikrophonie I'' (1964) for tam-tam, two microphones, two filters with potentiometers (6 players) (Maconie 1972; Maconie 2005, 255–57), ''Mikrophonie II'' (1965) for choir, Hammond organ, and four ring modulators (Peters 1992), and ''Solo'' for a melody instrument with feedback (1966) (Maconie 2005, 262–65). Improvisation also plays a part in all of these works, but especially in ''Solo'' (Maconie 2005, 264). He also composed two electronic works for tape, ''Telemusik'' (1966) and ''Hymnen'' (1966–67) (Kohl 2002; Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 21). The latter also exists in a version with partially improvising soloists, and the third of its four "regions" in a version with orchestra (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 21). At this time, Stockhausen also began to incorporate pre-existent music from world traditions into his compositions (Kohl 1981, 93–95; ''Texte'' 4, 468–76). ''Telemusik'' was the first overt example of this trend (Kohl 2002, 96).

In 1968, Stockhausen composed the vocal sextet ''Stimmung'', for the Collegium Vocale Köln, an hour-long work based entirely on the overtones of a low B-flat (Toop 2005, 39). In the following year, he created ''Fresco'' for four orchestral groups, a ''Wandelmusik'' ("foyer music") composition (Maconie 2005, 321). This was intended to be played for about five hours in the foyers and grounds of the Beethovenhalle auditorium complex in Bonn, before, after, and during a group of (in part simultaneous) concerts of his music in the auditoriums of the facility (Maconie 2005, 321–23). The overall project was given the title ''Musik für die Beethovenhalle'' (Maconie 2005, 296). This had precedents in two collective-composition seminar projects that Stockhausen gave at Darmstadt in 1967 and 1968: ''Ensemble'' and ''Musik für ein Haus'' (Gehlhaar 1968; Ritzel 1970; Iddon 2004; Maconie 2005, 321), and would have successors in the "park music" composition for five spatially separated groups, ''Sternklang'' ("Star Sounds") of 1971, the orchestral work ''Trans'', composed in the same year and the thirteen simultaneous "musical scenes for soloists and duets" titled ''Alphabet für Liège'' (1972) (Maconie 2005, 334–36, 338, 341–43).

"Space music" and Expo 70

Since the mid-1950s, Stockhausen had been developing concepts of spatialization in his works, not only in electronic music, such as the 5-channel ''Gesang der Jünglinge'' (1955–56) and ''Telemusik'' (1966), and 4-channel ''Kontakte'' (1958–60) and ''Hymnen'' (1966–67). Instrumental/vocal works like ''Gruppen'' for three orchestras (1955–57) and ''Carré'' for four orchestras and choirs (1959–60) also exhibit this trait (Stockhausen ''Texte'' 2:71–72, 49–50, 102–103; Stockhausen 1989, 105–108; Cott 1973, 200–201). In lectures such as "Music in Space" from 1958 (Stockhausen ''Texte'' 1:152–75), he called for new kinds of concert halls to be built, "suited to the requirements of spatial music". His idea was

a spherical space which is fitted all around with loudspeakers. In the middle of this spherical space a sound-permeable, transparent platform would be suspended for the listeners. They could hear music composed for such standardized spaces coming from above, from below and from all points of the compass. (Stockhausen ''Texte'' 1:153)

In 1968, the West German government invited Stockhausen to collaborate on the German Pavilion at the 1970 World Fair in Osaka and to create a joint multimedia project for it with artist Otto Piene. Other collaborators on the project included the pavilion's architect, Fritz Bornemann, Fritz Winckel, director of the Electronic Music Studio at the Technical University of Berlin, and engineer Max Mengeringhausen. The pavilion theme was "gardens of music", in keeping with which Bornemann intended "planting" the exhibition halls beneath a broad lawn, with a connected auditorium "sprouting" above ground. Initially, Bornemann conceived this auditorium in the form of an amphitheatre, with a central orchestra podium and surrounding audience space. In the summer of 1968, Stockhausen met with Bornemann and persuaded him to change this conception to a spherical space with the audience in the center, surrounded by loudspeaker groups in seven rings at different "latitudes" around the interior walls of the sphere (Kurtz 1992, 166; Föllmer 1996).

Photos and architectural plans of the auditorium of the West German Pavilion and its sound system.

Although Stockhausen and Piene's planned multimedia project, titled ''Hinab-Hinauf'', was developed in detail (Stockhausen, ''Texte'' 3:155–74), the World Fair committee rejected their concept as too extravagant and instead asked Stockhausen to present daily five-hour programs of his music (Kurtz 1992, 178). Stockhausen's works were performed for 5½ hours every day over a period of 183 days to a total audience of about a million listeners (Wörner 1973, 256). According to Stockhausen's biographer, Michael Kurtz, "Many visitors felt the spherical auditorium to be an oasis of calm amidst the general hubbub, and after a while it became one of the main attractions of Expo 1970" (Kurtz 1992, 179).

More photos of the spherical auditorium at Expo 70

1970s

Beginning with ''Mantra'' for two pianos and electronics (1970), Stockhausen turned to formula composition, a technique which involves the projection and multiplication of a single, double, or triple melodic-line formula (Kohl 1983–84a; Kohl 1990; Kohl 2004). Sometimes, as in ''Mantra'' and the large orchestral composition with mime soloists, ''Inori'', the simple formula is stated at the outset as an introduction. He continued to use this technique (e.g., in the two related solo-clarinet pieces, ''Harlekin'' ["Harlequin"] and ''Der kleine Harlekin'' ["The Little Harlequin"] of 1975, and the orchestral ''Jubiläum'' ["Jubilee"] of 1977) through the completion of the opera-cycle ''Licht'' in 2003 (Blumröder 1982; Conen 1991; Kohl 1983–84a; Kohl 1990; Kohl 1993; Kohl 2004; Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 10). Some works from the 1970s did not employ formula technique—e.g., the vocal duet "Am Himmel wandre ich" ("In the Sky I am Walking", one of the 13 components of the multimedia ''Alphabet für Liège'', 1972), "Laub und Regen" ("Leaves and Rain", from the theatre piece ''Herbstmusik'' (1974), the unaccompanied-clarinet composition ''Amour'', and the choral opera ''Atmen gibt das Leben'' ("Breathing Gives Life", 1974/77)—but nevertheless share its simpler, melodically oriented style (Conen 1991, 57). Two such pieces, ''Tierkreis'' ("Zodiac", 1974–75) and ''In Freundschaft'' ("In Friendship", 1977, a solo piece with versions for virtually every orchestral instrument), have become Stockhausen's most widely performed and recorded compositions (Anon. 2007a; Deruchie 2007; Nordin 2004).

This dramatic simplification of style provided a model for a new generation of German composers, loosely associated under the label ''neue Einfachheit'' or New Simplicity (Andraschke 1981). The best-known of these composers is Wolfgang Rihm, who studied with Stockhausen in 1972–73. His orchestral composition ''Sub-Kontur'' (1974–75) quotes the formula of Stockhausen's ''Inori'' (1973–74), and he has also acknowledged the influence of ''Momente'' on this work (Frobenius 1981, 53 + note 59–60). Other large works from this decade include the orchestral ''Trans'' (1971) and two music-theatre compositions utilizing the ''Tierkreis'' melodies: ''Musik im Bauch'' ("Music in the Belly") for six percussionists (1975), and the science-fiction "opera" ''Sirius'' (1975–77) for eight-channel electronic music with soprano, bass, trumpet, and bass clarinet, which has four different versions for the four seasons, each lasting over an hour and a half (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 24–25).

1977–2003

Between 1977 and 2003, he composed seven operas in a cycle titled ''Licht: Die sieben Tage der Woche'' ("Light: The Seven Days of the Week") (Maconie 2005, 403–544). The ''Licht'' cycle deals with the traits associated in various historical traditions with each weekday (Monday = birth and fertility, Tuesday = conflict and war, Wednesday = reconciliation and cooperation, Thursday = traveling and learning, etc.) and with the relationships between three archetypal characters: Michael, Lucifer, and Eve (Kohl 1983–84b, 489; Stockhausen ''Texte'' 6:152–56, 175, 200–201). Each of these characters dominates one of the operas (''Donnerstag'' [Thursday], ''Samstag'' [Saturday], and ''Montag'' [Monday], respectively), the three possible pairings are foregrounded in three others, and the equal combination of all three is featured in ''Mittwoch'' (Wednesday) (Kohl 1990, 274).

Stockhausen's conception of opera was based significantly on ceremony and ritual, with influence from the Japanese Noh theatre (Stockhausen, Conen, and Hennlich 1989, 282), as well as Judeo-Christian and Vedic traditions (Bruno 1999, 134). In 1968, at the time of the composition of ''Aus den sieben Tagen'', Stockhausen had read a biography by Satprem about the Bengali guru Sri Aurobindo (Guerreri 2009), and subsequently he also read many of the published writings by Aurobindo himself. The title of ''Licht'' owes something to Aurobindo's theory of "Agni" (the Hindu and Vedic fire deity), developed from two basic premises of nuclear physics; Stockhausen's definition of a formula and, especially, his conception of the ''Licht'' superformula, also owes a great deal to Sri Aurobindo's category of the "supramental" (Peters 2003, 227). Similarly, his approach to voice and text sometimes departed from traditional usage: Characters were as likely to be portrayed by instrumentalists or dancers as by singers, and a few parts of ''Licht'' (e.g., ''Luzifers Traum'' from ''Samstag'', ''Welt-Parlament'' from ''Mittwoch'', ''Lichter-Wasser'' and ''Hoch-Zeiten'' from ''Sonntag'') use written or improvised texts in simulated or invented languages (Kohl 1983–84b, 499; Moritz 2005; Stockhausen 1999, 18–25; Stockhausen 2001b, 20; Stockhausen 2003, 20).

The seven operas were not composed in "weekday order" but rather starting (apart from ''Jahreslauf'' in 1977, which became the first act of ''Dienstag'') with the "solo" operas and working toward the more complex ones: ''Donnerstag'' (1978–80), ''Samstag'' (1981–83), ''Montag'' (1984–88), ''Dienstag'' (1977/1987–91), ''Freitag'' (1991–94), ''Mittwoch'' (1995–97), and finally ''Sonntag'' (1998–2003) (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 3–7, 26–48).

Stockhausen had dreams of flying throughout his life, and these dreams are reflected in the ''Helikopter-Streichquartett'' (the third scene of ''Mittwoch aus Licht''), completed in 1993. In it, the four members of a string quartet perform in four helicopters flying independent flight paths over the countryside near the concert hall. The sounds they play are mixed together with the sounds of the helicopters and played through speakers to the audience in the hall. Videos of the performers are also transmitted back to the concert hall. The performers are synchronized with the aid of a click track, transmitted to them and heard over headphones (Stockhausen 1996c, 215).

The first performance of the piece took place in Amsterdam on 26 June 1995, as part of the Holland Festival (Stockhausen 1996c, 216). Despite its extremely unusual nature, the piece has been given several performances, including one on 22 August 2003 as part of the Salzburg Festival to open the Hangar-7 venue (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 7), and the German première on 17 June 2007 in Braunschweig as part of the Stadt der Wissenschaft 2007 Festival (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2007). The work has also been recorded by the Arditti Quartet.

In 1999 he was Invited by Walter Fink to be the ninth composer featured in the annual Komponistenporträt of the Rheingau Musik Festival.

In 1999, BBC producer Rodney Wilson asked Stockhausen to collaborate with Stephen and Timothy Quay on a film for the fourth series of Sound on Film International. Although Stockhausen's music had been used for films previously (most notably, parts of Hymnen in Nicolas Roeg's ''Walkabout'' in 1971), this was the first time he had been asked to provide music specially for the purpose. He adapted 21 minutes of material taken from his electronic music for ''Freitag aus Licht'', calling the result ''Zwei Paare'' (Two Couples), and the Brothers Quay created their animated film, which they titled ''In Absentia'', based only on their reactions to the music and the simple suggestion that a window might be an idea to use (Anon. 2001). When, at a preview screening, Stockhausen saw the film, which shows a madwoman writing letters from a bleak asylum cell, he was moved to tears. The Brothers Quay were astonished to learn that his mother had been "imprisoned by the Nazis in an asylum, where she later died. … This was a very moving moment for us as well, especially because we had made the film without knowing any of this" (Aita 2001).

2003–2007

After completing ''Licht'', Stockhausen embarked on a new cycle of compositions, based on the hours of the day, entitled ''Klang'' ("Sound"). Twenty-one of these pieces were completed before the composer's death (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 49–50). The works from this cycle performed to date are First Hour: ''Himmelfahrt'' (Ascension), for organ or synthesizer, soprano and tenor (2004–2005); Second Hour: ''Freude'' (Joy) for two harps (2005); Third Hour: ''Natürliche Dauern'' (Natural Durations) for piano (2005–2006); and Fourth Hour: ''Himmels-Tür'' (Heaven's Door) for a percussionist and a little girl (2005) (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 49). The Fifth Hour, ''Harmonien'' (Harmonies), is a solo in three versions for flute, bass clarinet, and trumpet (2006) (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 49); the bass clarinet and flute versions were premièred in Kürten on 11 July 2007 and 13 July 2007, respectively (Stockhausen 2007b and Stockhausen 2007c), and the trumpet version was premièred on 2 August 2008 in London at a BBC Proms concert (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 7). The Sixth through Twelfth hours are chamber-music works based on the material from the Fifth Hour (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 49). Of these, the Seventh (''Balance'', for flute, English horn, and bass clarinet), Ninth (''Hoffnung'', for string trio), and Tenth, ''Glanz'' (commission of the Asko Ensemble and the Holland Festival), were premièred on 22 August (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 9), 31 August (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 10), and 19 June (Beer 2008; Voermans 2008), respectively. The première of the Sixth (''Schönheit'', for flute, trumpet, and bass clarinet) took place on 5 October 2009 at the Grande Auditório of the Gulbenkian Foundation in Lisbon, and that of the Twelfth, ''Erwachen'', on 13 October 2009 in Brussels. The Thirteenth Hour, ''Cosmic Pulses''—an electronic work made by superimposing 24 layers of sound, each having its own spatial motion, among eight loudspeakers placed around the concert hall—was premièred in Rome on 7 May 2007 at Auditorium Parco della Musica, (Sala Sinopoli) (Stockhausen 2007a). Hours 14 through 21 are solo pieces for bass voice, baritone voice, basset-horn, horn, tenor voice, soprano voice, soprano saxophone, and flute, respectively, each with electronic accompaniment of a different set of three layers from ''Cosmic Pulses'' (Stockhausen-Verlag 2010, 50). Of these, the Twentieth (''Edentia'' for soprano saxophone and electronic music) was premièred on 6 August 2008 (Mischke 2008), the Nineteenth (''Urantia'' for soprano and electronic music) on 8 November 2008 in London, the Fourteenth (''Havona'' for bass voice and electronic music) on 10 January 2009 in Paris (Stockhausen-Stiftung 2008, 15 and 13), and the Twenty-first (''Paradies'', for flute and electronic music) at the Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival, at the Laeiszhalle in Hamburg on 24 August 2009. All of the remaining pieces were first performed in the context of the collective premiere of the cycle, at the Festival MusikTriennale Köln on 8–9 May 2010, in 176 individual concerts (Gimpel 2010).

Theories

In the 1950s and early 1960s, Stockhausen published a series of articles that established his importance in the area of music theory. Although these include analyses of music by Mozart, Debussy, Bartók, Stravinsky, Goeyvaerts, Boulez, Nono, Johannes Fritsch, Michael von Biel, and, especially, Webern (''Texte'' 1:24–31, 39–44, 75–85, 86–98; ''Texte'' 2:136–39, 149–66, 170–206; ''Texte'' 3:236–38; ''Texte'' 4:662–63), the items on compositional theory directly related to his own work are regarded as the most important generally. "Indeed, the ''Texte'' come closer than anything else currently available to providing a general compositional theory for the postwar period" (Morgan 1975, 16). His most celebrated article is "... wie die Zeit vergeht ..." (". . . How Time Passes . . ."), first published in the third volume of ''Die Reihe'' (1957). In it, he expounds a number of temporal conceptions underlying his instrumental compositions ''Zeitmaße'', ''Gruppen'', and ''Klavierstück XI''. In particular, this article develops (1) a scale of twelve tempos analogous to the chromatic pitch scale, (2) a technique of building progressively smaller, integral subdivisions over a basic (fundamental) duration, analogous to the overtone series, (3) musical application of the concept of the partial field (time fields and field sizes) in both successive and simultaneous proportions, (4) methods of projecting large-scale form from a series of proportions, (5) the concept of "statistical" composition, (6) the concept of "action duration" and the associated "variable form", and (7) the notion of the "directionless temporal field" and with it, "polyvalent form" (Stockhausen ''Texte'' 1:99–139).

Other important articles from this period include "Musik im Raum" ("Music in Space", 1958, ''Texte'' 1:152–75), "Musik und Graphik" ("Music and Graphics", 1959, ''Texte'' 1:176–88), "Momentform" (1960, ''Texte'' 1:189–210), "Die Einheit der musikalischen Zeit" ("The Unity of Musical Time", 1961, ''Texte'' 1:211–21; Stockhausen 1962), and "Erfindung und Entdeckung" ("Invention and Discovery", 1961, ''Texte'' 1:222–58), the last summing up the ideas developed up to 1961. Taken together, these temporal theories

suggested that the entire compositional structure could be conceived as "timbre": since "the different experienced components such as color, harmony and melody, meter and rhythm, dynamics, and form correspond to the different segmental ranges of this unified time" [''Texte'' 1:120], the total musical result at any given compositional level is simply the "spectrum" of a more basic duration—i.e., its "timbre," perceived as the overall effect of the overtone structure of that duration, now taken to include not only the "rhythmic" subdivisions of the duration but also their relative "dynamic" strength, "envelope," etc. … Compositionally considered, this produced a change of focus from the individual tone to a whole complex of tones related to one another by virtue of their relation to a "fundamental"—a change that was probably the most important compositional development of the latter part of the 1950s, not only for Stockhausen's music but for "advanced" music in general. (Morgan 1975, 6)

Some of these ideas, considered from a purely theoretical point of view (divorced from their context as explanations of particular compositions) drew significant critical fire (Backus 1962, Fokker 1968, Perle 1960). For this reason, Stockhausen ceased publishing such articles for a number of years, as he felt that "many useless polemics" about these texts had arisen, and he preferred to concentrate his attention on composing (''Texte'' 4:13).

Through the 1960s, although he taught and lectured publicly (''Texte'' 3:196–211), Stockhausen published little of an analytical or theoretical nature. Only in 1970 did he again begin publishing theoretical articles, with "Kriterien", his six seminar lectures for the Darmstädter Ferienkurse (''Texte'' 3:222–29).

Reception

Musical influence

Stockhausen's two early ''Electronic Studies'' (especially the second) had a powerful influence on the subsequent development of electronic music in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in the work of the Italian Franco Evangelisti and the Poles Andrzej Dobrowolski and Włodzimierz Kotoński (Skowron 1981, 39). The influence of his ''Kontra-Punkte'', ''Zeitmasse'' and ''Gruppen'' may be seen in the work of many composers, including Igor Stravinsky's ''Threni'' (1957–58) and ''Movements'' for piano and orchestra (1958–59) and other works up to the ''Variations: Aldous Huxley In Memoriam'' (1963–64), whose rhythms "are likely to have been inspired, at least in part, by certain passages from Stockhausen's ''Gruppen''" (Neidhöffer 2005, 340). Though music of Stockhausen's generation may seem an unlikely influence, Stravinsky said in a 1957 conversation:

I have all around me the spectacle of composers who, after their generation has had its decade of influence and fashion, seal themselves off from further development and from the next generation (as I say this, exceptions come to mind, Krenek, for instance). Of course, it requires greater effort to learn from one's juniors, and their manners are not invariably good. But when you are seventy-five and your generation has overlapped with four younger ones, it behooves you not to decide in advance "how far composers can go," but to try to discover whatever new thing it is makes the new generation new. (Stravinsky and Craft 1959, 133)

Amongst British composers, Sir Harrison Birtwistle readily acknowledges the influence of Stockhausen's ''Zeitmaße'' (especially on his two wind quintets, ''Refrains and Choruses'' and ''Five Distances'') and ''Gruppen'' on his work more generally (Cross 2000, 48; Cross 2001; Hall 1984, 3 and 7–8; Hall 1998, 99 and 108; Pace 1996, 27). Brian Ferneyhough says that, although the "technical and speculative innovations" of ''Klavierstücke I–IV'', ''Kreuzspiel'' and ''Kontra-Punkte'' escaped him on first encounter (Ferneyhough 1988), they nevertheless produced a "sharp emotion, the result of a beneficial shock engendered by their boldness" (Ferneyhough 1988) and provided "an important source of motivation (rather than of imitation) for my own investigations" (Ferneyhough 1988). While still in school, he became fascinated upon hearing the British première of ''Gruppen'', and

listened many times to the recording of this performance, while trying to penetrate its secrets—how it always seemed to be about to explode, but managed nevertheless to escape unscathed in its core—but scarcely managed to grasp it. Retrospectively, it is clear that from this confusion was born my interest for the formal questions which remain until today. (Ferneyhough 1988)

With respect to Stockhausen's later work, he said,

I have never subscribed (whatever the inevitable personal distance) to the thesis according to which the many transformations of vocabulary characterizing Stockhausen's development are the obvious sign of his inability to carry out the early vision of strict order that he had in his youth. On the contrary, it seems to me that the constant reconsideration of his premises has led to the maintenance of a remarkably tough thread of historical consciousness which will become clearer with time. . . . I doubt that there has been a single composer of the intervening generation who, even if for a short time, did not see the world of music differently thanks to the work of Stockhausen. (Ferneyhough 1988)

In a short essay describing Stockhausen's influence on his own work, Richard Barrett concludes that "Stockhausen remains the composer whose next work I look forward most to hearing, apart from myself of course" and names as works that have had particular impact on his musical thinking ''Mantra'', ''Gruppen'', ''Carré'', ''Klavierstück X'', ''Inori'', and ''Jubiläum'' (Barrett 1998).

French composer and conductor Pierre Boulez once declared, "Stockhausen is the greatest living composer, and the only one whom I recognize as my peer" (Anon. 1967; Anon. 1971). Boulez also acknowledged the influence of performing Stockhausen's ''Zeitmaße'' on his subsequent development as a conductor (Boulez 1976, 79–80). Another French composer, Jean-Claude Éloy, regards Stockhausen as the most important composer of the second half of the 20th century, and cites virtually "all his catalog of works" as "a powerful discoveration [''sic''], and a true revelation" (Éloy 2008).

Dutch composer Louis Andriessen acknowledged the influence of Stockhausen's Momente in his pivotal work ''Contra tempus'' of 1968 (Schönberger 2001). German composer Wolfgang Rihm, who studied with Stockhausen, was influenced by ''Momente'', ''Hymnen'', and ''Inori'' (Williams 2006, 382). Jazz musicians such as Miles Davis (Bergstein 1992), Cecil Taylor, Charles Mingus, Herbie Hancock, Yusef Lateef (Feather 1964; Tsahar 2006), and Anthony Braxton (Radano 1993, 110) cite Stockhausen as an influence.

At the Cologne ISCM Festival in 1960, the Danish composer Per Nørgård heard Stockhausen's ''Kontakte'' as well as pieces by Kagel, Boulez, and Berio. He was profoundly affected by what he heard and his music suddenly changed into "a far more discontinuous and disjunct style, involving elements of strict organization in all parameters, some degree of aleatoricism and controlled improvisation, together with an interest in collage from other musics" (Anderson 2001).

Stockhausen was influential within pop and rock music as well. Frank Zappa acknowledges Stockhausen in the liner notes of ''Freak Out!'', his 1966 debut with The Mothers of Invention. On the back of The Who's second LP released in the US, "Happy Jack", their primary composer and guitarist Pete Townshend, is said to have "an interest in Stockhausen". Rick Wright and Roger Waters of Pink Floyd also acknowledge Stockhausen as an influence (Macon 1997, 141; Bayles 1996, 222). San Francisco psychedelic groups Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead are said to have done the same (Prendergast 2000, 54); Stockhausen himself says the former band included students of Luciano Berio, and the Grateful Dead were "well orientated toward new music" (''Texte'' 4, 505). Founding members of Cologne-based experimental band Can, Irmin Schmidt and Holger Czukay, both claim they studied with Stockhausen (Irmin Schmidt biography; Holger Czukay biography), and Schmidt is confirmed to have attended the 1965–66 Cologne Courses for New Music, though Czukay's name does not appear anywhere in the list of registrants (''Texte'' 3, 196, 198, 200). German electronic pioneers Kraftwerk also say they studied with Stockhausen (Flur 2003, 228), and Icelandic vocalist Björk has acknowledged Stockhausen's influence (Heuger 1998, 15; Björk 1996; Ross 2004, 53 & 55).

Wider cultural renown

Stockhausen, along with John Cage, is one of the few avant-garde composers to have succeeded in penetrating the popular consciousness (Anon. 2007b; Broyles 2004; Hewett 2007). The Beatles famously included his face on the cover of ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' (Guy and Llewelyn-Jones 2004, 111). This reflects his influence on the band's own avant-garde experiments as well as the general fame and notoriety he had achieved by that time (1967). In particular, "A Day in the Life" (1967) and "Revolution 9" (1968) were influenced by Stockhausen's electronic music (Aldgate, Chapman, and Marwick 2000, 146; MacDonald 1995, 233–34). Stockhausen's name, and the perceived strangeness and supposed unlistenability of his music, was even a punchline in cartoons, as documented on a page on the official Stockhausen web site (Stockhausen Cartoons). Perhaps the most caustic remark about Stockhausen was attributed to Sir Thomas Beecham. Asked "Have you heard any Stockhausen?", he is alleged to have replied, "No, but I believe I have trodden in some" (Lebrecht 1983, 334, annotated on 366: "Apocryphal; source unknown").

Stockhausen's fame is also reflected in works of literature. For example, he is mentioned in Philip K. Dick's 1974 novel ''Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said'' (Dick 1993, 101) and in Thomas Pynchon's 1966 novel ''The Crying of Lot 49''. The Pynchon novel features "The Scope", a bar with "a strict electronic music policy". Protagonist Oedipa Maas asks "a hip graybeard" about a "sudden chorus of whoops and yibbles" coming out of "a kind of jukebox." He replies, "That's by Stockhausen... the early crowd tends to dig your Radio Cologne sound. Later on we really swing" (Pynchon 1999, 34).

Later in his life, Stockhausen was portrayed by at least one journalist, John O'Mahony of the ''Guardian'' newspaper, as an eccentric, for example being alleged to live an effectively polygamous lifestyle with two women, to whom O'Mahoney referred as his "wives", while at the same time stating he was not married to either of them (O'Mahoney 2001). In the same article, O'Mahony claims Stockhausen said he was born on a planet orbiting the star Sirius. In the German newspaper Die Zeit, Stockhausen unmistakably stated that he was educated at Sirius (see Controversy below).

Criticism

Robin Maconie finds that, "Compared to the work of his contemporaries, Stockhausen's music has a depth and rational integrity that is quite outstanding. . . . His researches, initially guided by Meyer-Eppler, have a coherence unlike any other composer then or since" (Maconie 1989, 177–78). Maconie also compares Stockhausen to Beethoven: "If a genius is someone whose ideas survive all attempts at explanation, then by that definition Stockhausen is the nearest thing to Beethoven this century has produced. Reason? His music lasts" (Maconie 1988), and "As Stravinsky said, one never thinks of Beethoven as a superb orchestrator because the quality of invention transcends mere craftsmanship. It is the same with Stockhausen: the intensity of imagination gives rise to musical impressions of an elemental and seemingly unfathomable beauty, arising from necessity rather than conscious design" (Maconie 1989, 178).

Christopher Ballantine, while comparing and contrasting the categories of experimental and avant-garde music, concludes that

Perhaps more than any other contemporary composer, Stockhausen exists at the point where the dialectic between experimental and avant-garde music becomes manifest; it is in him, more obviously than anywhere else, that these diverse approaches converge. This alone would seem to suggest his remarkable significance. (Ballantine 1977, 244)

Igor Stravinsky expressed great, but not uncritical, enthusiasm for Stockhausen's music in the conversation books with Robert Craft (e.g., Craft and Stravinsky 1960, 118) and for years organised private listening sessions with friends in his home where he played tapes of Stockhausen's latest works (Stravinsky 1984, 356; Craft 2002, 141). In an interview published in March 1968, however, he says of an unidentified person,

I have been listening all week to the piano music of a composer now greatly esteemed for his ability to stay an hour or so ahead of his time, but I find the alternation of note-clumps and silences of which it consists more monotonous than the foursquares of the dullest eighteenth-century music. ([Craft] 1968, 4)

The following October, a report in ''Sovetskaia Muzyka'' (Anon. 1968) translated this sentence (and a few others from the same article) into Russian, substituting for the conjunction "but" the phrase "Ia imeiu v vidu Karlkheintsa Shtokkhauzena" ("I am referring to Karlheinz Stockhausen"). When this translation was quoted in Druskin's Stravinsky biography, the field was widened to ''all'' of Stockhausen's compositions and Druskin adds for good measure, "indeed, works he calls unnecessary, useless and uninteresting", again quoting from the same ''Sovetskaia Muzyka'' article, even though it had made plain that the characterization was of American "university composers" (Druskin 1974, 207).

Early in 1995, BBC Radio 3 sent Stockhausen a package of recordings from contemporary artists Aphex Twin, Richie Hawtin (Plastikman), Scanner and Daniel Pemberton, and asked him for his opinion on the music. In August of that year, Radio 3 reporter Dick Witts interviewed Stockhausen about these pieces for a broadcast in October, subsequently published in the November issue of the British publication The Wire asking what advice he would give these young musicians. Stockhausen made suggestions to each of the musicians, who were then invited to respond. All but Plastikman obliged (Witts 1995).

Controversy

Scandal at the ''Fresco'' premiere

As reported in the German magazine Der Spiegel, the première (and only performance to date) on 15 November 1969 of Stockhausen's work ''Fresco'' for four orchestral groups (playing in four different locations) was the scene of a scandal. The rehearsals were already marked by objections from the orchestral musicians questioning such directions as "glissandos no faster than one octave per minute" and others phoning the artists union to clarify whether they really had to perform the Stockhausen work as part of the orchestra. In the backstage warm-up room at the premiere a hand-lettered sign could be seen saying: "We're playing, otherwise we would be fired". During the première the parts on some music stands suddenly were replaced by placards reading things like "Stockhausen-Zoo. Please don't feed", that someone had planted. Some musicians, fed up with the monkeyshines, already left after an hour, though the performance was planned for four to five hours. Stockhausen fans protested, while Stockhausen foes were needling the musicians asking: "How can you possibly participate in such crap?" ("Wie könnt ihr bloß so eine Scheiße machen!"). At one point someone managed to switch off the stand lights, leaving the musicians in the dark. After 260 minutes the performance ended with nobody participating any more (Anon. 1969).

Sirius star system

In the German newspaper Die Zeit, Karlheinz Stockhausen stated that:

I was educated at Sirius and want to return to there, although I am currently still living in Kürten near Cologne. At Sirius, it is very intellectual. Almost no time passes between conception and realization. What is known here as the audience, passive bystanders, does not exist there. There everyone is creative. (translated from the German: "[...] Ich bin auf Sirius ausgebildet worden und will dort auch wieder hin, obwohl ich derzeit noch in Kürten bei Köln wohne. Auf Sirius ist es sehr geistig. Zwischen Konzeption und Realisation vergeht fast keine Zeit. Was man hier als Publikum kennt, passive Beisitzer, gibt es dort gar nicht. Da ist jeder kreativ." ZEITmagazin No. 15, 1998, p. 14, Article: Lichtgestalten, by Ralf Grauel.

The first sentence regarding his education also appears in a slightly different form in Reier 2007. On hearing about this, conductor Michael Gielen stated: "When he said he knew what was happening at Sirius, I turned away from him in horror. I haven't listened to a note since", and called Stockhausen's statements "hubris" and "nonsense", while at the same time defending his own belief in astrology: "Why should these large celestial bodies exist if they do not stand for something? I cannot imagine that there is anything senseless in the universe. There is much we do not understand" (Hagedorn 2010).

11 September attacks

In a press conference in Hamburg on 16 September 2001, Stockhausen was asked by a journalist whether the characters in ''Licht'' were for him "merely some figures out of a common cultural history" or rather "material appearances". The composer replied, "I pray daily to Michael, but not to Lucifer. I have renounced him. But he is very much present, like in New York recently" (Stockhausen 2002, 76). The same journalist then asked how the events of 11 September had affected him, and how he viewed reports of the attack in connection with the harmony of humanity represented in ''Hymnen''. He answered:

Well, what happened there is, of course—now all of you must adjust your brains—the biggest work of art there has ever been. The fact that spirits achieve with one act something which we in music could never dream of, that people practise ten years madly, fanatically for a concert. And then die. [Hesitantly.] And that is the greatest work of art that exists for the whole Cosmos. Just imagine what happened there. There are people who are so concentrated on this single performance, and then five thousand people are driven to Resurrection. In one moment. I couldn't do that. Compared to that, we are nothing, as composers. [...] It is a crime, you know of course, because the people did not agree to it. They did not come to the "concert". That is obvious. And nobody had told them: "You could be killed in the process." (Stockhausen 2002, 76–77.)

(To see how the excerpt appeared out of its context, and in English translation, see Tommasini 2001.)

As a result of the reaction to the press report of Stockhausen's comments, a four-day festival of his work in Hamburg was canceled. In addition, his pianist daughter announced to the press that she would no longer appear under the name "Stockhausen" (Lentricchia and McAuliffe 2003, 7).

In a subsequent message, he stated that the press had published "false, defamatory reports" about his comments, and clarified as follows:

At the press conference in Hamburg, I was asked if Michael, Eve and Lucifer were historical figures of the past and I answered that they exist now, for example Lucifer in New York. In my work, I have defined Lucifer as the cosmic spirit of rebellion, of anarchy. He uses his high degree of intelligence to destroy creation. He does not know love. After further questions about the events in America, I said that such a plan appeared to be Lucifer's greatest work of art. Of course I used the designation "work of art" to mean the work of destruction personified in Lucifer. In the context of my other comments this was unequivocal. (Stockhausen 2001a)

Honours

Amongst the numerous honors and distinctions that were bestowed upon Stockhausen are:

1964 German gramophone critics award;

1966 and 1972 SIMC award for orchestral works (Italy);

1968 Grand Art Prize for Music of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia; Grand Prix du Disque (France); Member of the Free Academy of the Arts, Hamburg;

1968, 1969, and 1971 Edison Prize (Holland);

1970 Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music;

1973 Member of the Academy of the Arts, Berlin;

1974 Federal Cross of Merit, 1st class (Germany);

1977 Member of the Philharmonic Academy of Rome;

1979 Member of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters;

1980 Member of the European Academy of Science, Arts and Letters;

1981 Prize of the Italian music critics for ''Donnerstag aus Licht'';

1982 German gramophone prize (German Phonograph Academy);

1983 Diapason d'or (France) for ''Donnerstag aus Licht'';

1985 Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France);

1986 Ernst von Siemens Music Prize;

1987 Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music, London;

1988 Honorary Citizen of the Kuerten community (Gemeinde Kürten website);

1989 Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences;

1990 Prix Ars Electronica, Linz, Austria;

1991 Honorary Fellow of the Royal Irish Academy of Music; Accademico Onorario of the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Caecilia, Rome; Honorary Patron of Sound Projects Weimar;

1992 IMC-UNESCO Picasso Medal; Distinguished Service Medal of the German state North Rhine-Westphalia; German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of ''Luzifers Tanz'' (3rd scene of ''Saturday from Light'');

1993 Patron of the European Flute Festival; Diapason d'or for ''Klavierstücke I–XI'' and ''Mikrophonie I'' and ''II'';

1994 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score ''Jahreslauf'' (Act 1 of ''Tuesday from Light'');

1995 Honorary Member of the German Society for Electro-Acoustic Music; Bach Award of the city of Hamburg;

1996 Honorary doctorate (Dr. phil. h. c.) of the Free University of Berlin; Composer of the European Cultural Capital Copenhagen; Edison Prize (Holland) for ''Mantra''; Member of the Free Academy of the Arts Leipzig; Honorary Member of the Leipzig Opera; Cologne Culture Prize;

1997 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of ''Weltparlament'' (1st scene of ''Wednesday from Light''); Honorary member of the music ensemble LIM (Laboratorio de Interpretación Musical), Madrid;

1999 Entry in the Golden Book of the city of Cologne;

2000 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of ''Evas Erstgeburt'' (Act 1 of ''Monday from Light'');

2000–2001 The film ''In Absentia'' made by the Quay Brothers (England) to concrete and electronic music by Karlheinz Stockhausen won the Golden Dove (first prize) at the International Festival for Animated Film in Leipzig. More awards: Special Jury Mention, Montreal, FCMM 2000; Special Jury Award, Tampere 2000; Special Mention, Golden Prague Awards 2001; Honorary Diploma Award, Cracow 2001; Best Animated Short Film, 50th Melbourne International Film Festival 2001; Grand Prix, Turku Finland 2001;

2001 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score ''Helicopter String Quartet'' (3rd scene of ''Wednesday from Light''); Polar Music Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of the Arts;

2002 Honorary Patron of the Sonic Arts Network, England;

2003 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of ''Michaelion'' (4th scene of ''Wednesday from Light'');

2004 Associated member of the Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres & des Beaux-arts (Belgium); Honorary doctorate (Dr. phil. h. c.) of the Queen's University in Belfast; German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of ''Stop and Start'' for 6 instrumental groups;

2005 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of ''Hoch-Zeiten'' for choir (5th scene of ''Sunday from Light'').

2006 Honorary member of the Accademia Filarmonica di Bologna

2008 On 22 August, Stockhausen's birthday, the Rathausplatz in his home town of Kürten was renamed Karlheinz-Stockhausen-Platz in his honour (Bäumer 2008).

2009 German Music Publishers Society Award for the score of ''Momente'' for solo soprano, four choral groups, and 13 instrumentalists.

2010 The municipality of Kürten adopts the designation "Stockhausengemeinde" in honour of the late composer (Landschoof 2010).

Notable students

David Ahern

Maryanne Amacher

Gilbert Amy

Junsang Bahk

Clarence Barlow

Gerald Barry

Mary Bauermeister

Michael von Biel

Konrad Boehmer

Jean-Yves Bosseur

Karl Gottfried Brunotte

Boudewijn Buckinx

Cornelius Cardew

Stephen Chatman

Tom Constanten

Holger Czukay

Hugh Davies

Michel Decoust

Jean-Claude Éloy

Péter Eötvös

Julio Estrada

Johannes G. Fritsch

Renaud Gagneux

Rolf Gehlhaar

Jacob Gilboa

Gérard Grisey

Jon Hassell

York Höller

Eleanor Hovda

Nicolaus A. Huber

Alden Jenks

David C. Johnson

Will Johnson

Jonathan Kramer

Helmut Lachenmann

André Laporte

Mario Lavista

Henning Lohner

Luca Lombardi

Vincent McDermott

John McGuire

Jennifer Helen McLeod

Robin Maconie

Mesías Maiguashca

Pierre Mariétan

Tomás Marco

Gérard Masson

Paul Méfano

Costin Miereanu

Dary John Mizelle

Emmanuel Nunes

Gonzalo de Olavide

Jorge Peixinho

Robert H.P. Platz

Zoltán Pongrácz

Horaţiu Rădulescu

Wolfgang Rihm

Ingo Schmitt

Irmin Schmidt

Holger Schüring

Kurt Schwertsik

Gerald Shapiro

Makoto Shinohara

Roger Smalley

Avo Sõmer

Tim Souster

Atli Heimir Sveinsson

Zsigmond Szathmáry

Ivan Tcherepnin

Serge Tcherepnin

Gilles Tremblay

Stephen Truelove

Claude Vivier

Kevin Volans

Thomas Wells

La Monte Young

Hans Zender

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Peters, Günter. 1992. "Meditations Modulated: H. Heissenbüttel's 'Einfache Grammatische Meditationen' in K. Stockhausen's ''Mikrophonie II''. " German Literature and Music—An Aesthetic Fusion: 1890–1989, ed. C. Reschke and H. Pollock, Houston Germanic Studies 8, 247–61. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. Revised German edition 1993: "Die ringmodulierte Meditation: Helmut Heissenbüttels 'Einfache grammatische Meditationen' in Karlheinz Stockhausens ''Mikrophonie II''." In ''Musik-Konzepte 81: Autoren-Musik. Sprache im Grenzbereich der Künste'', 16–40. Munich: Edition Text+Kritik. Reprinted in Peters 2003, 27–62 (German) and 163–98 (English).

Peters, Günter. 2003. ''Heiliger Ernst im Spiel—Texte zur Musik von Karlheinz Stockhausen'' / ''Holy Seriousness in the Play—Essays on the Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen'' (bilingual edition, German and English). Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung für Musik. ISBN 9783000091827

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Prendergast, Mark. 2000. ''The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance—The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age''. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 1582341346.

Pynchon, Thomas. 1999. ''The Crying of Lot 49'' New York: HarperPerennial.

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Rigoni, Michel. 2001. ''Le rêve de Lucifer de Karlheinz Stockhausen''. La trace des silences. [Paris]: M. de Maule. ISBN 9782876231030.

Ritzel, Fred. 1970. ''Musik für ein Haus: Kompositionsstudio Karlheinz Stockhausen, Internationale Ferienkurse für Neue Musik, Darmstadt 1968''. Darmstädter Beiträge zur Neuen Musik 12, edited by Ernst Thomas. Mainz: B. Schott's Söhne.

Roads, Curtis. 2001. ''Microsound''. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 0262182157.

Romney, Jonathan. 2001. "The Barbican's Musical Jellyfish: Sound on Film Live". ''The Guardian'' (3 March).

Ross, Alex. 2004. "Björk's Saga". ''The New Yorker'' 80, no. 23 (23 August): 49–53 +55–59. .

Rudi, Jøran (editor), Flø, Asbjørn Blokkum, Schaathun, Asbjørn. 2008. ''Karlheinz Stockhausen – A Pioneer in Utopia''. Oslo: Notam. ISBN 978-82-996867-2-3.

Sabbe, Herman. 1981. "Die Einheit der Stockhausen-Zeit ...: Neue Erkenntnismöglichkeiten der seriellen Entwicklung anhand des frühen Wirkens von Stockhausen und Goeyvaerts. Dargestellt aufgrund der Briefe Stockhausens an Goevaerts". In ''Musik-Konzepte 19: Karlheinz Stockhausen: ... wie die Zeit verging ...'', edited by Heinz-Klaus Metzger and Rainer Riehn, 5–96. Munich: Edition Text + Kritik.

Schönberger, Elmer. 2001. "Andriessen: (4) Louis Andriessen". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.

Schwartz, Elliott, and Barney Childs, with Jim Fox. 1998. ''Contemporary Composers on Contemporary Music''. Expanded edition. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306808196

Shimizu, Minoru. 1999. "Stockhausen und Japan, Licht und Schatten". In ''Internationales Stockhausen-Symposion 1998: Musikwissenschaftliches Institut der Universität zu Köln, 11. bis 14. November 1998. Tagungsbericht'', edited by Imke Misch and Christoph von Blumröder, 87–94. Signale aus Köln: Beiträge zur Musik der Zeit 4. Saarbrücken: PFAU-Verlag. ISBN 3-89727-050-1.

Sigel, Paul. 2000. "Der deutsche Beitrag auf der Expo70 in Osaka." ''Arch plus'' no. 149–150 (April): 116–33. Reprinted online ''Thema'' 5, no. 1 (July 2000)

Skowron, Zbigniew. 1981. "Muzyka elektroniczna Karlheinza Stockhausena. Okres prób i doswiadczen" [Karlheinz Stockhausen's electronic music. A period of trials and experiences]. ''Muzyka: Kwartalnik Instytutu Sztuki Polskiej Akademii Nauk'' 26, nos. 3–4:17–40.

Stenzl, Jürg. 1991. "York Höller's 'The Master and Margarita': A German Opera." Translated by Sue Rose. ''Tempo'' New Series, no. 179 (December): 8–15.

Stephens, Suzanne, and Kathinka Pasveer (eds.). 2008. ''Gedenkschrift für Stockhausen''. Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung für Musik. ISBN 978-3-00-023528-3.

Stockhausen, Christel. 1978. "Stockhausens ''Tierkreis'': Einführung und Hinweise zur praktischen Aufführung." ''Melos'' 45/''Neue Zeitschrift für Musik'' 139 (July/August): 283–87. Reprinted together with an English trans. as "Stockhausen's ZODIAC, Introduction and Instructions for Performance Practice", in a booklet now included with the score of ''Tierkreis''.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. ''Texte zur Musik''. 10 vols. Vols. 1–3 edited by Dieter Schnebel; vols. 4–10 edited by Christoph von Blumröder. Vols. 1–3, Cologne: Verlag M. DuMont Schauberg (1963, 1964, 1971); vols. 4–6 DuMont Buchverlag (1978, 1989, 1989). Vols. 7–10 Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag (1998). English edition, as ''Texts on Music'', edited by Jerome Kohl, with translations by Jerome Kohl, Richard Toop, Tim Nevill, Suzanne Stephens, et al. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag, in preparation.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1962. "The Concept of Unity in Electronic Music". Translated by Elaine Barkin. ''Perspectives of New Music'' 1, no. 1 (Autumn): 39–48.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1989a. ''Stockhausen on Music: Lectures and Interviews'', edited by Robin Maconie. London and New York: Marion Boyars. ISBN 0-7145-2887-0 (cloth) ISBN 0-7145-2918-4 (pbk).

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1989b. ''Towards a Cosmic Music''. Texts selected and translated by Tim Nevill. Shaftsbury: Element Books. ISBN 1852300841.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1996a. "Electroacoustic Performance Practice". ''Perspectives of New Music'' 34, no. 1 (Fall): 74–105.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1996b. "Kino-Bilder". In ''Bilder vom Kino: Literarische Kabinettstücke'', edited by Wolfram Schütte, 138–40. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1996c. "Helikopter-Streichquartett". ''Grand Street'' 14, no. 4 (Spring, "Grand Street 56: Dreams"):213–25. ISBN 1-885490-07-0. Online Variant of this text (some omissions, some supplements, different illustrations).

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1998. "Bildung ist große Arbeit: Karlheinz Stockhausen im Gespräch mit Studierenden des Musikwissenschaftlichen Instituts der Universität zu Köln am 5. Februar 1997." In ''Stockhausen 70: Das Programmbuch Köln 1998''. Signale aus Köln: Musik der Zeit 1, edited by Imke Misch and Christoph von Blumröder, 1–36. Saarbrücken: Pfau-Verlag.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1999. ''Stockhausen-Kurse Kürten 1999: Kompositions-Kurs: Skizzen von'' Welt-Parlament'' (1995) für Chor a capella (mit singenden Dirigenten/Klangregisseur (1. Szene vom Mittwoch aus Licht)''. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2001a. "Message from Professor Karlheinz Stockhausen" (Accessed 27 December 2007).

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2001b. ''Stockhausen Courses Kürten 2001: Composition Course on'' Lights-Waters (Sunday Greeting)'' for Soprano, Tenor, and orchestra with synthesizer (1999)''. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2002. "„Huuuh!“ Das Pressegespräch am 16. September 2001 im Senatszimmer des Hotel Atlantic in Hamburg". ''MusikTexte'' no. 91:69–77.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2003. ''Stockhausen Courses Kürten 2003: Composition Course on'' Hoch-Zeiten (of Sunday from Light)'' for Choir (2001/02)''. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2007a. "''Cosmic Pulses'': Electronic Music." (Accessed 30 March 2008) In programme book for the world première. Rome (8 May). Slightly expanded version in ''2007 Stockhausen-Kurse Kürten: Programm zu den Interpretations- und Kompositionskursen und Konzerten der Musik von / Programme for the Interpretation and Composition Courses and Concerts of the Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, 7. Juli bis 15. Juli 2007 in Kürten / from July 7th to 15th 2007 in Kuerten'', notes for the German première on 13 July 2007, pp. 22 (German text) and 40 (English text), with illustrations divided between those pages and the programme cover. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2007b. "Harmonien/Harmonies for Bass Clarinet (2006)". In ''2007 Stockhausen-Kurse Kürten: Programm zu den Interpretations- und Kompositionskursen und Konzerten der Musik von / Programme for the Interpretation and Composition Courses and Concerts of the Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, 7. Juli bis 15. Juli 2007 in Kürten / from July 7th to 15th 2007 in Kuerten'', notes for the German première on 11 July 2007, pp. 33–34. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag. Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2007c. "Harmonien/Harmonies for Flute (2006): 5th Hour of Klang / Sound, The 24 Hours of the Day". In ''2007 Stockhausen-Kurse Kürten: Programm zu den Interpretations- und Kompositionskursen und Konzerten der Musik von / Programme for the Interpretation and Composition Courses and Concerts of the Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, 7. Juli bis 15. Juli 2007 in Kürten / from July 7th to 15th 2007 in Kuerten'', notes for the German première on 13 July 2007, p. 36. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag.

Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 2009. ''Kompositorische Grundlagen Neuer Musik: Sechs Seminare für die Darmstädter Ferienkurse 1970'', edited by Imke Misch. Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung für Musik. ISBN 978-3-00-027313-1

Stockhausen, Karlheinz, Hermann Conen, and Jochen Hennlich. 1989. "Before and After ''Samstag aus Licht'': Conversation of 24 May 1984, in Milan." Translated by Karin von Abrams. ''Contemporary Music Review'' 5, no. 1:267–97.

Stockhausen, Markus. 1998. "Markus Stockhausen plays Karlheinz Stockhausen", notes on pp. 13–17 of booklet to CD recording, ''Markus Stockhausen plays Karlheinz Stockhausen: Aries, In Freundschaft, Halt, Pietà''. EMI Classics 7243 5 56645 2 5.

Stockhausen-Stiftung. 2007. ''Stockhausen Aufführungen/Performances 2007''. Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung.

Stockhausen-Stiftung. 2008. ''Stockhausen Aufführungen/Performances 2008''. Kürten: Stockhausen-Stiftung.

Stockhausen-Verlag. 2010. ''Stockhausen August 22nd 1928 – 5 December 5th 2007'', English edition of brochure with official worklist and list of CDs. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag.

Straus, Joseph N. 1997. "Babbitt and Stravinsky under the Serial 'Regime'" ''Perspectives of New Music'' 35, no. 2 (Summer): 17–32.

Straus, Joseph N. 2001. ''Stravinsky's Late Music''. Cambridge Studies in Music Theory and Analysis 16. New York: Cambridge University Press 33–35. ISBN 0521802202

Stravinsky, Igor. 1984. ''Selected Correspondence'', vol. 2. Edited and with commentaries by Robert Craft. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Stravinsky, Igor, and Robert Craft. 1960. ''Memories and Commentaries''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Stravinsky, Igor, and Robert Craft. 1980. ''Conversations with Stravinsky''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0520040406 (Reprint of the 1959 Doubleday edition).

Tannenbaum, Mya. 1987. ''Conversations with Stockhausen'', translated from the Italian by David Butchart. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-315467-6.

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Toop, Richard. 1998. "Mondrian, Fibonacci . . . und Stockausen: Mass und Zahl in ''Adieu''". ''Neue Zeitschrift für Musik'' 159, no. 4 (July–August): 31–35.

Toop, Richard. 2001. "Karlheinz Stockhausen". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'' ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.

Toop, Richard. 2005. ''Six Lectures from the Stockhausen Courses Kürten 2002''. Stockhausen-Verlag. ISBN 3–00–016–185–6.

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Truelove, Stephen. 1984. "Karlheinz Stockhausen's ''Klavierstück XI'': An Analysis of Its Composition via a Matrix System of Serial Polyphony and the Translation of Rhythm into Pitch." DMA diss. Norman: University of Oklahoma.

Truelove, Stephen. 1998. "The Translation of Rhythm into Pitch in Stockhausen's ''Klavierstück XI''." ''Perspectives of New Music'' 36, no. 1 (Winter): 189–220.

Tsahar, Assif. 2006. "Gentle Giant". ''Haaretz'' [Tel Aviv] (17 March).

Ulrich, Thomas. 2006. ''Neue Musik aus religiösem Geist: theologisches Denken im Werk von Karlheinz Stockhausen und John Cage''. Saarbrücken: Pfau. ISBN 9783897273283

Vermeil, Jean. 1996. ''Conversations with Boulez: Thoughts on Conducting'', translated by Camille Nash, with a selection of programs conducted by Boulez and a discography by Paul Griffiths. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press.

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Wager, Gregg. 1998. "Symbolism as a Compositional Method in the Works of Karlheinz Stockhausen. College Park, Maryland; diss. phil. Free University Berlin, 1996.

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Witts, Dick. 1995. "Karlheinz Stockhausen: Advice to Clever Children ...". ''The Wire'', issue 141 (November).

Wolfson, Richard. 2001. "Hit and mismatch" ''The Telegraph'' (5 March).

Wörner, Karl Heinz. 1973. ''Stockhausen: Life and Work''. Translated by Bill Hopkins. Berkeley: University of California Press.

External links

Karlheinz Stockhausen official site

The Stockhausen Society (International)

Catalogues of works by Stockhausen (Stockhausen Verlag)

Comprehensive Stockhausen Discography

Ingvar Loco Nordin’s Stockhausen pages

;Listening

Stockhausen website video and audio files

Epitonic.com: Karlheinz Stockhausen featuring tracks from ''Mantra''

Excerpts from sound archives of Stockhausen's works

;Obituaries [Editor]. 2007. “Karlheinz Stockhausen.” ''The Times'' (8 December). Ircam-Centre Pompidou, and François Decarsin. 2007. Karlheinz Stockhausen: Compositeur allemand né le 22 août 1928 à Mödrath, près de Cologne, et décédé le 5 décembre 2007, à Kürten, où il vivait. (10 December). Nonnenmann, Rainer. 2007. “In Kürten zu Hause – und im Universum.” ''Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger'' (7 December).

;Interviews

Weasel, Gary. 2007. “Looping the Loop: Karlheinz Stockhausen.” ''Dazed Digital'' (31 May).

;Further reading

Austin, Kevin. 2010. “Kontakte by Karlheinz Stockhausen in Four Channels.” ''eContact! 12.4 – Perspectives on the Electroacoustic Work / Perspectives sur l’œuvre électroacoustique'' (August). Montréal: CEC.

Betsill, Daniel Joseph. 2007. The construction of Stockhausen’s Heaven’s Door.

Covell, Grant Chu. 2000. “Stockhausen is Invisible.” ''La Folia'' 3/1 (November).

Covell, Grant Chu. 2007. “Ferneyhough & Stockhausen: Grubby and Gruppen.” ''La Folia'' (April).

Essl, Karlheinz 1989. “Aspekte des Seriellen bei Karlheinz Stockhausen.” First appeared in Lothar Knessl (Ed.) ''WIEN MODERN ’89'', pp. 90–97. Vienna.

Föllmer, Golo. [n.d.] “Karlheinz Stockhausen: «Spherical Concert Hall»” (Osaka World Expo, 1970). Medien Kunst Net / Media Art Net.

Category:1928 births Category:2007 deaths Category:People from Kerpen Category:20th-century classical composers Category:21st-century classical composers Category:People from the Rhine Province Category:University of Bonn alumni Category:German composers Category:Opera composers Category:Experimental composers Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music Category:New Age musicians Category:Alumni of the Cologne University of Music Category:Electroacoustic music composers Category:Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Category:Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Category:Nonesuch Records artists Category:EMI Classics artists Category:Deutsche Grammophon artists Category:Electronic musicians

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