Coordinates	55°45′06″N37°37′04″N
name	Augustine of Hippo| birth_dateNovember 13, 354
death date	August 28, 430
feast day	August 28 (Western Christianity)June 15 (Eastern Christianity)November 4 (Assyrian)
venerated in	Catholic ChurchAssyrian Church of the EastEastern OrthodoxyOriental OrthodoxyAnglican CommunionLutheranismAglipayan Church
birth place	Thagaste, Numidia (now Souk Ahras, Algeria)
death place	Hippo Regius, Numidia (now modern-day Annaba, Algeria)
titles	Bishop, Confessor, Doctor of the Church
attributes	child; dove; pen; shell, pierced heart, holding book with a small church, bishop's staff, miter
patronage	brewers; printers; theologiansBridgeport, Connecticut; Cagayan de Oro, Philippines;
influences	Saint Monica, Plotinus, Ambrose, Anthony the Great, Saint Paul, Plato
influenced	Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, John Calvin, Martin Luther, René Descartes, Cornelius Jansen, Nicolas Malebranche, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Antonio Negri, Jean-Paul Sartre, Saint Bonaventure
major works	''Confessions of St. Augustine''''City of God''''On Christian Doctrine''
major shrine	San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia, Italy }}

Augustine of Hippo ( or ; ) (November 13, 354 – August 28, 430), also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius (present-day Annaba, Algeria). He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province. His writings were very influential in the development of Western Christianity.

According to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith". In his early years he was heavily influenced by Manichaeism and afterward by the Neo-Platonism of Plotinus. After his conversion to Christianity and baptism (AD 387), Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and different perspectives. He believed that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, and he framed the concepts of original sin and just war.

When the Western Roman Empire was starting to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God (in a book of the same name), distinct from the material Earthly City. His thought profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Augustine's ''City of God'' was closely identified with the church, the community that worshipped God.

In the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, he is a saint and pre-eminent Doctor of the Church, and the patron of the Augustinian religious order; his memorial is celebrated 28 August, the day of his death. He is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists, consider him to be one of the theological fathers of Reformation due to his teaching on salvation and divine grace. In the Eastern Orthodox Church he is blessed, and his feast day is celebrated on 15 June. Among the Orthodox, he is called "Blessed Augustine", or "St. Augustine the Blessed".

Life

Early childhood

Augustine was born in 354 to a pagan father named Patricius and a Christian mother named Monica in the municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in Roman Africa. Regarding his ethnic origins, there is a consensus among scholars that his origins represented an intermingling of the main North African peoples, that is Berbers, Latins and Phoenicians. Augustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests that his father's ancestors were freedmen of the ''gens Aurelia'' given full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born. It is assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name, but as his family were ''honestiores'', Augustine's first language is likely to have been Latin. At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus (now M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about 19 miles south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and practices. While at home in 369 and 370, he read Cicero's dialogue ''Hortensius'' (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression on him and sparking his interest in philosophy.

Studying at Carthage

At age 17, through the generosity of fellow citizen Romanianus, Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric. Although raised as a Christian, Augustine left the church to follow the Manichaean religion, much to the despair of his mother. As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their experience with the opposite sex and urged the inexperienced boys, like Augustine, to seek out experiences with women or to make up stories about experiences in order to gain acceptance and avoid ridicule. At a young age, he began an affair with a young woman in Carthage. She was his lover for over thirteen years and gave birth to his son Adeodatus.

Teaching rhetoric

During the years 373 and 374, Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric, and would remain there for the next nine years. Disturbed by the unruly behavior of the students in Carthage, in 383 he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced. However, Augustine was disappointed with the Roman schools, where he was met with apathy. Once the time came for his students to pay their fees they simply fled. Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked to provide a professor of rhetoric for the imperial court at Milan.

Augustine won the job and headed north to take up his position in late 384. At the age of thirty, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world – at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers. During this period, although Augustine showed some fervor for Manichaeism, he was never an initiate or "elect" but remained an "auditor", the lowest level in the sect's hierarchy.

While he was in Milan, Augustine's life changed. While still at Carthage, he had begun to move away from Manichaeism, in part because of a disappointing meeting with the Manichean Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of Manichaean theology. In Rome, he is reported to have completely turned away from Manichaeanism, and instead embraced the skepticism of the New Academy movement. At Milan, his mother pressured him to become a Christian. Augustine's own studies in Neoplatonism were also leading him in this direction, and his friend Simplicianus urged him that way as well. But it was the bishop of Milan, Ambrose, who had most influence over Augustine. Ambrose was a master of rhetoric like Augustine himself, but older and more experienced.

Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and he allowed her to arrange a society marriage, for which he abandoned his concubine. It is believed that Augustine truly loved the woman he had lived with for so long. In his "Confessions," he expressed how deeply he was hurt by ending this relationship, and also admitted that the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain over time. However, he had to wait two years until his fiancee came of age, so despite the grief he felt over leaving "The One", as he called her, he soon took another concubine. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancee, but never renewed his relationship with "The One" and soon left his second concubine. It was during this period that he uttered his famous prayer, "Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet" (''da mihi castitatem et continentiam, sed noli modo'').

Christian conversion

In the summer of 386, after having read an account of the life of Saint Anthony of the Desert, which greatly inspired him, Augustine underwent a profound personal crisis, leading him to convert to Christianity, abandon his career in rhetoric, quit his teaching position in Milan, give up any ideas of marriage, and devote himself entirely to serving God and to the practices of priesthood, which included celibacy. According to Augustine his conversion was prompted by a childlike voice he heard telling him in a sing-song voice, "''tolle, lege''" ("take up and read"):

The volume Augustine read was Paul's Epistle to the Romans (Romans 13: 13-14). He wrote an account of his conversion in his ''Confessions'', which became a classic of Christian theology. Ambrose baptized Augustine, along with his son, Adeodatus, on Easter Vigil in 387 in Milan, and a year later they returned to Africa. Also in 388 he completed his ''apology'' ''On the Holiness of the Catholic Church''. On the way back to Africa Augustine's mother died, and Adeodatus soon after.

Priesthood

Upon his return to north Africa Augustine sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. The only thing he kept was the family house, which he converted into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of friends. In 391 he was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius (now Annaba, in Algeria). He became a famous preacher (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean religion, to which he had formerly adhered.

In 395 he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo, and became full Bishop shortly thereafter. He remained in this position until his death in 430. Augustine worked tirelessly in trying to convince the people of Hippo to convert to Christianity. He left his monastery, but continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. He left a ''regula'' his monastery that has led him to be designated the "patron saint of regular clergy"

Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-day Guelma, Algeria), in his ''Sancti Augustini Vita''. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.

Death

Shortly before Augustine's death, Roman Africa was invaded by the Vandals, a Germanic tribe that that had converted to Arianism. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430, when Augustine entered his final illness. According to Possidius one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine took place during the siege. While Augustine was confined to his sick bed, a man petitioned him that he might lay his hands upon a relative who was ill. Augustine replied that if he had any power to cure the sick, he would surely have applied it on himself first. The visitor declared that he was told in a dream to go to Augustine so that his relative would be made whole. When Augustine heard this, he no longer hesitated, but laid his hands upon the sick man, who departed from Augustine's presence healed.

Possidius also gives a first-hand account of Augustine's death, which occurred on August 28, 430, while Hippo was still besieged. Augustine spent his final days in prayer and repentance, requesting that the penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so that he could read them. He directed that the library of the church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved. Shortly after his death the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, but they returned not long thereafter and burned the city. They destroyed all of it but Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched.

According to Bede's ''True Martyrology'', Augustine's body was later removed to Cagliari, Sardinia by the Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric. Around 720 his remains were moved again by Peter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, in order to save them from frequent coastal raids by Moors and Berbers. In January 1327 Pope John XXII issued the papal bull ''Veneranda Santorum Patrum'', in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine, which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-treliefs of scenes from Augustine's life. By that time, however, the actual remains of Augustine could not be authenticated. Stonemasons working in the crypt altar removed paving blocks and discovered a marble box. Within it were other boxes; in the third box were fragments of wood, numerous bones and bone fragments, and glass vials. Some of the workers later claimed to have seen the name "Augustine" written in charcoal on the top of the box. A factor complicating the authentication of the remains was that San Pietro was shared by two Augustinian religious orders in bitter rivalry. The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1700, taking refuge in Milan with the relics of Augustine, and the disassembled Arca, which were removed to the cathedral there. San Pietro fell into disrepair and was a military magazine during the Napoleonic occupation of the city. It was finally rebuilt in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.

Works

name	Augustine of Hippo
region	West
era	Ancient/Medieval
nationality	Roman
titles	Bishop; Theologian; Philosopher
tradition movement	Platonism, Neoplatonism, Christian philosophy, Stoicism
influences	Paul, Ambrose, Plato, Aristotle, Mani, Cicero, Virgil, Plotinus
influenced	Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Bernard of Clairvaux, Hugh of Saint Victor, Martin Luther, John Calvin, René Descartes, Cornelius Jansen, Nicolas Malebranche, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Antonio Negri, Jean-Paul Sartre, Modern Phenomenology and Hermeneutics }}

Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than a hundred separate titles. Please see a near-exhaustive list below. They include apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians, Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians, texts on Christian doctrine, notably ''De Doctrina Christiana'' (''On Christian Doctrine''), exegetical works such as commentaries on Book of Genesis, the Psalms and Paul's Letter to the Romans, many sermons and letters, and the ''Retractationes'' (''Retractions''), a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life. Apart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his ''Confessiones'' (''Confessions''), which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for ''De civitate dei'' (''Of the City of God'', consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His ''De trinitate'' (''On the Trinity''), in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also among his masterpieces, and arguably one of the greatest theological works of all time. He also wrote ''On Free Choice Of The Will'' (''De libero arbitrio''), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil.

Influence as a theologian and thinker

Augustine was a bishop, priest, and father who remains a central figure, both within Christianity and in the history of Western thought, and is considered by modern historian Thomas Cahill to be the first medieval man and the last classical man. In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, he was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neo-platonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). Although he later abandoned Neoplatonism some ideas are still visible in his early writings. His generally favourable view of Neoplatonic thought contributed to the "baptism" of Greek thought and its entrance into the Christian and subsequently the European intellectual tradition. His early and influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. In addition, Augustine was influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), Cicero (known for his teaching on argument), and Aristotle (particularly his Rhetoric and Poetics).

Augustine's concept of original sin was expounded in his works against the Pelagians. However, St. Thomas Aquinas took much of Augustine's theology while creating his own unique synthesis of Greek and Christian thought after the widespread rediscovery of the work of Aristotle. Augustine's doctrine of efficacious grace found eloquent expression in the works of Bernard of Clairvaux; also Reformation theologians such as Martin Luther and John Calvin would look back to him as their inspiration.

Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII. His feast day is August 28, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.

The latter part of Augustine's ''Confessions'' consists of an extended meditation on the nature of time. Even the agnostic philosopher Bertrand Russell was impressed by this. He wrote, "a very admirable relativistic theory of time. ... It contains a better and clearer statement than Kant's of the subjective theory of time - a theory which, since Kant, has been widely accepted among philosophers." Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists outside of time in the "eternal present"; that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study ''The Art of Memory'' argues that a brief passage of the ''Confessions'', 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts of information.

Augustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his ''Confessions'', has had continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and hermeneutics. Edmund Husserl writes: "The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem." Martin Heidegger refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work, ''Being and Time''. Hannah Arendt began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, ''Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin'' (1929): "The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for ''vita socialis'' in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity." Jean Bethke Elshtain in ''Augustine and the Limits of Politics'' finds likeness between Augustine and Arendt in their concepts of evil: "Augustine did not see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which produced the Holocaust as merely banal [in ''Eichmann in Jerusalem'']." Augustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these 20th century figures.

According to Leo Ruickbie, Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against paganism and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and Eco-fundamentalism.

Influence on St. Thomas Aquinas

For quotations of St. Augustine by St. Thomas Aquinas see Aquinas and the Sacraments and Thought of Thomas Aquinas.

On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the Fall.

Influence on Protestant reformers

While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty (see total depravity).

Theology

Abortion and ensoulment

Like other Church Fathers, St Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced abortion" as a crime, in any stage of pregnancy, although he accepted the distinction between "formed" and "unformed" foetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation of , a text that, he observed, did not classify as murder the abortion of an "unformed" foetus, since it could not be said with certainty that it had already received a soul.

Anthropology

Augustine was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with very clear anthropological vision. He saw the human being as a perfect unity of two substances: soul and body. In his late treatise ''On Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5'' (420 AD) he exhorted to respect the body on the grounds that it belonged to the very nature of the human person: Augustine's favourite figure to describe ''body-soul'' unity is marriage: ''caro tua, coniunx tua - your body is your wife''. Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the fall of humanity they are now experiencing dramatic combat between one another.

They are two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial dimensions. Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body. Augustine was not preoccupied, as Plato and Descartes were, with going too much into details in efforts to explain the metaphysics of the soul-body union. It suffices for him to admit that they are metaphysically distinct; to be a human is to be a composite of soul and body, and that the soul is superior to the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierarchical classification of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.

Astrology

Augustine's contemporaries often believed astrology to be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were regarded as true men of learning and called ''mathemathici''. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichean doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the future. Later as a bishop he used to warn that one should avoid 'mathematicians' who combine science and horoscopes. According to Augustine, they were not genuine students of Hipparchus or Eratosthenes but "common swindlers":

Baptism

Against the Pelagians Augustine strongly stressed the importance of infant baptism. About the question if baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation however, Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his position. He said in one of his sermons:

This belief was shared by many early Christians.

However, a passage from his ''City of God'', concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate that Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents:

Creation

In "''The Literal Interpretation of Genesis''" Augustine took the view that everything in the universe was created simultaneously by God, and not in seven calendar days like a plain account of Genesis would require. He argued that the six-day structure of creation presented in the book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather than the passage of time in a physical way - it would bear a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in Sirach 18:1, ''creavit omni simul'' ("he created all things at once"), which Augustine took as proof that the days of Genesis 1 had to be taken non-literally. At the same time, however, Augustine did not hold to an age of the earth of millions or more years, as the quotation below from ''The City of God'' indicates. Augustine also does not envision original sin as originating structural changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies of Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the Fall. Apart from his specific views, Augustine recognizes that the interpretation of the creation story is difficult, and remarks that we should be willing to change our mind about it as new information comes up.

In "''City of God''", Augustine rejected both the immortality of the human race proposed by pagans, and contemporary ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed from the Church's sacred writings:

Ecclesiology

Augustine developed his doctrine of The Church principally in reaction to the Donatist sect. He taught a distinction between the "church visible" and "church invisible". The former is the institutional body on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the sacraments while the latter is the invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, and who are known only to God. The visible church will be made up of "wheat" and "tares", that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist claim that they were the only "true" or "pure" church on earth.

Augustine's ecclesiology was more fully developed in ''City of God''. There he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that the bishops of the church are the successors of the apostles.

Eschatology

Augustine originally believed that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection (premillennialism or chiliasm) but rejected the system as carnal. He was the first theologian to systematically expound a doctrine of amillennialism, although some theologians and Christian historians believe his position was closer to that of modern postmillennialists. The mediaeval Catholic church built its system of eschatology on Augustinian amillennialism, where the Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church. At the Reformation, theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism while rejecting aspects of mediaeval ecclesiology which had been built on Augustine's teaching.

Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death, and that purgatorial fires of the intermediate state purify only those that died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology. In contrast to Plato and other earlier philosophers, Augustine recognizes the centrality of testimony to human knowledge and argues that what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we don't have independent reasons to believe their testimonial reports.

Intercession of the Saints

In his book ''Confessions'', Augustine wrote of a peculiar practice of his Christian mother, Monica, in which she "brought to certain oratories, erected in the memory of the saints, offerings of porridge, bread, and wine." When she moved to Milan, the bishop Ambrose forbade her to use the offering of wine, since "it might be an occasion of gluttony for those who were already given to drink". So, Augustine wrote of her:

Just war

Augustine agreed strongly with the conventional wisdom of the time, that Christians should be pacifists in their personal lives. But he routinely argued that this did not apply to the defense of innocents. In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting to preserve it in the long-term. Such a war could not be preemptive, but defensive, to restore peace.

Thomas Aquinas, centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just:

First, war must occur for a good and just purpose rather than for self-gain or as an exercise of power.

Second, just war must be waged by a properly instituted authority such as the state.

Third, peace must be a central motive even in the midst of violence.

Mariology

Although Augustine did not develop an independent Mariology, his statements on Mary surpass in number and depth those of other early writers. Even before the Council of Ephesus, he defended the ever Virgin Mary as the Mother of God, who, because of her virginity, is full of grace. Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary ''“conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever”''.

Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation

Augustine took the view that the Biblical text should not be interpreted as properly literal, but rather as metaphorical, if it contradicts what we know from science and our God-given reason. While each passage of Scripture has a literal sense, this "literal sense" does not always mean that the Scriptures are mere history; at times they are rather an extended metaphor. In ''The Literal Interpretation of Genesis'', St. Augustine wrote:

A more clear distinction between "metaphorical" and "literal" in literary texts arose with the rise of the Scientific Revolution, although its source could be found in earlier writings, such as those of Herodotus (5th century BC). It was even considered heretical to interpret the Bible literally at times.

Original sin

Augustine taught that Original sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of ''foolishness'' (''insipientia'') followed by ''pride'' and ''disobedience'' to God or the opposite: pride came first. The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17). The tree was a symbol of the order of creation. Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values. They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom, if Satan hadn't sown into their senses ''"the root of evil"'' (''radix Mali''). Their nature was wounded by ''concupiscence'' or ''libido'', which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. In terms of Metaphysics, ''concupiscence'' is not a being but bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.

Augustine's understanding of the consequences of the original sin and of necessity of the redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against Pelagius and his pelagian disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum, who had been inspired by Rufinus of Syria, a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia. They refused to agree that ''libido'' wounded human will and mind, insisting that the human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not to act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it. Like Jovinian, pelagians insisted that human affections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, ''e.g.'' fornication, is exclusively a matter of will, ''i.e.'' a person does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposition to that, Augustine pointed out to the apparent disobedience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as one of the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God:

Augustine had served as a "Hearer" for the Manicheans for about nine years, who taught that the original sin was carnal knowledge. But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the age of nineteen. By ''malum'' (''evil'') he understood most of all ''concupiscence'', which he interpreted as a vice dominating person and causing in men and women moral disorder. A. Trapè insists that Augustine's personal experience cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupiscence. His marriage experience, though Christian marriage celebration was missing, was exemplary, very normal and by no means specifically sad. As J. Brachtendorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of passions, to interpret St. Paul's doctrine of universal sin and redemption.

The view that not only human soul but also senses were influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in Augustine's time among the Fathers of the Church. It is clear that the reason of Augustine's distance towards the affairs of the flesh was different than that of Plotinus, a neo-Platonist who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind. Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.

Some authors perceive Augustine's doctrine as directed against human sexuality and attribute his insistence on continence and devotion to God as coming from Augustine's need to reject his own highly sensual nature as described in the Confessions. But in view of his writings it is apparently a misunderstanding. Augustine teaches that human sexuality has been wounded, together with the whole of human nature, and requires redemption of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the grace of the sacrament of Christian marriage, which becomes therefore a ''remedium concupiscentiae'' - remedy of concupiscence. The redemption of human sexuality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the resurrection of the body.

The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin was transmitted by concupiscence, which he regarded as the passion of both, soul and body, making humanity a ''massa damnata'' (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.

Augustine's formulation of the doctrine of original sin was confirmed at numerous councils, ''i.e.'' Carthage (418), Ephesus (431), Orange (529), Trent (1546) and by popes, ''i.e.'' Pope Innocent I (401–417) and Pope Zosimus (417–418). Anselm of Canterbury established in his ''Cur Deus Homo'' the definition that was followed by the great Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the "privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess", thus interpreting ''concupiscence'' as something more than mere sexual lust, with which some Augustine's disciples had defined it as later did Luther and Calvin, a doctrine condemned in 1567 by Pope Pius V. Augustine's doctrine about the ''liberum arbitrium'' or free will and its inability to respond to the will of God without divine grace is interpreted (mistakenely according to Roman Catholics) in terms of Predestination: grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance. The Calvinist view of Augustine's teachings rests on the assertion that God has foreordained, from eternity, those who will be saved. The number of the elect is fixed. God has chosen the elect certainly and gratuitously, without any previous merit (''ante merita'') on their part.

The Catholic Church considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will. He often said that any can be saved if they wish. While God knows who will be saved and who will not, with no possibility that one destined to be lost will be saved, this knowledge represents God's perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies.

Sacramental theology

Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the "regularity" and "validity" of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (''ex opere operato''); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised.

Eucharist

Convinced of the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, Augustine made the following logical observation regarding this sacrament: "Christ was carried in his own hands when, referring to his own body, he said, ‘This is my body’ [Matt. 26:26]. For he carried that body in his hands."

In a sermon addressed to new Christians, Augustine explicitly described the bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ. :I promised you [new Christians], who have now been baptized, a sermon in which I would explain the sacrament of the Lord’s Table. . . . That bread which you see on the altar, having been sanctified by the word of God, is the body of Christ. That chalice, or rather, what is in that chalice, having been sanctified by the word of God, is the blood of Christ.

:What you see is the bread and the chalice; that is what your own eyes report to you. But what your faith obliges you to accept is that the bread is the body of Christ and the chalice is the blood of Christ. This has been said very briefly, which may perhaps be sufficient for faith; yet faith does not desire instruction".

Soteriology

Augustine made several statements concerning his views on the limitations of the atonement, such as:

Statements on Jews

Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered that God had chosen the Jews as a special people, and he considered the scattering of Jews by the Roman Empire to be a fulfillment of prophecy.

Augustine also quotes part of the same prophecy that says "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law" (Psalm 59:11). Augustine argued that God had allowed the Jews to survive this dispersion as a warning to Christians, thus they were to be permitted to dwell in Christian lands. Augustine further argued that the Jews would be converted at the end of time.

Views on lust

Augustine struggled with lust throughout his life. He had a mistress before he converted, but once he became a Christian, he condemned all forms of extra-marital sex (including his previous relationship with his mistress), considering them unlawful and unbiblical. In the ''Confessions'', Augustine describes his personal struggle in vivid terms: "But I, wretched, most wretched, in the very commencement of my early youth, had begged chastity of Thee, and said, 'Grant me chastity and continence, only not yet.'" At sixteen Augustine moved to Carthage where again he was plagued by this "wretched sin":

For Augustine, the evil was not in the sexual act itself, but rather in the emotions that typically accompany it. In ''On Christian Doctrine'' Augustine contrasts love and lust:

Here we can see the theoretical resolution of the struggle documented in ''Confessions'': that proper love exercises a denial of selfish pleasure and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God.

To the pious virgins raped during the sack of Rome, he writes, "Truth, another's lust cannot pollute thee." Chastity is "a virtue of the mind, and is not lost by rape, but is lost by the intention of sin, even if unperformed."

Augustine viewed erections themselves as involuntary: ''at times, without intention, the body stirs on its own, insistent; at other times, it leaves a straining lover in the lurch.''

In short, Augustine's life experience led him to consider lust to be one of the most grievous sins, and a serious obstacle to the virtuous life.

Teaching philosophy

Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. He introduced the theory of three different categories of students, and instructed teachers to adapt their teaching styles to each student's individual learning style. The three different kinds of students are: the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers; the student who has had no education; and the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated. If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material which they do not yet know thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of student the difference between "having words and having understanding," and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge.

Another radical idea which Augustine introduced is the idea of teachers responding positively to the questions they may receive from their students, no matter if the student interrupted his teacher. Augustine also founded the ''restrained'' style of teaching. This teaching style ensures the students' full understanding of a concept because the teacher does not bombard the student with too much material; focuses on one topic at a time; helps them discover what they don't understand, rather than moving on too quickly; anticipates questions; and helps them learn to solve difficulties and find solutions to problems. Yet another of Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students. The ''mixed style'' includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The ''grand style'' is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts.

Augustine balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based practice of strict discipline. For example, he agreed with using punishment as an incentive for children to learn. He believed all people tend toward evil, and students must therefore be physically punished when they allow their evil desires to direct their actions.

List of Works (books, letters and sermons)

''On Christian Doctrine'' (, 397-426)

''Confessions'' (''Confessiones'', 397-398)

''City of God'' (''De civitate Dei'', begun ca. 413, finished 426)

''On the Trinity (''De trinitate'', 400-416)

''Enchiridion'' (''Enchiridion ad Laurentium, seu de fide, spe et caritate'')

''Retractions'' (''Retractationes''): At the end of his life (ca. 426-428) Augustine revisited his previous works in chronological order. The English translation of the title has led some to assume that at the end of his career, Augustine retreated from his earlier theological positions. In fact, the Latin title literally means 're-treatments" (not "Retractions") and though in this work Augustine suggested what he would have said differently, it provides little in the way of actual "retraction." It does, however, give the reader a rare picture of the development of a writer and his final thoughts.

''The Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (''De Genesi ad litteram'')

''On Free Choice of the Will'' (''De libero arbitrio'')

''On the Catechising of the Uninstructed'' (''De catechizandis rudibus'')

''On Faith and the Creed'' (''De fide et symbolo'')

''Concerning Faith of Things Not Seen'' (''De fide rerum invisibilium'')

''On the Profit of Believing'' (''De utilitate credendi'')

''On the Creed: A Sermon to Catechumens'' (''De symbolo ad catechumenos'')

''On Continence'' (''De continentia'')

''On the teacher'' (''De magistro'')

''On the Good of Marriage'' (''De bono coniugali'')

''On Holy Virginity'' (''De sancta virginitate'')

''On the Good of Widowhood'' (''De bono viduitatis'')

''On Lying'' (''De mendacio'')

''To Consentius: Against Lying'' (''Contra mendacium [ad Consentium]'')

''To Quodvultdeus, On Heresies'' (''De haeresibus ad Quodvultdeum'')

''On the Work of Monks'' (''De opere monachorum'')

''On Patience'' (''De patientia'')

''On Care to be Had For the Dead'' (''De cura pro mortuis gerenda'')

''On the Morals of the Catholic Church and on the Morals of the Manichaeans'' (''De moribus ecclesiae catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum'')

''On Two Souls, Against the Manichaeans'' (''De duabus animabus [contra Manichaeos]'')

''Acts or Disputation Against Fortunatus the Manichaean'' (''[Acta] contra Fortunatum [Manichaeum]'')

''Against the Epistle of Manichaeus Called Fundamental'' (''Contra epistulam Manichaei quam vocant fundamenti'')

''Reply to Faustus the Manichaean'' (''Contra Faustum [Manichaeum]'')

''Concerning the Nature of Good, Against the Manichaeans'' (''De natura boni contra Manichaeos'')

''On Baptism, Against the Donatists'' (''De baptismo [contra Donatistas]'')

''The Correction of the Donatists'' (''De correctione Donatistarum'')

''On Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism'' (''De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum'')

''On the Spirit and the Letter'' (''De spiritu et littera'')

''On Nature and Grace'' (''De natura et gratia'')

''On Man's Perfection in Righteousness'' (''De perfectione iustitiae hominis'')

''On the Proceedings of Pelagius'' (''De gestis Pelagii'')

''On the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin'' (''De gratia Christi et de peccato originali'')

''On Marriage and Concupiscence'' (''De nuptiis et concupiscientia'')

''On the Nature of the Soul and its Origin'' (''De natura et origine animae'')

''Against Two Letters of the Pelagians'' (''Contra duas epistulas Pelagianorum'')

''On Grace and Free Will'' (''De gratia et libero arbitrio'')

''On Rebuke and Grace'' (''De correptione et gratia'')

''On the Predestination of the Saints'' (''De praedestinatione sanctorum'')

''On the Gift of Perseverance'' (''De dono perseverantiae'')

''Our Lord's Sermon on the Mount'' (''De sermone Domini in monte'')

''On the Harmony of the Evangelists'' (''De consensu evangelistarum'')

''Treatises on the Gospel of John'' (''In Iohannis evangelium tractatus'')

''Soliloquies'' (''Soliloquiorum libri duo'')

''Enarrations, or Expositions, on the Psalms'' (''Enarrationes in Psalmos'')

''On the Immortality of the Soul'' (''De immortalitate animae'')

''Answer to the Letters of Petilian, Bishop of Cirta'' (''Contra litteras Petiliani'')

''Against the Academics'' (''Contra Academicos'')

Sermons, among which a series on selected lessons of the New Testament

Homilies, among which a series on the First Epistle of John

Translations

English translations of Augustine's work abound. One of the best translations of Augustine into English currently available is the one offered by New City Press in the series ''The Works of St. Augustine: A translation for the 21st Century''. To date, this is also the most complete translation of Augustine's works in English. The second most complete translation of Augustine's works in English is by the Catholic University of America Press. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy offers a list of selected translations, which however does not claim to be exhaustive.

In popular culture

Augustine was played by Dary Berkani in the 1972 television movie ''Augustine of Hippo''. He was also played by Franco Nero in the 2010 mini-series ''Augustine: The Decline of the Roman Empire''. The modern day name links to the Agostinelli Family.

See also

References

Bibliography

:: ^g Saint Augustine, pages 30, 144; ''City of God'' 51, 52, 53 and ''The Confessions'' 50, 51, 52

''Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament'' (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33–35.

External links

;General

"St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of the Church", ''Butler's Lives of the Saints''

The Life and Writings of St. Augustine of Hippo: Bishop & Doctor of the Christian Church

Augustine of Hippo edited by James J. O'Donnell – texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc.

Augustine's theory of knowledge

;Bibliography

Augustine of Hippo at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles

;Works by Augustine

St. Augustine at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library

Aurelius Augustinus at "IntraText Digital Library" – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list

Augustinus.it – Latin and Italian texts

Sanctus Augustinus at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin

City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine audio books

;Biography and criticism

Order of St Augustine

Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church

Augustine's World: An Introduction to His Speculative Philosophy by Donald Burt, OSA, member of the Augustinian Order, Villanova University

Category:354 births Category:430 deaths Category:Berber people Category:Church Fathers Category:Doctors of the Church Category:Christian theologians Category:Christian philosophers Category:Christian vegetarians Category:Neoplatonists Category:Late Antique writers Category:Latin letter writers Category:Sermon writers Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians Category:Systematic theologians Category:Late Antique Latin-language writers Category:Autobiographers Category:4th-century Romans Category:5th-century Romans Category:5th-century Christian saints Category:People from Souk Ahras Category:Algerian philosophers Category:Algerian Roman Catholic saints Category:Algerian saints Category:Romans from Africa Category:Burials at San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia Category:Anglican saints Category:Hellenism and Christianity Category:Existentialists Category:Religious existentialism Category:Roman Catholic Mariology Category:Amillennialism Category:Anti-Gnosticism Category:Christian ethicists Category:Christian mystics Category:Music theorists

als:Augustinus von Hippo am:ኦግስቲን ar:أوغسطينوس an:Sant Agostín d'Hipona ast:Agustín d'Hipona az:Avreli Avqustin be:Аўгусцін Аўрэлій be-x-old:Аўгустын bar:Augustinus vo Hippo bs:Aurelije Augustin br:Aogustin Hippo bg:Августин Блажени ca:Agustí d'Hipona cs:Augustinus cy:Awstin o Hippo da:Augustin de:Augustinus von Hippo et:Augustinus el:Αυγουστίνος Ιππώνος es:Agustín de Hipona eo:Aŭgusteno de Hipono eu:Agustin Hiponakoa fa:آگوستین hif:Augustine of Hippo fo:Aurelius Augustin fr:Augustin d'Hippone fy:Augustinus ga:Naomh Agaistín gl:Agostiño de Hipona ko:아우구스티누스 hy:Օգոստինոս Երանելի hr:Sveti Augustin io:Augustinus id:Agustinus dari Hippo ia:Augustino de Hippona is:Ágústínus it:Agostino d'Ippona he:אוגוסטינוס jv:Augustinus ka:ნეტარი ავგუსტინე kk:Аврелий Августин sw:Agostino wa Hippo la:Augustinus lv:Svētais Augustīns lb:Aurelius Augustinus lt:Šv. Augustinas hu:Hippói Szent Ágoston mk:Свети Августин ml:ഔറേലിയുസ് അഗസ്തീനോസ് mt:Santu Wistin arz:القديس اوغسطين mn:Амгалан Августин nl:Augustinus van Hippo ja:アウグスティヌス no:Augustin av Hippo nn:Augustin av Hippo oc:Agustin d'Ipòna pnb:آگسٹائین pms:Agustin d'Ipon-a nds:Augustinus pl:Augustyn z Hippony pt:Agostinho de Hipona ro:Augustin de Hipona rm:Augustinus da Hippo qu:Agustín (santu) rue:Авґустін з Гіппо ru:Аврелий Августин sc:Austinu de Ippona sco:Augustinus sq:Shën Augustini simple:Augustine of Hippo sk:Augustín z Hippa sl:Sveti Avguštin ckb:ئۆگستین sr:Августин Хипонски sh:Augustin fi:Augustinus sv:Augustinus tl:Agustin ng Hipona ta:ஹிப்போவின் அகஸ்டீன் th:ออกัสตินแห่งฮิปโป tr:Augustinus uk:Августин Аврелій ur:اگستین (ہپو کا) vec:Sant'Agostin (Santo) vi:Augustine thành Hippo war:Agustin han Hipona yi:אויגוסטינוס yo:Augustine ará Híppò bat-smg:Šv. Augostėns zh:奥古斯丁 (希波主教)

Sons of God (''B'nai HaElohim'', בני האלהים) is a phrase used in Levantine Bronze and Iron Age texts to describe the "divine council" of the major gods.

The term "sons of God"

In the pantheon of 2nd millennium Ugarit the El, the father-god and head of the pantheon, and the 70 "sons of El", make up a "Divine Council" which deliberates over major decisions. In the 1st millennium the El had been demoted and each of the "sons of El" was held to have been given a "nation" as his charge: Chemosh, for example, was the god of Moab. Yahweh, not originally included in the Ugaritic pantheon, was the God of Judah and of Israel. In the Book of Genesis, Yahweh is seen as the single deity, with "sons of ''elohim''" as his assistants.

By the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC further hypotheses were developed to explain this passage in Genesis. One hypothesis was that the sons of God were the descendants of Seth, the pure line of Adam, and the "daughters of men" as the descendants of Cain.

In the Hebrew Bible the phrase "sons of God" occurs:

Gen 6:2 ''b'ney ha-Elohim'' (בְנֵי־הָֽאֱלֹהִים) sons of the God.

Job 1:6 ''b'ney ha-Elohim'' (בְּנֵי הָאֱלֹהִים) sons of the God.

Job 38:7 ''b'ney elohiym'' (בְּנֵי אֱלֹהִֽים) without the definite article - sons of gods.

Psalm 29:1 ''b'ney elim'' (בְּנֵי אֵלִים ) without the definite article - sons of elim.

Ugaritic origins

In Ugaritic one cognate phrase is ''bn 'il''. This may occur in the Ugaritic Baal cycle. Scharbert assigns the text to later editorial activity, whereas Westermann claims that the text of Genesis 6 is based on an Ugaritic urtext.

KTU² 1.40 demonstrates the use of ''bn il'' to mean "sons of gods". KTU² 1.65 (which may be a scribal exercise) uses ''bn il'' three times in succession: ''il bn il / dr bn il / mphrt bn il'' "El, the sons of gods, the circle of the sons of gods / the totality of the sons of gods."

The phrase ''bn ilm'' "sons of the gods" is also attested in Ugaritic texts. As is the phrase ''phr bn ilm'' "assembly of the sons of the gods".

History of interpretation of Genesis 6

Second Temple Judaism

In 1 Enoch and Book of Jubilees the Genesis 6 text was developed into a complicated mythology of fallen angels. The 3rd century BC Book of Enoch turns the "sons of God" into fallen angels, referred to as Watchers, who came to earth and had children with human women, resulting in a race of half-angel, half-human beings known as the "Giants" (Nephilim). The view is found in Philo and in Josephus Antiquities 1:73 (or 1:3.1).

In the 1st century CE Rabbi Shimeon ben Yochai pronounced a curse on any Jew teaching the Enochite interpretation, and, later Trypho the Jew rejected the interpretation. This was followed by Rashi and Nachmanides. Some commentators on Luke 20:34-36 believe that Jesus was also familiar with the Enochic interpretation, and can be counted with Shimeon ben Yochai, since Jesus rejected that angels could marry and in the same passage equated the "sons of God" with humans.

Early Christianity

The pseudepigraphic Epistle of Barnabas 4:3 appears to accept the Enochic version. As do Justin Martyr, Eusebius, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Commodianus.

Against this first Julius Africanus, then Augustine in ''City of God'' argued that the sons of God were the descendants of Seth, the pure line of Adam, and the "daughters of men" as the descendants of Cain.

Some manuscripts of the Septuagint have emendations to read "sons of God" as "angels" in Genesis 6. Codex Vaticanus contains "angels" originally. In Codex Alexandrinus "sons of God" has been erased and replaced by "angels". The Peshitta reads "sons of God". The 5th century Christian work ''Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan'' follows this view.

Contemporary Christianity

Among the churches which teach that the "sons of God" were fallen angels today are Jehovah's Witnesses. Among the churches which teach that the "sons of God" were men are the Catholic Church and many Churches of Christ.

Popular culture

''Sons of God'' - the title of a short video trilogy by British independent film producers Jaffa Entertainment, 2010.

See also

Watcher (angel)

Nephilim

References

External links

Catholic Encyclopedia: Son of God

Jewish Encyclopedia: Son of God

Category:Bible Category:Hebrew Bible words and phrases Category:Christian terms Category:Judaism-related controversies Category:Torah people Category:Judaism terms

ar:أبناء الله pt:Filhos de Deus

Coordinates

55°45′06″N37°37′04″N

{{infobox musical artist | name

TobyMac | image Toby Mac.jpg | caption tobyMac | background solo_singer | birth_name Kevin Michael McKeehan | Born October 22, 1964Fairfax, Virginia | Country U.S. | Nicknames tobyMac | genre Christian hip hop, Christian rock, Christian pop, rapcore | occupation Singer-songwriter, music producer, author, rapper | years_active 1987–present | label ForeFront RecordsEMI CMG | website tobyMac.com | associated_acts DC Talk, Kevin Max, Michael Tait, The Gotee Brothers, GRITS, DJ Maj }}

Toby McKeehan (born Kevin Michael McKeehan; October 22, 1964), better known by his stage name TobyMac (styled tobyMac), is a Christian recording artist, music producer, rapper, singer-songwriter, and author.

TobyMac was one of the first Christian rappers. He was first known for being a member of the Christian singing trio DC Talk, staying with them from 1987 until their announced hiatus in 2000. He has since continued a successful solo career with the release of four studio albums: ''Momentum'' (2001), ''Welcome to Diverse City'' (2004), ''Portable Sounds'' (2007), and ''Tonight'' (2010), as well as two remixed albums of the first two albums titled ''Re:Mix Momentum'' and ''Renovating Diverse City'', respectively.

Between DC talk and his own solo career, he has sold more than 10 million albums. TobyMac has had six #1 hit CHR singles including "Gone", "Made to Love" and "Lose My Soul." His live concert CD+DVD combo album, ''Alive and Transported'', was released in 2008 and received the Grammy Award for Best Rock or Rap Gospel Album at the 51st Grammy Awards in 2009. His fourth studio album, ''Tonight'', was released on February 9, 2010.

Musical career

DC Talk (1988–2001)

Toby formed DC Talk with Michael Tait in 1987, at Liberty University in Lynchburg, VA. He and Tait released ''Christian Rhymes to a Rhythm'' in 1988, while they recruited classmate, Kevin Max Smith. The three set out on tour after they released their first album in 1989, ''DC Talk''. In 1990 They released their first gold album, ''Nu Thang''. After the Nu Thang tour they recorded their first platinum album, ''Free at Last''. The Free at Last Tour was a success. They were invited to play on The Jay Leno Show and The Arsenio Hall Show, getting mainstream attention. They released their first single for their next album which immediately became a hit single. The album went multi-platinum and the best Christian album in the face of CCM music, ''Jesus Freak'', which they released in 1995. The album led to the extremely popular Jesus Freak World Tour. They eventually released the tour CD, ''Welcome to the Freakshow''. The tour ended in success in time for ''Supernatural'', which would be their last album. The album would sell platinum. They then went solo in 2001.

The band has not toured together since 2001 (except for one show in Redmond, Washington in 2005, and when TobyMac made surprise guest appearances at Winter Jam in 2010 in Nashville and in 2011 in Greensboro, NC and sang "Jesus Freak" with Michael Tait). However, dc Talk has recorded several songs together since their hiatus: "Let's Roll" (a song about the September 11 attacks) in 2002, "Atmosphere (Remix)" on TobyMac's 2004 album ''Welcome to Diverse City'', and "The Cross", a track on Kevin Max's 2007 album ''The Blood''.

Solo career

''Momentum'' (2001–2003)

In 2001, TobyMac released his first solo album titled ''Momentum''. McKeehan composed and recorded the song "Extreme Days" for the 2001 Truth Builder Productions film ''Extreme Days'', which was featured on the Momentum album. The song Extreme Days was also used in the movie, ''Hangman's Curse'', based on the popular book by Frank Peretti. His song "Get This Party Started" was featured on an episode of the TV show Roswell. His song "Yours" made it to the Top 5 on ChristianRock.net. His songs "Yours", "Extreme Days", "Get This Party Started", and "Momentum" were all recently featured in the Xbox 360 video game Crackdown. Momentum gained five Dove Awards and a Grammy nomination. In 2002 he released his only Christmas album to date, ''This Christmas'' with only two tracks: "This Christmas" and "O Come All Ye Faithful". In 2003 he remixed the ''Momentum'' album. This album was titled ''Re:Mix Momentum''.His song "Yours" was used in TNA (Total Nonstop Action Wrestling) as "Sting's" Theme song.

''Welcome to Diverse City'' (2004–2006)

''Welcome to Diverse City'' was released in October 2004. The album debuted and peaked on the Billboard 200 at number 54, selling 21,000 copies that week. The album's song "The Slam" was featured in the film ''Never Back Down'', advertisements for the films ''Transporter 2'', ''Aeon Flux'', and ''The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift'', as well as advertisements for the television show ''Prison Break''. The song was also featured in car commercials, men's NCAA clips, NBA Finals (Miami Heat, 2006), World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) programming, NFL Football commercials, and "The Ultimate Highlight" on ''Sportscenter''. Ohio Valley Wrestling performer Matt Cappotelli (who currently is unable to perform due to a brain tumor) uses "The Slam" as his entrance theme. In the movie ''Never Back Down'' Toby's song "The Slam" is featured in the main fight scene. "Diverse City" was featured in the Veronica Mars episode, The Wrath of Con. "Atmosphere" was used in a Volvo car commercial, "Burn For You" was used for cinnamon gum commercials (as well as on a Dr. Phil advertisement). The album gave TobyMac another Dove Award for Rap/Hip-Hop Album of the Year. A remix version of the album, ''Renovating->Diverse City'', was released in 2005.

''Portable Sounds'' (2007–2008)

McKeehan's next album, titled ''Portable Sounds'', was released in 2007 and sold 50,645 copies in its first week, debuting at #10 on the ''Billboard'' 200, and at #1 on the SoundScan Contemporary Christian Overall chart. The album also received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album. The songs "Made to Love" and "I'm For You" both hit #1 and were the second and third most played songs on Christian Hit Radio stations in 2007. "Ignition" is being used by ABC/ESPN to promote its coverage of NASCAR, and "Boomin'" has also been used to promote a new crime-drama, ''The Women's Murder Club'', on ABC, as well as others. In September 2007, his song "Feelin' So Fly" appeared in the film ''The Game Plan'' starring Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson. Recently, "Ignition" received worldwide exposure when it was used as the Arizona Cardinals entrance music during the pre-game of Super Bowl XLIII. Then in March 2011, it was played during NCAA tournament promo during Arizona vs UConn game. TobyMac was awarded two Dove Awards for his work on this album, including Artist of the Year. His music video featuring the song "Boomin" was awarded a Dove Award for Short Form Music Video of the Year. Around this time also, he wrote his song, "New World" for the "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" and recorded the song "What We Gonna Do?" for the VeggieTales movie, ''The Pirates Who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie''.

''Alive and Transported'' (2008)

TobyMac released his first live album as a solo artist in 2008. ''Alive and Transported'' was a live recording of the Portable Sounds Tour in Houston, TX. It included covers of popular DC Talk songs "Jesus Freak" and "In the Light". The album included a DVD of the concert and gained him a GMA Dove and a Grammy Award.

''Tonight'' (2010)

TobyMac's fourth studio release, ''Tonight'', was released on February 9, 2010. The album debuted at #6 on the Billboard 200, selling 79,000 units in its first week. The album's first single, "City on Our Knees", was released on August 14, 2009. The song reached #1 on ''Billboard'''s Hot Christian Songs and #1 on both Christian AC and CHR. Christopher Stevens and Dave Wyatt joined McKeehan in producing the album, as with the production of his 2007 release, ''Portable Sounds''. Truett, aka TruDog, Toby's oldest son, was once again featured on a song as in the previous albums. The album is a mix of pop, rock, hip-hop, Latin, and funk, similar to his album ''Portable Sounds''. The album charted #6 on the Billboard Top 200 and #1 on the Billboard Christian albums chart; selling 79,000 units in its first week. He recently finished touring with Skillet and House of Heroes on the successful "Awake Tonight Tour".The title track of the new album is featured in the intro of MLB Network's TV show 30 Clubs 30 Days. In March, he announced the "Hello Tonight" summer 2010 tour with Chris Tomlin. The song "City on Our Knees" earned TobyMac a Dove Award for Pop/Contemporary Song of the Year. The song "Showstopper" was used to promote World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) June 2010 Pay Per View, "Fatal 4-Way", and was used at least once in NCAA Basketball. It was also used as an introduction to Thursday Night Football in 2009-2010. The song was also promoted for ESPYS' Best U.S Male Olympian. Tobymac's "Tonight" was listed best Christian album of 2010 on iTunes and his Christmas single titled "Christmas This Year" (featuring Leigh Nash) was awarded the holiday song of the week on iTunes. He won the "Artist of the Year" at the 2011 Dove Awards. Additionally, the songs "Get Back Up" and "City On Our Knees" were recognized for being two of the Top 25 most performed songs on Christian radio over the past year.

TobyMac just ended a tour with Third Day, Michael W. Smith, Jason Gray and Max Lucado on the World Vision-sponsored "Make a Difference Tour 2010".

''Tonight'' was nominated for a Grammy in the category "Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album" for the 53rd Annual Grammy awards.

Tobymac's first official Christmas album titled, "Christmas in Diverse City" will be released October 4, 2011. It is expected to contain songs from each of the Diverse City members as well as Tobymac.

He is featured on Kirk Franklin's "Throw Yo Hands Up" on Kirk's 2002 album The Rebirth of Kirk Franklin.

Other work

TobyMac has written two books with Michael Tait and Kevin Max entitled, ''Jesus Freaks: DC Talk and The Voice of the Martyrs – Stories of Those Who Stood for Jesus, the Ultimate Jesus Freaks'', and, ''Jesus Freaks: Revolutionaries: Stories of Revolutionaries Who Changed Their World: Fearing God, Not Man''. These books are mainly focused on Christian martyrs. Toby Mac has also written two more books with Michael Tait, one titled, ''Under God'', containing stories of America's spiritual battles, and another book called, ''Living Under God: Discovering Your Part In God's Plan''.

TobyMac has written a fifth book called, ''City On Our Knees''. The book is about how Christians past and present have set aside differences, come together in unity, and stepped forward in action and prayer.

TobyMac is the president of the record label Gotee Records. He created the label with Todd Collins and Joey Elwood in order to produce Out of Eden's ''Lovin' the Day'' after efforts to sign the group to an established label proved unsuccessful. "We all collectively said, 'Let's just give this a shot'", Elwood recalls; "Three naïve guys, a willing band, and some really good songs." Gotee features artists such as DJ Maj, Relient K, House of Heroes, John Reuben and B. Reith. However, as a recording artist, TobyMac is under contract with ForeFront Records.

Toby also performs in "Rock the Universe" in Universal Studios and "Night of Joy" in Walt Disney World annually each September. Toby usually alternates between Rock the Universe and Night of Joy.

Toby has also helped establish a camp, called Camp Electric, located near Nashville, Tennessee, for young musicians who want to have pop and rock skills.

Toby released a DVD, ''TobyMac: Moving Pictures Featuring His Entire Work of Music Videos'', on November 10, 2010.

Toby will also be in the movie ''I'm In Love With a Church Girl'' scheduled to be released in the Fall of 2011.

Toby made a headline appearance at the quadrennial event NYC (a conference of the youth of the Church of the Nazarene) at its most recent North American gathering in Louisville, Kentucky.

Personal life

McKeehan and his wife Amanda (Mandy) were married in 1994. Amanda, who comes from Jamaica, is the daughter of Judy and Robert Levy (of Jamaica Broilers fame). Being married to a Jamaican, and with regular visits to the island, TobyMac is well immersed in Jamaican music, language and other aspects of local culture. Toby and Mandy live in Franklin, Tennessee.

They have five children: Truett, born September 4, 1998; twins Moses and Marlee, adopted in 2002; Leo, born on November 2, 2004; and Judah, born March 24, 2006.

Truett has appeared on the albums ''Momentum'', ''Re:Mix Momentum'', ''This Christmas'', ''Welcome to Diverse City'', ''Renovating Diverse City'', ''Portable Sounds'' and ''Tonight'' as the artist "TruDog". Judah McKeehan has appeared on the album ''Tonight'' on the track "Loud'N'Clear" with Truett.

Discography

;Studio albums

2001: ''Momentum''

2004: ''Welcome to Diverse City''

2007: ''Portable Sounds''

2010: ''Tonight''

2011: ''Christmas In Diverse City

;Remix albums

2002: ''Re:Mix Momentum''

2005: ''Renovating Diverse City''

;Live albums

2008: ''Alive and Transported''

;Other releases

2010: "Hold On" – Radio Version

2010: "Hold On" – Acoustic Version (Freedom CD)

2010: "Christmas This Year"

Awards

;Grammy Award nominations

2003: Best Rock Gospel Album – ''Momentum''

2005: Best Rock Gospel Album – ''Welcome to Diverse City''

2008: Best Gospel Song – "Made to Love"

2008: Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album – ''Portable Sounds''

2009: Best Rock or Rap Gospel Album (''Alive and Transported'') – won

2010: Best Gospel Song (City on Our Knees)

2011: Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album

;GMA Dove Award awards

2002: Rap/Hip Hop Album (''Momentum'')

2002: Rap/Hip Hop Recorded Song ("Somebody's Watching Me")

2003: Short Form Music Video ("Irene")

2005: Rap/Hip Hop Album (''Welcome to Diverse City'')

2006: Rock Recorded Song ("The Slam")

2006: Special Event Album of the Year (''Music Inspired by the Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe'')

2008: Artist of the Year

2008: Short Form Music Video of the Year ("Boomin'")

2008: Rock/Contemporary Album of the Year ("Portable Sounds")

2009: Long Form Music Video of the Year (''Alive and Transported'')

2010: Pop/Contemporary Song of the Year ("City on Our Knees")

;Video awards

2007: Rock Video ("Boomin")

2007: Video of the Year ("Boomin")

2009: Pop Video of the Year ("Lose My Soul")

2009: Video of the Year ("Lose My Soul")

References

External links

Official site

Category:1964 births Category:Living people Category:American rappers Category:American Christians Category:Performers of Christian hip hop music Category:American performers of Christian music Category:DC Talk members Category:Liberty University alumni

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