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Chahar Mongols

Regions with significant populations
China 299,000 (1987) [1]
Languages
Chakhar dialect of Mongolian
Religion
Tibetan Buddhism and Atheism
Related ethnic groups
Mongols, Mongols in China, Bortala Mongols and Dariganga Mongols

The Chahar (Mongol: Цахар) is a subgroup of the Mongol people that speak the Chahar dialect of the Mongolian language and predominantly live in southeastern Inner Mongolia.

The Chahars were originally one of estates of Kublai Khan located around Jingzhao (now Xi'an). They moved from Shaanxi to southeastern region controlled by the Mongolia-based Northern Yuan Dynasty in the 15th century. The Chahar became a tümen of six tümen Mongols under Dayan Khan and were led by his successors, thus becoming personal appanage of the Mongolian Khans.

Oppressed by Altan Khan, the Chahars, led by Darayisung Gödeng Khan, moved eastward onto the Liao River in the middle of the 16th century. In the early 17th century Ligden Khan made an expedition to the west because of the Manchu pressure. When he died in Gansu on his way to Tibet, his son Ejei surrendered to the Manchus in 1635.

The Chahar royal family kept favorable relations with the Manchu imperial family until Makata gege, who was a daughter of Hong Taiji and married to the Chahar Mongol prince, died in 1663. When the Rebellion of the Three Feudatories erupted in 1673, the Chahar Mongol prince revolted against the Qing Dynasty. He was soon crushed and, as a result, the Chahar Mongols were reorganized into the Chahar Eight Banners and moved to around Zhangjiakou Hill. The Chahar Mongols did not belong to a league but were directly controlled by the Emperor. The Qing authority resettled part of them from suburbs of Hohhot and Dolonnur to Ili after the fall of the Zunghar Khanate in c. 1758. They were largely mixed with Ööled and Torguud of the region.

When Outer Mongolia declared its independence in 1911 from the Qing, 100 households under former vice-governor Sumya fled from Xinjiang via Russian border to Mongolia. They were resettled by the Khalkha in the west of Kyakhta. Sumiya and his Tsahars contributed to revolution of 1921. They are known as the Selenge's Tsahar since settled in Selenge.

See also[link]

• Chahar, a province of China from 1912 to 1936.
• Mongols
• Ethnic Mongols in China
• Northern Yuan Dynasty
• Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing dynasty

References[link]

Mongols
Монголчууд
ᠮᠣᠩᠭ᠋ᠣᠯᠴᠤᠳ

Genghis Khan Kublai Khan Subutai Mandukhai Zanabazar D. Sükhbaatar D. Yanjmaa B. Rinchen Ts. Damdinsüren J. Gürragchaa S. Zorig D. Dagvadorj
Total population
~10 million
Regions with significant populations
Majority populations Mongolia 3,000,000 [1] Minority populations China 5,810,000 [2] Russia 621,827 [3] South Korea 34,000 [4] United States 15,000–18,000 [5] Czech Republic 7,515 [6] Japan 5,401 [7] Germany 3,852 [7] United Kingdom 3,701 [7] France 2,859 [7] Turkey 2,645 [7] Kazakhstan 2,523 [7] Malaysia 1,500 [7]
Religion
Predominantly Tibetan Buddhism, also Shamanism (formally Tengriism).[2][8] Small Christian group exist. s = Predominantly Mongolic languages, also Chinese and Russian
Related ethnic groups
Daur, Monguor and Turco-Mongol peoples

Mongols (Mongolian:  Монголчууд (help·info)), Mongolchuud) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. Owing to wars and migrations, Mongols are also found in some Central Asian states such as Kazakhstan. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia (a smaller number of Mongols can also be found in Xinjiang in northwest China). The Buryat branch of the Mongol ethnic group can be found in the autonomous republic of Buryatia, Russia. Ethnic Mongols are bound together by a common language and culture. They speak languages belonging to the Mongolic languages. The contiguous territories inhabited by ethnic Mongols is also known as Greater Mongolia^{[disambiguation needed ]}. There are approximately 10 million ethnic Mongols in total.

Definition[link]

A definition includes the Mongols proper, who can be approximately divided into the eastern Mongols (the Khalkha Mongols, the Inner Mongolians, the Buryats), and the Oirats. In a wider sense, the Mongol people includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.

The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of the Chinese Tang dynasty, describing a tribe of Shiwei, and resurfaced again in the late 11th century during the rule of Khitan. After the fall of Liao Dynasty in 1125, the Mongols became a leading tribe on the steppe and also had power in Northern China. However, their wars with the Jin Dynasty and Tatars had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.^[9]

History[link]

Depiction of Gog and Magog, horrible giants thought to be ancestors of the Mongols by medieval Europeans. From Romance of Alexander, Trinity College, Cambridge.

In various times Mongols have been equated with the Scythians, the Magog and the Turkic peoples. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongol peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, the fact that Chinese histories trace certain Turkic tribes from the Xiongnu complicates the issue.^[10] The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace all the subsequent Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan).^[11]

The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of the state of Yan in 699-632 BC. Mentions in the Lost Book of Zhou (Yizhoushu) and the Shanhaijing indicate the Donghu were also active during the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BC). The Mongolic-speaking Xianbei originally formed a part of the Donghu confederation, but existed even before that time, as evidenced by a mention in the Guoyu ("晉語八" section) which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042-1021 BC) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu (楚), since they were not vassals by covenant (诸侯). After the Donghu were defeated by Modu Chanyu the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi.^[12] In 49 AD the Mongolic Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156-181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state.

Xianbei Empire under Tanshihuai (141-181)

Three prominent proto-Mongol groups split from the Xianbei, as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Nirun (claimed by some to be the Avars), the Khitan and the Shiwei (a sub-tribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols).^[13] Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were other Xianbei groups with Mongolic affiliation such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba. Their culture was nomadic, their religion Shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Nirun spoke a Mongolic language, although most scholars agree that they were proto-Mongolic.^[14] The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings that are usually found with a parallel Chinese text (for example, nair=sun, sair=moon, tau=five, jau=hundred, m.r=horse, im.a=goat, n.q=dog, m.ng=silver, ju.un=summer, n.am.ur=autumn, u.ul=winter, heu.ur=spring, tau.l.a=rabbit, t.q.a=hen and m.g.o=snake).^[15] There is no doubt regarding the Khitan being proto-Mongol.^[16]

Asia in 500 AD, showing the Nirun (Juan-Juan) Empire and its neighbors

Geographically the Tuoba Xianbei ruled Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Nirun (Yujiulu Shelun was the first to use the title Khagan in 402) ruled Outer Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in Southern Manchuria north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the Gok-Turks in 555, the Uyghurs in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghizs in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Gok-Turks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east founding the Tatar tribes, who became part of the Shiwei. The Khitan, who were independent after their separation from the proto-Mongol Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388 AD, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872-926), established the Khitan Liao Dynasty (907-1125). The Khitan fled west after their defeat by the Tungusic Jurchens (later known as Manchus) and founded the Kara-Khitan or Western Liao dynasty (1125–1218) in eastern Kazakhstan. In 1218 Genghis Khan destroyed the Kara-Khitan Kingdom after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. The modern-day minority of Mongolic-speaking Daurs in China are their direct descendants based on DNA evidence.^[17][18]

The Shiwei included a tribe called the Shiwei Menggu.^[19] Bodonchir Munkhag (Chagatai tradition dates 'Buzanjar Munqaq' to the rebellion of Abu Muslim or 747 AD.^[20]) the founder of the House of Borjigin and the ancestor of Genghis Khan is held to be descended from the Shiwei Menggu. The early Shiwei paid tribute to the Tuoba Wei (386-534) and submitted to the Khitans. After the Khitans left Mongolia the Shiwei Mongols rose to prominence, when from the 1130s there were reciprocally hostile relations between the successive khans of the Khamag Mongol confederation (Khaidu, Khabul Khan and Ambaghai Khan) and the emperors of the Jin dynasty.

With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongols settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Java and from Japan to Palestine. Mongols simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China, Great Khans of Mongolia and one Mongol even became Sultan of Egypt (Al-Adil Kitbugha). The Mongols of the Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240.^[21] By 1279, the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty and brought all of China under control of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.^[21] With the breakup of the Empire, the dispersed Mongols quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Tatars (not confused with a tribe in ancient Mongolia), Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Yugurs and Moghuls; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. However, most of the Mongols returned to Mongolia, retaining their language and culture. After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 the Mongols established their independent regime as Northern Yuan. However, the Oirads or Western Mongols began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century.

Present-day Khalkha Mongols and Inner Mongolians are the most prominent of the remaining Eastern Mongols while the Kalmyks (formerly Oirats) in Europe are the main descendants of the Western Mongols. The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan (1464–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongols. They quickly became the dominant Mongol clan in Outer Mongolia.^[22][23]

Language[link]

A Mongolian Ger

The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Some researchers have proposed a link to languages like Tungusic and Turkic, which are often included alongside Mongolic in a group called Altaic languages, though this is controversial.

Religion[link]

Silver coin with Christian cross and Mongolian and Arabic writing (1265-1282 AD). Struck under the Mongol Il-Khan Abaqa who was sympathetic towards Christianity.

The original religion of the Mongols from the time of the Donghu was Tengriism. The Xianbei came in contact with Confucianism and Daoism but eventually adopted Buddhism. In the 5th century the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed State Teacher of the Rouran Khaganate and given 3000 families. In 511 the Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the Buddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Tengriism. The Tuoba had a "sacrificial castle" to the west of their capital where ceremonies to Tengri and other spirits took place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erected on top of this sacrificial castle. One ritual involved seven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairs with 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinkling the statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had their holiest Tengriist shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and eight sons were kept in two temples. Mongols were also exposed to Zoroastrianism (Qormusta Tengri is still worshipped), Manicheism, Nestorianism, Islam and Catholicism from the west. The Mongols, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest Tengriist shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldun where their ancestor Borte Chinua (Blue Wolf) and Goo Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them. Genghis Khan usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this mountain before his campaigns. As a young man he had thanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed at the foot of the mountain sprinkling offerings and bowing nine times to the east with his belt around his neck and his hat held at his chest. Genghis Khan kept a close watch on the Mongol supreme shaman Kokochu Teb Tengri who sometimes conflicted with his authority. Later the imperial cult of Genghis Khan (centered on the eight white gers and nine white banners in Ordos) grew into a highly organized indigenous religion with Tengriist scriptures in the Mongolian script. Indigenous moral precepts of the Mongols were enshrined in oral wisdom sayings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (blood-brother) system and ancient texts such as the Chinggis-un Bilig (Wisdom of Genghis) and Oyun Tulkhuur (Key of Intelligence). These moral precepts were expressed in poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, fidelity, help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, veneration of nature, veneration of the state and veneration of parents.

In 1254 Mongke Khan organized a formal religious debate (in which William of Rubruck took part) between Christians, Muslims and Buddhists in Karakorum, a cosmopolitan city of many religions. The Mongol Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity. The Mongol leader Abaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13-16 Mongols to the Second Council of Lyon (1274), which created a great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus' underwent a public baptism. Yahballaha III (1245–1317) and Rabban Bar Sauma (c. 1220-1294) were famous Mongol (part-Turkic) Nestorian Christians. The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (under Berke and Ghazan) and the Turkic languages (because of its commercial importance), although allegiance to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolian language can be seen even in 1330's. The Mongol nobility during the Yuan dynasty studied Confucianism but mainly followed the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism. The general populace still practised Tengriism. Dongxiang and Bonan Mongols adopted Islam, as did Mongol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In the 16th century the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of the Mongols. The Red Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Tengriism was absorbed into the newly formed state religion while being marginalized in its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art of the pre-modern period. Zanabazar (1635–1723), Zaya Pandita (1599–1662) and Danzanravjaa (1803–1856) are among the most famous Mongolian holy men. The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso (1589–1617), a Mongolian, was the only non-Tibetan Dalai Lama. Many Buryat Mongols also became Christians due to the Russian expansion. During the socialist period religion was officially banned, although it was practiced in clandestine circles. Today, a sizable proportion of Mongols are atheist or agnostic. In the most recent census in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the population reported as being atheist, while the majority religion was Buddhism, with 53%.^[24]

Physical characteristics[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010)

In terms of physical characteristics, Mongols exhibit a variety of features, with typical Mongoloid features being most noticeable. "Mongoloid" was first used in 1868 as a racial designation to distinguish Asians. People with Down's Syndrome were first called "Mongolian" in 1866. The World Health Organization (WHO) officially dropped references to "Mongolism" in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate. Mongols are predominantly Tungid with Nordsinid and Turanid features observable occasionally. Mongolian folds of the eyelids exist on almost all Mongols along with relatively high and pronounced cheekbones. The Mongolian spot which is common among Mongols, is looked upon proudly as a distinguishing feature of the ethnic group. The vast majority of Mongols have black hair and brown eyes, although a certain number of Mongols, particularly the Oirat tribe in western Mongolia tend to exhibit lighter features such as fair skin, blue or green eyes, varying shades of brown hair, and sometimes even red or blonde hair.^[25] Some of the Mongols today who exhibit some slight Caucasoid features most likely stem from historical intermixing with ancient Central Asian and Siberian Europoids, as opposed to recent intermixing with Slavics and other Europeans.^[26]

Geographic distribution[link]

This map shows the boundary of 13th century Mongol Empire and location of today's Mongols in modern Mongolia, Russia, Central Asian States and China.

Today, people of Mongol origin live in modern state of Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia), Russia, and a few other Central Asian countries.

The differentiation between tribes and peoples (nationalities) is handled differently depending on the country. The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Bargut (or Barga), Altai Uriankhai, Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayid, Khoton, Myangad (Mingad), Zakhchin (Zakchin), Darkhad, and Oirats (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all counted as tribes of the Mongols.

Mongolia[link]

The population of modern Mongolia consists of 94.9% Mongols, numbering approximately 2.8 million. From the middle ages to early modern period the Khalkha, Uriankhai and Buryats were counted as eastern Mongols while the Oirats, living mainly in the Altay region, belonged to the western Mongols.

China[link]

The 2000 census of People's Republic of China counted 5.8 million Mongols, according to the narrow definition above. It should be noted that 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million Mongols.^{[citation needed]} Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia autonomous region, followed by Liaoning province. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two.

Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the Daur, Monguor, Dongxiang, Bonan, and parts of the Yugur. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol nationality, but are recognized as nationalities of their own.

Russia[link]

In Russia, the Buryats belong to the eastern Mongols. The western Mongols include the Oirats in the Russian Altay and the Kalmyks at the northern side of the Caspian Sea, where they make up 53.3% of the population of Russia's autonomous Republic of Kalmykia.^[27] The Tuva and the Altay people are culturally close to Mongols, but speak Turkic languages. Together they amount to approximately a million people.

Elsewhere[link]

Smaller numbers of Mongols exist in Western Europe and North America. Some of the more notable communities exist in the South Korea, the United States, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom.

Gallery[link]

• 

  Arate (Commoner) wearing a fur cloak and a fur cap.

• 

  Arate wearing a summer-smock-flock and cap

• 

  Married woman in ancient national dress.

• 

  Girl of the Arates with sheepskin fur cloak

• 

  A Mongolian musician

• 

  A Mongol Wrangler

• 

  Mongolian girl performing Bayad dance

• 

  Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din in 1305

• 

  Mongolic Xianbei archer

• 

  Khitan horseman

• 

  A 20th century Mongol Khan, Navaanneren

• 

  The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso

See also[link]

• Altan Telgey
• List of medieval Mongolian tribes and clans
• List of Mongolians

References[link]

This article uses bare URLs for citations. Please consider adding full citations so that the article remains verifiable. Several templates and the Reflinks tool are available to assist in formatting. (Reflinks documentation) (December 2011)

External links[link]

• Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15. [1]
• Ethnic map of Mongolia

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Coordinates: 44°N 113°E / 44°N 113°E / 44; 113

Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Nei Mongol Autonomous Region
Chinese : 内蒙古自治区 Nèi Měnggǔ Zìzhìqū Mongolian : , Öbür mongγol-un öbertegen zasaqu orun[1]
Abbreviations: 内蒙 or 内蒙古[2]  (pinyin: Nèi Měng or Nèi Měnggǔ)
Origin of name	From the Mongolian öbür monggol, where öbür means the front, sunny side of natural barrier (a mountain, mountain range, lake or desert etc..).
Administration type	Autonomous region
Capital	Hohhot
Largest city	Baotou
CPC Ctte Secretary	Hu Chunhua
Chairman	Bagatur
Area	1,183,000 km2 (457,000 sq mi) (3rd)
- Latitude	37° 24' to 53° 20' N
- Longitude	097° 05' to 126° 05' E
Population (2010)  - Density	24,706,321[3] (23rd) 20.2 /km2 (52 /sq mi) (28th)
GDP (2011)  - per capita	CNY 1.40 trillion US$ 218.75 billion (15th) CNY 57,515 US$ 8,854 (6th)
HDI (2008)	0.803 (high) (13th)
Ethnic composition	Han - 79% Mongol - 17% Manchu - 2% Hui - 0.9% Daur - 0.3%
Languages and dialects	{{{Dialects}}}
Prefectural level	12 divisions
County level	101 divisions
Township level*	1425 divisions
ISO 3166-2	CN-15
Official website http://www.nmg.gov.cn (Simplified Chinese)
Source for population and GDP data: 《中国统计年鉴—2005》 China Statistical Yearbook 2005 ISBN 7503747382 Source for nationalities data: 《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》 Tabulation on nationalities of 2000 population census of China ISBN 7105054255 *As at December 31, 2004
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This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Inner Mongolia (Mongolian: s , Öbür Monggol and c Өвөр Монгол, Övör Mongol; Chinese: 内蒙古; pinyin: Nèi Měnggǔ, but officially romanized to Nei Mongol) is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in the northern region of the country. Inner Mongolia shares an international border with the countries of Mongolia and the Russian Federation. Its capital is Hohhot and the largest city is Baotou.

Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region was established in 1947 on the area of former Republic of China provinces of Suiyuan, Chahar, Rehe, Liaobei and Xing'an along with the northern parts of Gansu and Ningxia. It is the third-largest subdivision of China spanning about 1,200,000 km² (463,000 sq mi) or 12% of China's total land area. It has a population of about 24 million as of 2004. The majority of the population in the region are Han Chinese, with a substantial Mongol minority. The official languages are Chinese and Mongolian, the latter written in the Mongolian script, as opposed to the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet used in the state of Mongolia.

Name[link]

In Chinese, the region is known as "Inner Mongolia", where the terms of "Inner/Outer" are derived from Manchu dorgi/tulergi (cf. Mongolian dotugadu/gadagadu). Inner Mongolia is distinct from Outer Mongolia, which was a term used by the Republic of China and previous governments to refer to what is now the independent state of Mongolia plus the Republic of Tuva in Russia. In Mongolian, the region was called Dotugadu monggol during Qing rule and was renamed into Öbür Monggol in 1947, öbür meaning the southern side of a mountain, while the Chinese term nei menggu was retained. Some Mongolians use the name "Southern Mongolia" in English as well.^[4]

History[link]

Much of what is known about the history of Greater Mongolia, including Inner Mongolia, is known through Chinese chronicles and historians. Before the rise of the Mongols in the 13th century, what is now central and western Inner Mongolia, especially the Hetao region, alternated in control between Chinese agriculturalists in the south and Xiongnu, Xianbei, Khitan, Jurchen, Tujue, and other Mongol nomads of the north. The historical narrative of what is now Eastern Inner Mongolia mostly consists of alternations between different Tungustic and Mongol tribes, rather than the struggle between nomads and Chinese agriculturalists.

Early History[link]

During the Zhou Dynasty, central and western Inner Mongolia (the Hetao region and surrounding areas) were inhabited by nomadic peoples such as the Loufan, Linhu, and Dí, while eastern Inner Mongolia was inhabited by the Donghu. During the Warring States Period, King Wuling (340–295 BC) of the state of Zhao based in what is now Hebei and Shanxi provinces pursued an expansionist policy towards the region. After destroying the Dí state of Zhongshan in what is now Hebei province, he defeated the Linhu and Loufan and created the commandery of Yunzhong near modern Hohhot. King Wuling of Zhao also built a long wall stretching through the Hetao region. After Qin Shihuang created the first unified Chinese empire in 221 BC, he sent the general Meng Tian to drive the Xiongnu from the region, and incorporated the old Zhao wall into the Qin Dynasty Great Wall of China. He also maintained two commanderies in the region: Jiuyuan and Yunzhong, and moved 30,000 households there to solidify the region. After the Qin Dynasty collapsed in 206 BC, these efforts were abandoned.

During the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu sent the general Wei Qing to reconquer the Hetao region from the Xiongnu in 127 BC. After the conquest, Emperor Wu continued the policy of building settlements in Hetao to defend against the Xiong-Nu. In that same year he established the commanderies of Shuofang and Wuyuan in Hetao. At the same time, what is now eastern Inner Mongolia was controlled by the Xianbei, who would later on eclipse the Xiongnu in power and influence.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), Xiongnu who surrendered to the Han Dynasty began to be settled in Hetao, and intermingled with the Han immigrants in the area. Later on during the Western Jin Dynasty, it was a Xiongnu noble from Hetao, Liu Yuan, who established the Han Zhao kingdom in the region, thereby beginning the Sixteen Kingdoms period that saw the disintegration of northern China under a variety of Han and non-Han (including Xiongnu and Xianbei) regimes.

The Sui Dynasty (581–618) and Tang Dynasty (618–907) re-established a unified Chinese empire, and like their predecessors they conquered and settled people into Hetao, though once again these efforts were aborted when the Tang empire began to collapse. Hetao (along with the rest of what now consists Inner Mongolia) was then taken over by the Khitan Empire (Liao Dynasty), founded by the Khitans, a nomadic people originally from what is now the southern part of Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia. They were followed by the Western Xia of the Tanguts, who took control of what is now the western part of Inner Mongolia (including western Hetao) . The Khitans were later replaced by the Jurchens, precursors to the modern Manchus, who established the Jin Dynasty over Manchuria and northern China.

Mongol Period[link]

After Genghis Khan unified the Mongol tribes in 1206 and founded the Mongol Empire, the Tangut Western Xia empire was ultimately conquered in 1227, and the Jurchen Jin Dynasty fell in 1234. In 1271, Genghis Khan's grandson Khubilai established the Yuan Dynasty. Khubilai's summer capital Shangdu (aka Xanadu) was located near present-day Dolonnor. During that time Ongud and Khunggirad peoples dominated the area of what is now Inner Mongolia. After the Yuan Dynasty was evicted by the Han-led Ming Dynasty in 1368, the Ming rebuilt the Great Wall of China at its present location, which roughly follows the southern border of the modern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (though it deviates significantly at the Hebei-Inner Mongolia border). The Ming established the Three Guards composed of the Mongols there. Soon after the Tumu incident in 1449, when the Oirat ruler Esen Taishi captured the Chinese emperor, Mongols flooded south from Northern Mongolia to Southern Mongolia. Thus from then on until 1635, Inner Mongolia was the political and cultural center of the Mongols during the Northern Yuan Dynasty.^[5]

Inner Mongolia
Part of the Great Wall of China
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	內蒙古
Simplified Chinese	内蒙古
Transcriptions Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Nèi Měnggǔ - Wade–Giles Nei Mengku - IPA [nêɪ mə̀ŋkù] Min - Hokkien POJ Lāi-bông-kó͘ Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping noi6 mung4 gu2 - IPA [nɔ̀ːi mʊ̏ŋ kǔː] - Yale Romanization Noih Mùhnggú
Nei Mongol Autonomous Region
Traditional Chinese	內蒙古自治區
Simplified Chinese	内蒙古自治区
Transcriptions Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Nèi Měnggǔ Zìzhìqū - Wade–Giles Nei Mengku Tzu-chih-ch'ü - Yale Romanization Nèi Měnggǔ Dz̀jr̀chyū Min - Hokkien POJ Lāi-bông-kó͘ Chū-tī-khu Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping noi6 mung4 gu2 zi6zi6keoi1 - IPA [nɔ̀ːi mʊ̏ŋ kǔː tɕìːtɕìːkʰɵ́y] - Yale Romanization Noih Mùhnggú Jihjihkeuī
Mongolian name
Mongolian	Өвөр Монгол Övör Mongol

Qing Period[link]

The eastern Mongol tribes near and in Manchuria, particularly the Khorchin and Southern Khalkha in today`s Inner Mongolia intermarried, formed alliances with, and fought against the Jurchen tribes until Nurhaci, the founder of the new Jin Dynasty, consolidated his control over all groups in the area in 1593.^[6] The Manchus gained far-reaching control of the Inner Mongolian tribes in 1635, when Ligden Khan's son surrendered the Chakhar Mongol tribes to the Manchus. The Manchus subsequently invaded Ming China in 1644, bringing it under the control of their newly established Qing Dynasty. Under the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912), Greater Mongolia was administered in a different way for each region:

• "Outer Mongolia": This region corresponds to the modern state of Mongolia, plus the Russian-administered region of Tannu Uriankhai, and a part of northern Xinjiang. It included the four leagues (aimag) of the Khalkha Mongols north of the Gobi, as well as the Tannu Uriankhai and Khovd regions in northwestern Mongolia, which were overseen by the General of Uliastai from the city of Uliastai.
• "Inner Mongolia": This region corresponded to most of modern Inner Mongolia and some neighbouring areas in Liaoning and Jilin provinces. The banners and tribes in this region came under six leagues (chuulghan): Jirim, Juuuda, Josutu, Xilingol, Ulanqab, and Yekejuu.
• "Taoxi Mongolia": The Alashan Öölüd and Ejine Torghuud banners were separate from the aimags of Outer Mongolia and the chuulghans of Inner Mongolia. This territory is equivalent to modern-day Alxa League, the westernmost part of what is now Inner Mongolia.
• The Chahar Eight Banners were controlled by the military commander of Chahar (now Zhangjiakou). Their extent corresponded to southern Ulanqab and Bayannur in modern Inner Mongolia, plus the region around Zhangjiakou in Hebei province. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of Zhili and Shanxi provinces also belonged to this region.
• The Guihua Tümed banner was controlled by the military commander of Suiyuan (now Hohhot). This corresponds to the vicinities of the modern city of Hohhot. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of modern Shanxi province also belonged to this region.
• The Hulunbuir region in what is now northeastern Inner Mongolia was part of the jurisdiction of the General of Heilongjiang, one of the three generals of Manchuria.

Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. During the eighteenth century, growing numbers of Han Chinese settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791 there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the Front Gorlos Banner that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalize the status of the peasants who had already settled there.^[7]

During the nineteenth century, the Manchus were becoming increasingly sinicized, and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongolia and Manchuria. This policy was followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers.

Post-Qing[link]

Outer Mongolia regained independence from the Qing Dynasty in 1911, when the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu of the Khalkha was declared the Bogd Khan of Mongolia. Although almost all banners of Inner Mongolia recognized the Bogd Khan as the supreme ruler of Mongols, the internal strife within the region prevented a full reunification. The Mongol rebellions in Inner Mongolia were counterbalanced by princes who hoped to see a restored Qing dynasty in Manchuria and Mongolia, as they considered the theocratic rule of the Bogd Khan would be against their modernizing objectives for Mongolia.^[8] Eventually, the newly formed Republic of China promised a new nation of five races (Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, Tibetan and Muslim),^[9] and suppressed the Mongol rebellions in the area,^[10][11] forcing the Inner Mongolian princes to recognize the Republic of China.

The Republic of China reorganized Inner Mongolia into provinces:

• Rehe province was created to include the Juuuda and Josutu leagues, plus the Chengde area in what is now northern Hebei.
• Chahar province was created to include Xilingol league as well as much of the former territory of the Eight Banners.
• Suiyuan province was created to include Ulanqab league, Yekejuu league, and the Hetao region (former Guihua Tümed territory).
• Hulunbuir stayed within Heilongjiang in Manchuria, which had become a province.
• Most of Jirim league came under the new province of Fengtian in southern Manchuria.
• Taoxi Mongolia, i.e. Alashan and Ejine leagues, was incorporated into neighbouring Gansu province. Later on Ningxia province was split out of northern Gansu, and Taoxi Mongolia became part of Ningxia.

Some Republic of China maps still show this structure.

The Japanese Manchuria Period[link]

Manchuria came under the control of the Japanese puppet state Manchukuo in 1931, taking the Mongol areas in the Manchurian provinces (i.e. Hulunbuir and Jirim leagues) along. Rehe was also incorporated into Manchukuo in 1933, taking Juu Uda and Josutu leagues along with it. These areas were administered by Manchukuo until the end of World War II in 1945.

In 1937, open war broke out between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. On December 8, 1937, Mongolian Prince De Wang declared the independence of the remaining parts of Inner Mongolia (i.e. the Suiyuan and Chahar provinces) as Mengkiang or Mengkukuo, and signed close agreements with Manchukuo and Japan. The capital was established at Zhangbei (now in Hebei province), with the puppet government's control extending as far west as the Hohhot region. In August 1945, Mengkiang was taken by Soviet and Outer Mongolian troops during Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. Despite a considerable movement among Inner Mongolia's Mongols(who comprised then around 15% of Inner Mongolia's population, while Han Chinese around 83%) for unification with Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia remained part of China.

Communist era[link]

The Communist movement gradually gained momentum as part of the Third Communist International in Inner Mongolia during the Japanese period. By the end of WWII, the Inner Mongolian faction of the ComIntern had a functional militia, and actively opposed the attempts at independence by De Wang's Chinggisid princes on the grounds of fighting feudalism. Following the end of World War II, the Chinese Communists gained control of Manchuria as well as the Inner Mongolian Communists with decisive Soviet support, and established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 1947. The Comintern army was absorbed into the People's Liberation Army. Initially the autonomous region included just the Hulunbuir region. Over the next decade, as the communists established the People's Republic of China and consolidated control over mainland China, Inner Mongolia was expanded westwards to include five of the six original leagues (except Josutu League, which remains in Liaoning province), the northern part of the Chahar region, by then a league as well (southern Chahar remains in Hebei province), the Hetao region, and the Alashan and Ejine banners. Eventually, near all areas with sizeable Mongol populations were incorporated into the region, giving present-day Inner Mongolia its elongated shape. The leader of Inner Mongolia during that time, as both regional CPC secretary and head of regional government, was Ulanhu.

During the Cultural Revolution, the administration of Ulanhu was purged, and a wave of repressions was initiated against the Mongol population of the autonomous region.^[12] In 1969 much of Inner Mongolia was distributed among surrounding provinces, with Hulunbuir divided between Heilongjiang and Jilin, Jirim going to Jilin, Juu Uda to Liaoning, and the Alashan and Ejine region divided among Gansu and Ningxia. This was reversed in 1979.

Inner Mongolia has seen considerable development since Deng Xiaoping instituted Chinese economic reform in 1978. For about ten years since 2000, Inner Mongolia's GDP growth has been among the highest in the country, largely owing to the success of natural resource industries in the region.

Geography[link]

This section requires expansion.

Grasslands in the region

Officially Inner Mongolia is classified as one of the provincial-level divisions of North China, but its great stretch means that parts of it belong to Northeast China and Northwest China as well. It borders eight provincial-level divisions in all three of the aforementioned regions (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Ningxia, and Gansu), tying with Shaanxi for the greatest number of bordering provincial-level divisions. Most of its international border is with Mongolia, which, in Chinese, is sometimes called "Outer Mongolia" (外蒙古), while a small portion is with Russia.

Climate[link]

Due to its elongated shape, Inner Mongolia has a wide variety of regional climates. Throughout the province, the climate is based off a four-season, monsoon climate. The winters in Inner Mongolia are very long, cold, and dry with frequent blizzards. The spring, summer, and autumn are polar opposites to the winter. They are short, extremely hot and arid, and have large, dangerous sandstorms. Officially, most of the region is classified as either a cold arid or steppe regime (Köppen BWk, BSk, respectively). The small portion besides these are classified as humid continental (Köppen Dwb) in the northeast, or subarctic (Köppen Dwc) in the far north near Hulunbuir.^[13]

Administrative divisions[link]

Inner Mongolia is divided into 12 prefecture-level divisions. Until the late 1990s, most of Inner Mongolia's prefectural regions were known as Leagues (Chinese: 盟), a usage retained from Mongol divisions of the Qing Dynasty. Similarly, county-level divisions are often known as Banners (Chinese: 旗). Since the 1990s, numerous Leagues have converted into prefecture-level cities, although Banners remain. The restructuring led to the conversion of primate cities in most leagues to convert to districts administratively (Hailar, Jining, and Dongsheng). Some newly founded prefecture-level cities have chosen to retain the original name of League (Hulunbuir, Bayannur, and Ulanqab), some have adopted the Chinese name of their primate city (Chifeng, Tongliao), and one League, Yekejuu, simply renamed itself Ordos. Despite these recent administrative changes, there is no indication that the Alxa, Hinggan, and Xilingol Leagues will convert to prefecture-level cities in the near future.

Map	#	Conventional[14]	Administrative Seat	Hanzi Hanyu Pinyin	Mongolian (Transcription from Mongolian)	Population (2010)
	— Prefecture-level city —
	2	Bayannur	Linhe District	巴彦淖尔市 Bāyànnào'ěr Shì	(bayannaɣur qota)	1,669,915
	3	Wuhai	Haibowan District	乌海市 Wūhǎi Shì	(üqai qota)	532,902
	4	Ordos	Dongsheng District	鄂尔多斯市 È'ěrduōsī Shì	(ordus qota)	1,940,653
	5	Baotou	Kundulun District	包头市 Bāotóu Shì	(buɣutu qota)	2,650,364
	6	Hohhot	Huimin District	呼和浩特市 Hūhéhàotè Shì	(kökeqota)	2,866,615
	7	Ulanqab	Jining District	乌兰察布市 Wūlánchábù Shì	(ulaɣančab qota)	2,143,590
	9	Chifeng	Hongshan District	赤峰市 Chìfēng Shì	(ulaɣanqada qota)	4,341,245
	10	Tongliao	Horqin District	通辽市 Tōngliáo Shì	(töngliyao qota)	3,139,153
	12	Hulunbuir	Hailar District	呼伦贝尔市 Hūlúnbèi'ěr Shì	(kölün-buyir qota)	2,549,278
	— League —
	1	Alxa	Alxa Left Banner	阿拉善盟 Ālāshàn Méng	(alašan ayimaɣ)	231,334
	8	Xilingol	Xilinhot	锡林郭勒盟 Xīlínguōlè Méng	(sili-yin ɣoul ayimaɣ)	1,028,022
	11	Hinggan	Ulanhot	兴安盟 Xīng'ān Méng	(hingɣan ayimaɣ)	1,613,250

Many of the prefecture-level cities were converted very recently from leagues.

The twelve prefecture-level divisions of Inner Mongolia are subdivided into 101 county-level divisions, including twenty-one districts, eleven county-level cities, seventeen counties, forty-nine banners, and three autonomous banners. Those are in turn divided into 1425 township-level divisions, including 532 towns, 407 townships, 277 sumu, eighteen ethnic townships, one ethnic sumu, and 190 subdistricts.

Economy[link]

Farming of crops such as wheat takes precedence along the river valleys. In the more arid grasslands, herding of goats, sheep and so on is a traditional method of subsistence. Forestry and hunting are somewhat important in the Greater Khingan ranges in the east. Reindeer herding is carried out by Evenks in the Evenk Autonomous Banner. More recently, growing grapes and winemaking have become an economic factor in the Wuhai area.

Theater in Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China

Inner Mongolia has abundance of resources especially coal, cashmere, natural gas, rare earth elements, and has more deposits of naturally occurring niobium, zirconium and beryllium than any other province-level region in China. However in the past, the exploitation and utilisation of resources were rather inefficient, which resulted in poor returns from rich resources. Inner Mongolia is also an important coal production base, with more than a quarter of the world's coal reserves located in the province.^[15] It plans to double annual coal output by 2010 (from the 2005 volume of 260 million tons) to 500 million tons of coal a year.^[16]

Inner Mongolia Gymnasium

Industry in Inner Mongolia has grown up mainly around coal, power generation, forestry-related industries, and related industries. Inner Mongolia now encourages six competitive industries: energy, chemicals, metallurgy, equipment manufacturing, processing of farm (including dairy) produce, and high technology. Well-known Inner Mongolian enterprises include companies such as ERDOS, Yili, and Mengniu.

The nominal GDP of Inner Mongolia in 2010 was 1.16 trillion yuan (US$172.1 billion), a growth of 16.9% from 2008, with an average annual increase of 20% from the period 2003-2007. Its per capita GDP reached 37,287 yuan (US$5,460) in 2009. In 2008, Inner Mongolia's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 90.7 billion yuan, 427.1 billion yuan, and 258.4 billion yuan respectively. The urban per capita disposable income and rural per capita net income were 14,431 yuan and 4,656 yuan, up 16.6% and 17.8% respectively.^[17]

As with much of China, economic growth has led to a boom in construction, including new commercial development and large apartment complexes.

In addition to its large reserves of natural resources, Inner Mongolia also has the largest usable wind power capacity in China^[15] thanks to strong winds which develop in the province's grasslands. Some private companies have set up wind parks in parts of Inner Mongolia such as Bailingmiao, Hutengliang and Zhouzi.

Economic and Technological Development Zones[link]

• Baotou National Rare Earth Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone^[18]
• Erenhot Border Economic Cooperation Area
• Hohhot Export Processing Zone

Hohhot Export Processing Zone was established on June, 21st 2002 by State Council, which is located in the west of the Hohhot, with a planning area of 2.2 sqkm. Industries encouraged in the export processing zone include Electronics Assembly & Manufacturing, Telecommunications Equipment, Garment and Textiles Production, Trading and Distribution, Biotechnology/Pharmaceuticals, Food/Beverage Processing, Instruments & Industrial Equipment Production, Medical Equipment and Supplies, Shipping/Warehousing/Logistics, Heavy Industry.^[19]

• Hohhot Economic and Technological Development Zone
• Hohhot Export Processing Zone
• Manzhouli Border Economic Cooperation Area

Government and politics[link]

Under the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, articles 112-122, autonomous regions have limited autonomy in both the political and economic arena. Autonomous regions have more discretion in administering economic policy in the region in accordance with national guidelines. Structurally, the Chairman — who legally must be an ethnic minority and is usually ethnic Mongolian — is always kept in check by the Communist Party Regional Committee Secretary, who is usually from a different part of China (to reduce corruption) and Han Chinese. The current party secretary is Hu Chunhua.^[20] The Inner Mongolian government and its subsidiaries follow roughly the same structure as that of a Chinese province. With regards to economic policy, as a part of increased federalism characteristics in China, Inner Mongolia has become more independent in implementing its own economic roadmap.

Demographics[link]

Muslim-themed Street in Hohhot

When the autonomous region was established in 1947, Han Chinese comprised 83.6% of the population, while the Mongols comprised 14.8% of the population.^[21] By the year 2000, the percentage of Han Chinese fell to 79.17%. While the Hetao region along the Yellow River has always alternated between farmers from the south and nomads from the north, the most recent episode of Han Chinese migration began in the early 18th century with encouragement from the Qing Dynasty, and continued into the 20th century. Han Chinese live mostly in the Hetao region as well as various population centres in central and eastern Inner Mongolia. Over 70% of Mongols are concentrated in less than 18% of Inner Mongolia's territory (Hinggan League, and prefectures Tongliao and Chifeng).

Mongols are the second largest ethnic group, comprising 17.13% of the population, an increase of 2.33% since 1947. They include many diverse Mongolian-speaking groups; groups such as the Buryats and the Oirats are also officially considered to be Mongols in China. Many of the traditionally nomadic Mongols have settled in permanent homes as their pastoral economy was collectivized during the Maoist Era.

Other ethnic groups include the Daur, the Evenks, the Oroqen, the Hui, the Manchus, and the Koreans.

Excludes members of the People's Liberation Army in active service.

Culture[link]

A KFC in Hohhot, the capital; All street signs must be bilingual with Mongol and Chinese

The Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia speak a variety of dialects, depending on the region. The eastern parts tend to speak Northeastern Mandarin, which belongs to the Mandarin group of dialects; those in the central parts, such as the Huang He valley, speak varieties of Jin, another subdivision of Chinese, due to its proximity to other Jin-speaking areas in China such as the Shanxi province. Cities such as Hohhot and Baotou both have their unique brand of Jin Chinese which are sometimes incomprehensible with dialects spoken in northeastern regions such as Hailar.

Mongols in Inner Mongolia speak a variety of dialects of the Mongolian language, including Chahar, Bairin, Ordos, Ejin-Alxa, Barghu-Buryat, etc.; the standard pronunciation of Mongolian in China is based on the Chahar dialect of the Plain Blue Banner, located in central Inner Mongolia. This is different from independent Mongolia, where the standard pronunciation is based on the Khalkha dialect. The Daur, Evenks, and Oroqin speak their own respective languages.

By law, all street signs, commercial outlets, and government documents must be bilingual, written in Mongolian and Chinese. There are three Mongolian TV channels in the Inner Mongolia Satellite TV network. In public transportation, all announcements are to be bilingual. Many ethnic Mongols, especially the young, speak fluent Chinese. Mongolian is receding urban areas. But rural ethnic Mongols have kept their traditions. In terms of written language, Inner Mongolia has retained the classic Mongol written script as opposed to Outer Mongolia's adoption of Cyrillic.

The vast grasslands have long symbolised Inner Mongolia. Mongolian art often depicts the grassland in an uplifting fashion and emphasizes Mongolian nomadic traditions. The Mongols of Inner Mongolia still practice their traditional arts. Inner Mongolian cuisine has Mongol roots and consists of dairy-related products and hand-held lamb (手扒肉). In recent years, franchises based on Hot pot have appeared Inner Mongolia, the most famous of which is Xiaofeiyang (小肥羊). Famous Inner Mongolian commercial brand names include Mengniu and Yili, both of which began as dairy product and ice cream producers.

Among the Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia, Jinju (晉劇) or Shanxi Opera is a popular traditional form of entertainment. See also: Shanxi.

The famous actress Siqin Gaowa is an ethnic Mongol from Inner Mongolia.

A popular career in Inner Mongolia is circus acrobatics. The famous Inner Mongolia Acrobatic Troupe travels and performs with the renowned Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey Circus.

Tourism[link]

The Five Pagoda Temple in Höhhot, a Buddhist temple.

In the capital city Hohhot:

• Dazhao Temple is a Lamaist temple built in 1580. Dazhao Temple is known for three sites: a statue of Buddha made from silver, elaborate carvings of dragons, and murals.
• Xiaozhao Temple, also known as Chongfu temple, is a Lamaist temple built in 1697 and favoured by the Qing Dynasty emperor Kangxi.
• Xilituzhao Temple is the largest Lamaist temple in the Höhhot area, and once the center of power of Lamaism in the region.
• Zhaojun Tomb is the tomb of Wang Zhaojun, a Han Dynasty palace lady-in-waiting who became the consort of a Xiongnu ruler.
• Five-pagoda Temple is located in the capital of Inner Mongolia Hohhot. It is also called Jingangzuo Dagoba, used to be one building of the Cideng Temple.^[23]

Elsewhere in Inner Mongolia:

• The Mausoleum of Genghis Khan, the cenotaph of Genghis Khan, is located in Ordos City.
• Bashang Grasslands, on the border close to Beijing, is a popular retreat for urban residents wanting to get a taste of grasslands life.
• The Arshihaty Stone Forest in Hexigten Global Geopark has magnificent granite rock formations formed from natural erosion.
• Xiangshawan, or "singing sands gorge," is located in the Gobi Desert and contains numerous tourist attractions including sand sledding and camel rides.

Chinese space programme[link]

One of China's space vehicle launch facilities, Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (JSLC) (Chinese: 酒泉卫星发射中心), is located in the extreme west of Inner Mongolia, in the Alxa League's Ejin Banner, about 1,600 km from Beijing. It was founded in 1958, making it the PRC's first launch facility. More Chinese launches have occurred at Jiuquan than anywhere else. As with all Chinese launch facilities, it is remote and generally closed to the public. It is named as such since Jiuquan is the nearest urban centre, although Jiuquan is in the nearby province of Gansu. Many space vehicles have also made their touchdowns in Inner Mongolia. For example, the crew of Shenzhou 6 landed in Siziwang Banner, near Hohhot.

Education[link]

Colleges and universities[link]

• Chifeng University (ulaγanqada degedü surγaγuli / 赤峰学院)
• Inner Mongolia Agricultural University (öbür mongγol-un tariyalang-un yeke surγaγuli / 内蒙古农业大学)
• Inner Mongolia Finance and Economics College (öbür mongγol-un ed-ün jasaγ aju aqui-yin degedü surγaγuli / 内蒙古财经学院)
• Inner Mongolia Medical College (öbür mongγol-un emnelge-yin degedü surγaγuli / 内蒙古医学院)
• Inner Mongolia Normal University (öbür mongγol-un baγsi-yin yeke surγaγuli / 内蒙古师范大学)
• Inner Mongolia University (öbür mongγol-un yeke surγaγuli / 内蒙古大学)
• Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities (öbür mongγol-un ündüsüten-ü yeke surγaγuli / 内蒙古民族大学)
• Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology (内蒙古科技大学)
• Inner Mongolia University of Technology (öbür mongγol-un aju üiledbüri-yin yeke surγaγuli / 内蒙古工业大学)

All of the above are under the authority of the autonomous region government. Institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed.

See also[link]

• Leagues of Inner Mongolia
• List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia
• East Asian snowstorms of 2009-2010
• East Asian snowstorms of 2010-2011

Notes and references[link]