{{taxobox |name = Soybean |image = Soybean.USDA.jpg |regnum = Plantae |unranked_divisio = Angiosperms |unranked_classis = Eudicots |unranked_ordo = Rosids |ordo = Fabales |familia = Fabaceae |subfamilia = Faboideae |genus = ''Glycine'' |species = ''G. max'' |binomial = ''Glycine max'' |binomial_authority = (L.) Merr. |}}

The soybean (U.S.) or soya bean (UK) (''Glycine max'') is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses. The plant is classed as an oilseed rather than a Pulse (legume) by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO).

Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is a primary, low-cost, source of protein for animal feeds and most prepackaged meals; soy vegetable oil is another product of processing the soybean crop. For example, soybean products such as textured vegetable protein (TVP) are ingredients in many meat and dairy analogues. Soybeans produce significantly more protein per acre than most other uses of land.

Traditional nonfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, and from the latter tofu and tofu skin. Fermented foods include soy sauce, fermented bean paste, natto, and tempeh, among others. The oil is used in many industrial applications. The main producers of soy are the United States (35%), Brazil (27%), Argentina (19%), China (6%) and India (4%). The beans contain significant amounts of phytic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, and the isoflavones genistein and daidzein.

Name

The plant is sometimes referred to as greater bean (大豆 - Chinese ''dàdòu'' and Japanese ''daizu''). Both the immature soybean and its dish are called ''edamame'' in Japan, but in English, edamame refers only to a specific dish.

The English word "soy" is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of , the Japanese word for soya sauce; "soya" comes from the Dutch adaptation of the same word.

Classification

The genus name ''Glycine'' was originally introduced by Carl Linnaeus (1737) in his first edition of Genera Plantarum. The word glycine is derived from the Greek - ''glykys'' (sweet) and likely refers to the sweetness of the pear-shaped (''apios'' in Greek) edible tubers produced by the native North American twining or climbing herbaceous legume, ''Glycine apios'', now known as ''Apios americana''. The cultivated soybean first appeared in Species Plantarum, by Linnaeus, under the name ''Phaseolus max'' L. The combination ''Glycine max'' (L.) Merr., as proposed by Merrill in 1917, has become the valid name for this useful plant.

The genus ''Glycine'' Willd. is divided into two subgenera, ''Glycine'' and ''Soja''. The subgenus ''Soja'' (Moench) F.J. Herm. includes the cultivated soybean, ''Glycine max'' (L.) Merr., and the wild soybean, ''Glycine soja'' Sieb. & Zucc. Both species are annuals. ''Glycine soja'' is the wild ancestor of ''Glycine max'', and grows wild in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Russia. The subgenus ''Glycine'' consists of at least 16 wild perennial species: for example, ''Glycine canescens'' F.J. Herm. and ''G. tomentella'' Hayata, both found in Australia and Papua New Guinea.

Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety with a very large number of cultivars.

Description and physical characteristics

Soy varies in growth and habit. The height of the plant varies from below up to .

The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray hairs. The leaves are trifoliolate, having three to four leaflets per leaf, and the leaflets are long and broad. The leaves fall before the seeds are mature. The inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple.

The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five, each pod is 3–8 cm long (1–3 in) and usually contains two to four (rarely more) seeds 5–11 mm in diameter.

Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in many hull or seed coat colors, including black, brown, blue, yellow, green and mottled. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not germinate. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting.

Remarkably, seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation, yet survive and revive after water absorption. A. Carl Leopold, son of Aldo Leopold, began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University in the mid 1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability. Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting "biological membranes" and proteins in the dry state. Compare to tardigrades.

Chemical composition of the seed

{{nutritionalvalue | name=Soybean, mature seeds, raw | kJ=1866 | protein=36.49 g | fat=19.94 g | satfat=2.884 g | monofat = 4.404 g | polyfat = 11.255 g | carbs=30.16 g | calcium_mg=277 | copper_mg = 1.658 | iron_mg=15.70 | magnesium_mg=280 | phosphorus_mg=704 | potassium_mg=1797 | sodium_mg=2 | zinc_mg=4.89 | vitA_ug=1 | vitB6_mg=0.377 | vitB12_ug=0 | choline_mg=115.9 | vitC_mg=6.0 | vitK_ug=47 | water=8.54 g | fiber=9.3 g | tryptophan=0.591 g | threonine=1.766 g | isoleucine=1.971 g | leucine=3.309 g | lysine=2.706 g | methionine=0.547 g | cystine=0.655 g | phenylalanine=2.122 g | tyrosine=1.539 g | valine=2.029 g | arginine=3.153 g | histidine=1.097 g | alanine=1.915 g | aspartic acid=5.112 g | glutamic acid=7.874 g | glycine=1.880 g | proline=2.379 g | serine=2.357 g | sugars=7.33 g | right=1 | source_usda=1}} Together, oil and protein content account for about 60% of dry soybeans by weight; protein at 40% and oil at 20%. The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and about 5% ash. Soybean cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ.

Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soy milk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made.

The principal soluble carbohydrates of mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose (range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide raffinose (0.1–1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose. While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars, and therefore contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals; compare to the disaccharide trehalose. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes, producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane.

Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the whey and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous bifidobacteria in the colon against putrefactive bacteria.

The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to dietary fiber.

Nutrition

For human consumption, soybeans must be cooked with "wet" heat to destroy the trypsin inhibitors (serine protease inhibitors). Raw soybeans, including the immature green form, are toxic to humans, swine, chickens, and in fact, all monogastric animals.

Soybeans are considered by many agencies to be a source of complete protein. A complete protein is one that contains significant amounts of all the essential amino acids that must be provided to the human body because of the body's inability to synthesize them. For this reason, soy is a good source of protein, amongst many others, for vegetarians and vegans or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat. According to the US Food and Drug Administration:

Soy protein products can be good substitutes for animal products because, unlike some other beans, soy offers a 'complete' protein profile. ... Soy protein products can replace animal-based foods—which also have complete proteins but tend to contain more fat, especially saturated fat—without requiring major adjustments elsewhere in the diet.

However, as with many dietary health claims, there are opposing viewpoints on the health benefits of soybeans.

The gold standard for measuring protein quality, since 1990, is the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) and by this criterion soy protein is the nutritional equivalent of meat, eggs, and casein for human growth and health. Soybean protein isolate has a biological value of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97.

Soy protein is essentially identical to that of other legume seeds. Moreover, soybeans can produce at least twice as much protein per acre than any other major vegetable or grain crop besides hemp, five to 10 times more protein per acre than land set aside for grazing animals to make milk, and up to 15 times more protein per acre than land set aside for meat production.

Consumption of soy may also reduce the risk of colon cancer, possibly due to the presence of sphingolipids.

Cultivation

Soybeans are an important global crop, providing oil and protein. In the United States, the bulk of the crop is solvent-extracted with hexane, and the "toasted" defatted soymeal (50% protein) then makes possible the raising of farm animals (e.g. chicken, hog, turkey) on an industrial scale never before seen in human history. A very small proportion of the crop is consumed directly by humans. Soybean products do, however, appear in a large variety of processed foods.

During World War II, soybeans became important in both North America and Europe chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. During World War II, the soybean was discovered as fertilizer by the United States Department of Agriculture. In the 1960-1 Dillion round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the United States secured tariff-free access for its soybeans to the European market. In the 1960s, the United States exported over 90% of the world's soybeans. In 2005, top soybeans exporters are Brazil (39% of world soybean exports), United States (37%) and Argentina (16%), while top importers are China (41% of world soybean imports), European Union (22%), Japan (6%) and Mexico (6%).

Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of ; temperatures of below 20 °C and over 40 °C (68 °F, 104 °F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium ''Bradyrhizobium japonicum'' (syn. ''Rhizobium japonicum''; Jordan 1982). For best results, though, an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around , and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting.

The U.S., Brazil, Argentina, China and India are the world's largest soybean producers and represent more than 90% of global soybean production. The U.S. produced 75 million tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. In the 2010-2011 production year, this figure is expected to be over 90 million tonnes. Other leading producers are Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, China, and India.

Environmental groups, such as Greenpeace and the WWF, have reported soybean cultivation and the probability of increased soybean cultivation in Brazil has destroyed huge areas of Amazon rainforest, and is encouraging further deforestation.

American soil scientist Dr. Andrew McClung, who first showed that the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the Cerrado region of Brazil could grow profitable soybeans, was awarded the 2006 World Food Prize on October 19, 2006.

Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, viral diseases and parasites.

Soybeans can be grown organically, that is, without the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers.

History

Soybeans were a crucial crop in eastern Asia long before written records. They remain a major crop in China, Japan, and Korea. Prior to fermented products such as soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and miso, soy was considered sacred for its use in crop rotation as a method of fixing nitrogen. The plants would be plowed under to clear the field for food crops. Soy was first introduced to Europe in the early 18th century and to British colonies in North America in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England. Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910. In America, soy was considered an industrial product only, and was not used as a food prior to the 1920s. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent.

Asia

The wild ancestor of the soybean is ''Glycine soja'' (previously called ''G. ussuriensis''), a legume native to central China. The soybean has been used in China for 5,000 years as a food and a component of drugs. According to the ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BC, the legendary Emperor Shennong of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet. However, soy in particular was revered for its root structure as a means of crop rotation. Cultivation of soybeans was long confined chiefly to China, but gradually spread to other countries.

The oldest preserved soybeans were found in archaeological sites in Korea dated about 1000 BCE, though it is uncertain if they were wild, or cultivated strains - though the size of cultivated beans, the main difference between the two, is a genetic alteration that determines whether the wild pods burst to scatter seeds, and neither feature could be determined from the remains. Wild-size soybeans have been found in the Yellow River basin of China. Radiocarbon dating of soybean samples recovered through flotation during excavations at the Early Mumun period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000–900 BC.

From about the first century AD to the Age of Discovery (15-16th century), soybeans were introduced into several countries, such as India, Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Burma, Taiwan and Nepal. This spread was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The best current evidence on the Japanese Archipelago suggests soybean cultivation occurred in the early Yayoi period. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic ''Kojiki'' (Records of Ancient Matters), which was completed in 712 AD.

Many people have claimed soybeans in Asia were historically only used after a fermentation process, which lowers the high phytoestrogens content found in the raw plant. However, terms similar to "soy milk" have been in use since 82 AD, and there is evidence of tofu consumption that dates to 220.

United States

Soybeans were introduced to America in 1765 by Samuel Bowen, a sailor who had visited China. He grew soy near Savanna, Georgia, and even made soy sauce for sale to England.

Soy took on a very important role in the United States after World War I. During the Great Depression, the drought-stricken (Dust Bowl) regions of the United States were able to use soy to regenerate their soil because of its nitrogen-fixing properties. Farms were increasing production to meet with government demands, and Henry Ford was a great leader of the soybean industry.

In 1932-33, the Ford Motor Company spent approximately $1,250,000 on soybean research. By 1935, every Ford car had soy involved in its manufacture. For example, soybean oil was used to paint the automobiles, as well as fluid for shock absorbers. Ford's involvement with the soybean opened many doors for agriculture and industry to be linked more strongly than ever before.

Henry Ford promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Ford's interest led to two bushels (120 pounds) of soybeans being used in each Ford car, as well as products like the first commercial soy milk, ice cream and all-vegetable nondairy whipped topping. The Ford development of so-called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of soybean flour and wood flour to phenol formaldehyde plastics. A prototype vehicle, colloquially titled the "Soybean Car", was built in 1941 out of such plastics.

In 1931, Ford hired chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert to produce artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a formaldehyde bath, which was given the name Azlon. It was usable in the making of suits, felt hats, and overcoats. Though pilot production of Azlon reached 5000 pounds per day in 1940, it never reached the commercial market; Dupont's nylon was the winner in the quest to produce artificial silk.

South America

The soybean first arrived in South America in Brazil in 1882.

Africa

The soybean first arrived in Africa in Egypt in 1857.

Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania

Wild soybeans were discovered in northeastern Australia in 1770 by explorers Banks and Solander. In 1804, the first soyfood product ("Fine India Soy" [sauce]) was sold in Sydney. In 1879, the first domesticated soybeans arrived in Australia, a gift of the Minister of the Interior Department, Japan.

Canada

In 1831, the first soy product ("A few dozen India Soy" [sauce]) arrived in Canada. Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at Ontario Agricultural College. A comprehensive history of soy in Canada (1,060 p., 2,336 references) is available online.

Caribbean / West Indies

The soybean arrived in the Caribbean in the form of soy sauce made by Samuel Bowen in Savannah, Georgia, in 1767. It remains only a minor crop there, but its uses for human food are growing steadily. A comprehensive history of soybeans and soyfoods in this region is available free online

Central Asia

The soybean is first in cultivated Transcaucasia in Central Asia in 1876, by the Dungans. This region has never been important for soybean production. A comprehensive history of soybeans and soyfoods in this region is available online.

Mexico and Central America

The first reliable reference to the soybean in this region dates from Mexico in 1877. A comprehensive history of soybeans and soyfoods in this region is available online.

Southeast Asia

By the 13th century, the soybean had arrived in Indonesia; it probably arrived much earlier, carried by traders or merchants from southern China.

South Asia / Indian Subcontinent

By the 1600s, soy sauce was being disseminated from southern Japan throughout this region by the Dutch East India Co. (VOC). The soybean probably arrived from southern China, moving southward into northern India.

Genetic modification

Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that have been genetically modified, and genetically modified soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. In 1995, Monsanto Company introduced ''Roundup Ready'' (RR) soybeans that have been genetically modified to be resistant to Monsanto's herbicide Roundup through substitution of the ''Agrobacterium sp.'' (strain CP4) gene EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. The substituted version is not sensitive to glyphosate.

In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2010, the figure was 93%. As with other "Roundup Ready" crops, concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity. A 2003 study concluded the RR gene had been bred into so many different soybean cultivars, there had been little decline in genetic diversity, but "diversity was limited among elite lines from some companies".

The widespread use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the European Union, where there is considerable supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use. Difficulties with coexistence and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy.

A 2006 United States Department of Agriculture report found the adoption of genetically engineered (GE) soy, corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used overall, but did result in a slightly greater amount of herbicides used for soy specifically. The use of GE soy was also associated with greater conservation tillage, indirectly leading to better soil conservation, as well as increased income from off-farming sources due to the greater ease with which the crops can be managed. Most farmers adopted the GE crops to improve yields, save time and reduce the amount of money spent on pesticides. The use of GE soy also permits the use of a herbicide that is less toxic to humans. Though the overall estimated benefits of the adoption of GE soybeans in the United States was $310 million, the majority of this benefit was experienced by the companies selling the seeds (40%), followed by biotechnology firms (28%) and farmers (20%).

In 2010, a team of American scientists announced they had decoded the genome of the soybean - the first legume to be sequenced.

Uses

Approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and vegetable oil. Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild, nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. Tofu and soy milk producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because there is a tendency for the pods to shatter upon reaching maturity.

Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high (38–45%) protein content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Soybeans are the second-most valuable agricultural export in the United States behind corn. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.

Immature soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pods and served with salt, under the Japanese name . In English, these soybeans are generally known as "edamame" or "green vegetable soybeans".

In China, Japan, and Korea, the bean and products made from it are a popular part of the diet. The Chinese invented tofu (豆腐 ''dòufu''), and also made use of several varieties of soybean paste as seasonings. Japanese foods made from soya include ''miso'' (味噌), ''nattō'' (納豆), ''kinako'' (黄粉) and ''edamame'' (枝豆). In Korean cuisine, soybean sprouts, called ''kongnamul'' (콩나물), are also used in a variety of dishes, and are also the base ingredient in ''doenjang'', ''cheonggukjang'' and ''ganjang''. In Vietnam, soybeans are used to make soybean paste- ''tương'' in the North with the most popular products are ''tương Bần'', ''tương Nam Đàn'', ''tương Cự Đà'' as a garnish for ''phở'' and ''gỏi cuốn'' dishes), tofu (''đậu hũ'' or ''đậu phụ'' or ''tàu hũ''), soya sauce (''nước tương'', literally: soya water), soya milk (''nước đậu'' in the North or ''sữa đậu nành'' in the South), and ''đậu hũ nước đường'' (tofu sweet soup).

The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or soya) include soy meal, soy flour, soy milk, tofu, textured vegetable protein (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of vegetarian foods, some of them intended to imitate meat), tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of soy sauce (''shoyu'').

Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) is among the largest processors of soybeans and soy products. ADM, along with Dow Chemical Company, DuPont and Monsanto Company, support the industry trade associations United Soybean Board and Soyfoods Association of North America. These trade associations have increased the consumption of soy products dramatically in recent years.

Oil

Soybean seed contains about 19% oil. To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil", or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean meal is used mainly as animal feed.

Meal

Soybean meal is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean flakes, with a 50% soy protein content. The meal is 'toasted' (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill. Soybean meal is an essential element of the American production method of growing farm animals, such as poultry and swine, on an industrial scale that began in the 1930s; and more recently the aquaculture of catfish. Ninety-eight percent of the U.S. soybean crop is used for livestock feed. Soybean meal is also used in lower-end dog foods.

Flour

Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100-mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI), for uses such as extruder cooking of textured vegetable protein. It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.

Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less than 1% oil.

Full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about 18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content, a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill must be used for grinding rather than the more common hammer mill.

Low-fat soy flour is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid content varies according to specifications, usually between 4.5% and 9%.

High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour at the level of 15%.

Lecithinated soy flour is made by adding soybean lecithin to defatted, low-fat or high-fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying properties. The lecithin content varies up to 15%.

Reference: Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology. page 442. A.K. Smith and S.J. Circle. The AVI Publishing Company,1972.

Infant formula

Soy-based infant formula (SBIF) is used for infants who are allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms.

Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what effect the phytoestrogens in soybeans may have on infants. Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula. One of these studies, published in the ''Journal of Nutrition'', concludes that there are:

...no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition.

Meat and dairy substitutes and extenders

Soybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to many other foods. For example, soybeans are the primary ingredient in many dairy product substitutes (e.g., soy milk, margarine, soy ice cream, soy yogurt, soy cheese, and soy cream cheese) and meat substitutes (e.g. veggie burgers). These substitutes are readily available in most supermarkets. Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts of digestible calcium. Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium-enriched products, as well. Soy is also used in tempeh: the beans (sometimes mixed with grain) are fermented into a solid cake.

Soy products also are used as a low-cost substitute in meat and poultry products. Food service, retail and institutional (primarily school lunch and correctional) facilities regularly use such "extended" products. Extension may result in diminished flavor, but fat and cholesterol are reduced. Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein; the protein quality is already roughly equivalent. The soy-based meat substitute textured vegetable protein has been used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending ground beef without reducing its nutritional value.

Other products

Soybeans with black hulls are the beans used in Chinese fermented black beans, ''douchi'', not the sometimes confused black turtle beans.

Soybeans are also used in industrial products, including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and clothing. Soybean oil is the primary source of biodiesel in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production. Soybeans have also been used since 2001 as fermenting stock in the manufacture of a brand of vodka. In 1936 Ford Motor Company developed a method where soybean's and fibers were rolled together producing a soup which was then pressed into various parts for their cars, from the distributor cap to nobs on the dash board. Ford also informed in public relation releases that in 1935 over 5 million acres was dedicated to growing soybeans in the United States.

Cattle feed

Cattle are often fed soy. Spring grasses are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, whereas soy is predominantly omega-6.

Health benefits

Omega-3 fatty acids

Omega-3 fatty acids, for example, alpha-linolenic acid C18-3, all cis, 9,12,15 octadecatrienoic acid (where the omega-3 refers to carbon number 3 counting from the hydrocarbon tail, whereas C-15 refers to carbon number 15 counting from the carboxyl acid head) are special fat components that benefit many body functions. Some beneficial effects are associated mainly with the longer-chain fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA) found in some algae and oily fish. For instance, EPA and DHA inhibit blood clotting, while there is no evidence alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n−3, aLNA) can do this. Nevertheless, ''soybean oil'' is one of the few common vegetable oils that contain a significant amount of aLNA (others include canola, walnut, hemp, and flax). Soybean oil has a better omega-3:omega6 ratio of 1:7, much higher than other vegetable cooking oils. While flaxseed is even higher with a ratio of 3:1, it is not practical for cooking.

Natural phenols

Isoflavones

Soybeans also contain the isoflavones genistein and daidzein, types of phytoestrogen, that are considered by some dietitians and physicians to be useful in the prevention of cancer and by others to be carcinogenic and endocrine disruptive. Soy's content of isoflavones are as much as 3 mg/g dry weight. Isoflavones are polyphenol compounds, produced primarily by beans and other legumes, including peanuts and chickpeas. Isoflavones are closely related to the antioxidant flavonoids found in other plants, vegetables and flowers. Isoflavones such as genistein and daidzein are found in only some plant families, because most plants do not have an enzyme, chalcone isomerase which converts a flavone precursor into an isoflavone.

In contradiction to well known benefits of isoflavones, genistein acts as an oxidant (stimulating nitrate synthesis), and blocks formation of new blood vessels (antiangiogenic effect). Some studies show that genistein acts as inhibitor of substances that regulate cell division and cell survival (growth factors).

A review of the available studies by the United States Health and Human Services Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found little evidence of substantial health improvements and no adverse effects, but also noted that there was no long-term safety data on estrogenic effects from soy consumption.

Glyceollins

Glyceollins are molecules belonging to the pterocarpans family. They are also found in the soybean and have been found to have an antifungal activity against ''Aspergillus sojae'', the fungal ferment used to produce soy sauce. They are phytoalexins with an antiestrogenic activity.

Cholesterol reduction

The dramatic increase in soyfood sales is largely credited to the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) approval of soy as an official cholesterol-lowering food, along with other heart and health benefits. A 2001 literature review argued that these health benefits were poorly supported by the available evidence, and noted that disturbing data on soy's effect on the cognitive function of the elderly existed. In 2008, an epidemiological study of 719 Indonesian elderly found that tofu intake was associated with worse memory, but tempeh (a fermented soy product) intake was associated with better memory. This study replicated other studies.

In 1995, the ''New England Journal of Medicine'' (Vol. 333, No. 5) published-Title- "Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids", financed by DuPont Protein Technologies International (PTI), which produces and markets soy through The Solae Company (see external links). The meta-analysis concluded that soy protein is correlated with significant decreases in serum cholesterol, LDL (bad cholesterol) and triglycerides. However, HDL(good cholesterol) did not increase by a significant amount. Soy phytoestrogens (isoflavones: genistein and daidzein) adsorbed onto the soy protein were suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. On the basis of this research PTI filed a petition with FDA in 1998 for a health claim that soy protein may reduce cholesterol and the risk of heart disease.

The FDA granted the following health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease." One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein. Solae resubmitted their original petition, asking for a more vague health claim, after their original was challenged and highly criticized. Solae also submitted a petition for a health claim that soy can help prevent cancer. They quickly withdrew the petition for lack of evidence and after more than 1,000 letters of protest were received. On February 18, 2008 Weston A. Price Foundation submitted a petition for removal of this health claim.

An American Heart Association review of a decade long study of soy protein benefits casts doubt on the FDA allowed "Heart Healthy" claim for soy protein and does not recommend isoflavone supplementation. The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopause "hot flashes" in women and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question.

Phytic acid

Soybeans contain a high level of phytic acid, which has many effects including acting as an antioxidant and a chelating agent. The beneficial claims for phytic acid include reducing cancer, minimizing diabetes, and reducing inflammation. However, phytic acid is also criticized for reducing vital minerals due to its chelating effect, especially for diets already low in minerals.

Health risks

Allergy

Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported among younger children and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and/or results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions. It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist, soy allergy may cause cases of urticaria and angioedema, usually within minutes to hours of ingestion. In rare cases, true anaphylaxis may also occur. The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in allergy, are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish. An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins. However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms.

Soy can also trigger symptoms via food intolerance, a situation where no allergic mechanism can be proven. One scenario is seen in very young infants who have vomiting and diarrhoea when fed soy-based formula, which resolves when the formula is withdrawn. Older infants can suffer a more severe disorder with vomiting, diarrhoea that may be bloody, anemia, weight loss and failure to thrive. The most common cause of this unusual disorder is a sensitivity to cow's milk, but soy formulas can also be the trigger. The precise mechanism is unclear and it could be immunologic, although not through the IgE-type antibodies that have the leading role in urticaria and anaphylaxis. Fortunately it is also self-limiting and will often disappear in the toddler years.

Phytoestrogen

Soybeans contain isoflavones called genistein and daidzein, which are one source of phytoestrogens in the human diet. Because most naturally occurring estrogenic substances show weak activity, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans.

Plant lignans associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight. Another phytoestrogen in the human diet with estrogen activity is coumestans, which are found in beans, split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. Coumestrol, an isoflavone coumarin derivative is the only coumestan in foods.

Soybeans and processed soy foods are among the richest foods in total phytoestrogens (wet basis per 100g), which are present primarily in the form of the isoflavones daidzein and genistein.

Women

A 2001 literature review suggested that women with current or past breast cancer should be aware of the risks of potential tumor growth when taking soy products, based on the effect of phytoestrogens to promote breast cancer cell growth in animals. A 2006 commentary reviewed the relationship with soy and breast cancer. They stated that soy may prevent breast cancer, but cautioned that the impact of isoflavones on breast tissue needs to be evaluated at the cellular level in women at high risk for breast cancer. A high consumption of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are found in most types of vegetable oil including soybean oil, may increase the likelihood that postmenopausal women will develop breast cancer. Another analysis suggests an inverse association between total polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk. A 2011 analysis of the literature concluded that:- "Our study suggests soy isoflavones intake is associated with a significant reduced risk of breast cancer incidence in Asian populations, but not in Western populations."

Men

Because of the phytoestrogen content, some studies have suggested that soybean ingestion may influence testosterone levels in men. However, a 2010 meta-analysis of 15 placebo controlled studies showed that neither soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter measures of bioavailable testosterone or estrogen concentrations in men It has been hypothesized that soy foods and enterolactone may increase the development of prostate cancer although no significant associations were observed for the soy isoflavones. Furthermore, soy consumption has been shown to have no effect on the levels and quality of sperm A 2009 meta-analysis of the research on the association between soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men concluded that "consumption of soy foods is associated with a reduction in prostate cancer risk in men."

Brain

There is evidence that estrogen can help protect and repair the brain after injury, and it has been suggested that the phytoestrogens in soy may have a similar effect though this is controversial and there is also evidence that phytoestrogens may be harmful for the recovery of rats that have sustained brain injury. A study of Japanese men between 1965 and 1999 demonstrated a positive correlation between brain atrophy and consumption of tofu. A study on elderly Indonesian men and women found that tempeh consumption was independently related to better memory. the cooked flour has not been found carcinogenic. Whether soy might promote pancreatic cancer in humans is unknown because studies have not yet attempted to single out soy intake and the incidence of pancreatic cancer in humans, and the amount of soy fed to the rats is proportionately far larger than what humans would normally consume. However, the soy isoflavone genistein has been suggested as a chemopreventive agent against pancreatic cancer, by interfering with the chemical pathways that promote the creation and growth of tumors.

The Cancer Council of New South Wales, Australia has released a statement saying scientific research suggests that overall the moderate consumption of soy products does not appear to present a risk to women with breast cancer, and there is equivocal evidence that consuming large amounts of soy products may have a protective effect against developing breast and prostate cancer. However, the Council does not recommend taking soy dietary supplements as there is no evidence they are either effective or safe at preventing or treating cancers.

Soybean futures

Soybean futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in January (F), March (H), May (K), July (N), August (Q), September (U), November (X).

It is also traded on other commodity futures exchanges under different contract specifications: SAFEX: The South African Futures Exchange DC: Dalian Commodity Exchange KEX: Kansai Commodities Exchange in Japan TGE: Tokyo Grain Exchange in Japan

KCX: Fukuoka Commodity Exchange in Japan that was absorbed by the KEX

NCDEX: National Commodity and Derivaties Exchange, India.

See also

Edamame

Soy milk

Soy cheese

Tofu

Cash crop

Nutrition

Isoflavones

Soy allergy

Soy molasses

Soybean wars of Paraguay

Soybean management practices

References

External links

New Crop Resource Online Program - Large collection of Soybean information

The Solae Company, producer and marketer of soy; a joint venture of DuPont and Bunge Limited.

Category:Energy crops Category:Faboideae Category:Edible legumes Category:Fiber plants Category:Chinese ingredients Category:Vietnamese ingredients Category:Korean ingredients Category:Sequenced genomes Category:Fodder

am:ሻማ ar:فول الصويا an:Glycine max ast:Glycine max gn:Sóha bn:সয়াবিন be:Соя be-x-old:Соевыя бабы bo:སྲན་སེར། bs:Soja br:Soja bg:Соя ca:Soia cs:Sója cy:Soia da:Sojabønne de:Sojabohne et:Sojauba el:Σόγια es:Glycine max eo:Sojfabo fa:سویا fr:Soja gl:Soia gan:黃豆 ko:대두 hi:सोयाबीन hsb:Soja hr:Soja id:Kedelai ia:Soya is:Sojabaun it:Glycine max he:פולי סויה jv:Dhelé kn:ಸೋಯಾ ಅವರೆ sw:Soya la:Glycine max lv:Soja lt:Gauruotoji soja hu:Szójabab mk:Соја ml:സോയാബീൻസ് mr:सोयबीन ms:Kacang soya mn:Шар буурцаг nl:Sojaboon ne:भटमास ja:ダイズ frr:Soojabuan no:Soyabønne nn:Soyabønne oc:Sòja pnb:سویا بین pl:Soja warzywna pt:Soja ro:Soia qu:Suya ru:Соя sa:सोयामाषः simple:Soybean sk:Sója fazuľová sl:Soja sr:Соја sh:Soja fi:Soijapapu sv:Sojaböna tl:Balatong ta:சோயா அவரை te:సోయా చిక్కుడు th:ถั่วเหลือง tr:Soya uk:Соя ur:سویا پھلی vi:Đậu tương fiu-vro:Sojauba war:Glycine max zh-yue:黃豆 zh:大豆

Soy sauce (also called soya sauce) is a condiment produced by fermenting soybeans with ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''Aspergillus sojae'' molds, along with water and salt. After the fermentation, which yields fermented soybean paste, the paste is pressed, and two substances are obtained: a liquid, which is the soy sauce, and a cake of (wheat and) soy residue, the latter being usually reused as animal feed. Most commonly, a grain is used together with the soybeans in the fermentation process, but not always. Also, some varieties use roasted grain. Soy sauce is a traditional ingredient in East and Southeast Asian cuisines, where it is used in cooking and as a condiment. It originated in China 2,800 years ago and spread throughout Asia. In more recent times, it is also being used in Western cuisine and prepared foods. All varieties of soy sauce are salty, earthy, brownish liquids intended to season food while cooking or at the table.

History

Soy sauce originated in China 2,800 years ago and its use later spread to East and Southeast Asia. Like many salty condiments, soy sauce was probably originally a way to stretch salt, historically an expensive commodity. The recipe for Chinese soy sauce, ''jiangyou'' (}}), originally included fermented fish with soybeans originally used as a filler in the production of fish sauce. Eventually, soybeans became the principal ingredient for the fermented sauce.

Records of the Dutch East India Company list soy sauce as a commodity in 1737, when seventy-five large barrels were shipped from Dejima, Japan, to Batavia (present-day Jakarta) on the island of Java. Thirty-five barrels from that shipment were then shipped to the Netherlands.

In the 18th century, Isaac Titsingh published accounts of brewing soy sauce. Although earlier descriptions of soy sauce had been disseminated in the West, this was among the earliest to focus specifically on the brewing of the Japanese version.

By the mid-19th century, the expensive Japanese soy sauce, ''shōyu'', gradually disappeared from the European market, and soy sauce became synonymous with the Chinese product. Europeans were unable to make soy sauce because they did not understand the function of ''Aspergillus oryzae'', the fungus used in its brewing.

One 19th century writer records that in China, the best soy sauce is "made by boiling beans soft, adding an equal quantity of wheat or barley, and leaving the mass to ferment; a portion of salt and three times as much water are afterwards put in, and the whole compound left for two or three months when the liquid is pressed and strained".

Production

Soy sauce may be made either by fermentation or by hydrolysis; some commercial sauces contain a mixture of fermented and chemical sauces.

Traditional

Traditional soy sauces are made by mixing soybeans and grain with cultures such as ''Aspergillus oryzae'' and other related microorganisms and yeasts (the resulting mixture is called "koji" in Japan; the term "koji" is used both for the mixture of soybeans, wheat, and mold; as well as for only the mold). In older times, the mixture was then fermented naturally in giant urns and under the sun, which was believed to contribute additional flavors. Today, the mixture is generally placed in a temperature and humidity controlled incubation chamber.

Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein

Some brands of soy sauce are often made from acid-hydrolyzed soy protein instead of brewed with a traditional culture. This process may take only three days. Although they have a different flavor, aroma, and texture when compared to brewed soy sauces, they have a longer shelf-life and are more commonly produced for this reason. Some people feel the hydrolyzed sauces taste better, but some prefer the naturally brewed varieties. The clear plastic packets of dark sauce common with Chinese-style take out food typically use a hydrolyzed vegetable protein formula. Some higher-quality hydrolyzed vegetable protein products with no added salt, sugar or colorings are sold as low-sodium soy sauce alternatives called "liquid aminos" in health food stores, similar to the way salt substitutes are used. These products are, however not necessarily low in sodium. Bragg brand ''Liquid Aminos'' has 160 mg sodium per 2.5 mL serving or about 960 mg per tablespoon, which is more than some soy sauces for the same serving size.

Carcinogens may form during the manufacture of chemical sauce.

Types

Soy sauce has been integrated into the traditional cuisines of many East Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. Soy sauce is widely used as a particularly important flavoring in Japanese, Thai, Korean, and Chinese cuisine. Despite their rather similar appearance, soy sauces produced in different cultures and regions are different in taste, consistency, fragrance and saltiness. Soy sauce retains its quality longer when kept away from direct sunlight.

Chinese soy sauce

Chinese soy sauce, ''jiangyou'' (simpl.: / trad.: ) or ''chiyou'' (}}), is primarily made from soybeans, with relatively low amounts of other grains. There are two main varieties:

Light or fresh soy sauce (}} ''shēngchōu'' or }} "''jiàngqing''") is a thin (low viscosity), opaque, lighter brown soy sauce. It is the main soy sauce used for seasoning, since it is saltier, has less noticeable color, and also adds a distinct flavour. The light soy sauce made from the first pressing of the soybeans is called ''tóuchōu'' (), which can be loosely translated as first soy sauce or referred to as premium light soy sauce. ''Touchōu'' is sold at a premium because, like extra virgin olive oil, the flavor of the first pressing is considered superior. An additional classification of light soy sauce, ''shuānghuáng'' (}}), is double-fermented to add further complexity to the flavour. These last two more delicate types are used primarily for dipping. Dark and old soy sauce (}} ''lǎochōu''), a darker and slightly thicker soy sauce, is aged longer and contains added molasses to give it its distinctive appearance. This variety is mainly used during cooking, since its flavour develops during heating. It has a richer, slightly sweeter, and less salty flavour than light soy sauce. Dark soy sauce is partly used to add color and flavour to a dish after cooking, but, as stated above, is more often used during the cooking process, rather than after.

In traditional Chinese cooking, these soy sauces were employed in strategic ways to achieve a flavour and colour for the dish.

Another type, thick soy sauce ( ''jiàngyóugāo''), is a dark soy sauce that has been thickened with starch and sugar. It is occasionally flavored with MSG. This sauce is not usually used directly in cooking, but more often as a dipping sauce or poured on food as a flavourful addition.

=== Japanese soy sauce ===

Buddhist monks from China introduced soy sauce into Japan in the 7th century, where it is known as . The Japanese word ''tamari'' is derived from the verb that signifies "to accumulate", referring to the fact that ''tamari'' was traditionally a liquid byproduct produced during the fermentation of miso. Japan is the leading producer of ''tamari''.

''Shōyu'' is traditionally divided into five main categories depending on differences in their ingredients and method of production. Most, but not all Japanese soy sauces include wheat as a primary ingredient, which tends to give them a slightly sweeter taste than their Chinese counterparts. They also tend towards an alcoholic sherry-like flavor, sometimes enhanced by the addition of small amounts of alcohol as a natural preservative. The widely varying flavors of these soy sauces are not always interchangeable, some recipes only call for one type or the other, much like a white wine cannot replace a red's flavor or beef stock does not produce the same results as fish stock.

Some soy sauces made in the Japanese way or styled after them contain about fifty percent wheat.

Soy sauce has a distinct basic taste called in Japanese, due to naturally occurring free glutamates. ''Umami'' was identified as a basic taste in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda of the Tokyo Imperial University.

Production process

The production process for Honjozo ("genuine fermented") type is explained below. Before the process begins, the soybeans and the one without lipid are placed in water and pressure boiled. The wheat is roasted and mashed. #An equal amount of boiled soybeans and roasted wheat are mixed. A little spore of mold is added, and the substance is mixed for a few days. #A saline solution is put into the mold culture. #The mold ferments the saline solution. Over time, natural lactic acid bacteria makes lactic acid in the mold, and natural yeast makes alcohol. Most of soy sauce's smell are chemicals produced in this process by the molds. An amino-glycosidic reaction takes place in the mold. #The solution is separated into solid and liquid parts. The liquid part is kept. #The liquid is heated and filtered to remove any contamination. #The liquid is now Honjozo type soy sauce.

Related microorganisms

1: Koji

''Koji'' is a fungus of genus Aspergillus that is used for fermenting many ingredients in Japanese cuisine. Three species are used for brewing soy sauce:

''Aspergillus oryzae'': Strains with high proteolytic capacity are used for brewing soy sauce. This fungus is also used for saccharification of steamed rice for brewing sake.

''Aspergillus sojae'': This fungus also has a high proteolytic capacity.

''Aspergillus tamari'': This fungus is used for brewing tamari.

2: Microbes contained in Koji

''Bacillus spp''.(genus): This organism is likely to grow soy sauce ingredients, bring to generate odors and ammonia.

''Lactobacillus species'': This organism produces a lactic acid increases the acidity in the feed.

Soy sauce varieties

||"dark color"}}: Originating in the Kantō region, its usage eventually spread all over Japan. Over 80% of the Japanese domestic soy sauce production is of ''koikuchi'', and can be considered the typical Japanese soy sauce. It is produced from roughly equal quantities of soybean and wheat. This variety is also called ''kijōyu'' (}}) or ''namashōyu'' () when it is not pasteurized. ||"light color"}}: Particularly popular in the Kansai region of Japan, it is both saltier and lighter in color than ''koikuchi''. The lighter color arises from the use of ''amazake'', a sweet liquid made from fermented rice, that is used in its production. : Produced mainly in the Chūbu region of Japan, ''tamari'' is darker in appearance and richer in flavour than ''koikuchi''. It contains little or no wheat; wheat-free ''tamari'' can be used by people with gluten intolerance. It is the "original" Japanese soy sauce, as its recipe is closest to the soy sauce originally introduced to Japan from China. Technically, this variety is known as ''miso-damari'' (), as this is the liquid that runs off miso as it matures. ||"white"}}: In contrast to ''tamari'' soy sauce, ''shiro'' soy sauce uses mostly wheat and very little soybean, lending it a light appearance and sweet taste. It is more commonly used in the Kansai region to highlight the appearances of food, for example sashimi. ||"twice-brewed"}} : This variety substitutes previously-made ''koikuchi'' for the brine normally used in the process. Consequently, it is much darker and more strongly flavored. This type is also known as ''kanro shōyu'' () or "sweet shōyu".

Newer varieties of Japanese soy sauce include:

||"reduced salt"}}: This version contains 50% less salt than regular shōyu for health conscious consumers. ||"light salt"}}: This version contains 20% less salt than regular shōyu.

All of these varieties are sold in the marketplace in three different grades according to how they were produced:

: Contains 100% genuine fermented product : Contains genuine fermented shōyu mash mixed with 30–50% of chemical or enzymatic hydrolysate of plant protein : Contains ''Honjōzō'' or ''Kongō-jōzō'' ''shōyu'' mixed with 30–50% of chemical or enzymatic hydrolysate of plant protein

All the varieties and grades may be sold according to three official levels of quality:

: Standard grade, contains more than 1.2% total nitrogen : Upper grade, contains more than 1.35% of total nitrogen : Special grade, contains more than 1.5% of total nitrogen

Soy sauce is also commonly known as ''shōyu in Hawaii.

Indonesian soy sauce

In Indonesia, soy sauce is known as ''kecap'' (also ''ketjap'' or ''kecap''), which is a catch-all term for fermented sauces, and cognate to the English word "ketchup". Three common varieties of Indonesian soy-based ''kecap'' exist:

;'' Kecap asin'' : Salty soy sauce, which is very similar to Chinese light soy sauce, but usually somewhat thicker and has a stronger flavor; it can be replaced by light Chinese soy sauce in recipes. ;'' Kecap manis'' : Sweet soy sauce, which has a thick, almost syrupy consistency and a pronounced sweet, treacle-like flavor due to generous addition of palm sugar. In cooking, it may be replaced by molasses with a little vegetable stock stirred in. ;'' Kecap manis sedang'' : Medium sweet soy sauce, which has a less thick consistency and a more saline taste than Manis.

Burmese or Myanmar soy sauce

Burma is a country with a high production of soy bean. Pickled bean curds (se-tou-fu), made from soy beans and usually more spicy than those in the neighbouring countries, is one of the staples in Myanmar. Export of bean is upwards of hundred tons a year. The Burmese soy sauce production dated back to the Bagan era in the 9th and 10th century. Scripts written in praise of ''pe ngan byar yay'' (, literally "bean fish sauce") were found. Production increased to its heights during the Konbaung dynasty, circa 1700, when there was a bolstered migration of ethnic groups from the north to boost and modify the production of silk in Amarapura. Thick soy sauce is called ''kya nyo'' (, from Chinese ''jiangyou'' 醬油).

Malaysian soy sauce

Malays from Malaysia, using the Malay dialect similar to Indonesian, use the word ''kicap'' for soy sauce. ''Kicap'' is traditionally of two types: ''kicap lemak'' (lit "fat/rich soy sauce") and ''kicap cair''. ''Kicap lemak'' is similar to Indonesian ''kecap manis'' but with very much less sugar while ''kicap cair'' is the Malaysian equivalent of ''kecap asin''.

Singapore and Malaysian soy sauce

In Mandarin Chinese spoken in Malaysia and Singapore, soy sauce in general is ''dòuyóu'' (), a Mandarin transliteration of the Hokkien term for the sauce; dark soy sauce is called ''jiàngyóu'' () and light soy sauce is ''jiàngqīng'' (). ''Angmo daoiu'' (, lit. "foreigners' soy sauce") is the Hokkien name for Worcestershire sauce.

Korean soy sauce

Korean soy sauce, (called ''Joseon ganjang'', 조선간장, in Korean) is a byproduct of the production of ''doenjang'' (Korean fermented soybean paste). They are mainly used in making soups, seasoning, and dip sauce. ''Joseon ganjang'', thin and dark brown in color, is made entirely of soy and brine, and has a saltiness that varies according to the producer. Wide scale use of ''Joseon ganjang'' has been somewhat superseded by cheaper factory-made Japanese style soy sauce, called ''waeganjang'' (hangul: 왜간장/和: 간장). According to the 2001 national food consumption survey in Korea, traditional fermented ''ganjang'' comprised only 1.4% of soy sauce purchases.

Taiwanese soy sauce

The history of soy sauce making in Taiwan can be traced back to southeastern China, in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. Taiwanese soy sauce is known for its black bean variant, known as black bean soy sauce (黑豆蔭油), which takes longer to produce (about 6 months). Most major soy sauce makers in Taiwan, such as Kimlan (金蘭), Wan Ja Shan (萬家香), and President-Kikkoman (統萬), produce soy sauce made from soybeans and wheat. A few other makers, such as Wuan Chuang (丸莊), O'Long (黑龍), Tatung (大同) and Ruei Chun (瑞春) make black bean soy sauce.

Vietnamese soy sauce

Vietnamese soy sauce is called ''xì dầu'' derived from Cantonese name 豉油, ''nước tương'', or sometimes simply ''tương''. It is used mostly as a seasoning or dipping sauce for a number of dishes. Vietnamese cuisine itself favors fish sauce in cooking but ''nước tương'' has a clear presence in vegetarian cooking. Vietnamese only use light soy sauce (dark soy sauce is not used) to cook or to dip directly.

Philippine soy sauce

A type of soy sauce based product which is a popular condiment in the Philippines is called ''toyo'', usually found alongside other sauces such as fish sauce (''patis'') and sugar cane vinegar (''suka''). The flavor of Philippine soy sauce is a combination of ingredients made from soybeans, wheat, salt, and caramel, is interestingly milder compared to its other Asian counterparts—possibly an adaptation to the demands of the Filipino palate and its cuisine. It is thinner in texture and has a saltier taste compared to its Southeast Asian counterparts, much more similar to the Japanese ''shōyu''. It is used as a staple condiment to flavor many cooked dishes and as a marinade during cooking, it is also a table condiment, and is usually mixed and served with calamansi, a small Asian citrus-lime.

Nutrition

A study by the National University of Singapore showed that Chinese dark soy sauce contains 10 times the antioxidants of red wine, and can help prevent cardiovascular diseases. (However, it is unlikely to be used in nearly as great a quantity as wine.) Soy sauce is rich in lactic acid bacteria and of excellent anti-allergic potential.

Soy sauce contains ethyl carbamate.

Soy sauce does not contain a level of the beneficial isoflavones associated with other soy products such as tofu or edamame. It can also be very salty, having a salt content of between 14%–18%. Low-sodium soy sauces are produced, but it is difficult to make soy sauce without using some quantity of salt as an antimicrobial agent.

Allergies

Most varieties of soy sauce contain wheat, to which some people have a medical intolerance. However, some naturally brewed soy sauces made with wheat may be tolerated by people with a specific intolerance to gluten because gluten is not detectable in the finished product. Japanese tamari soy sauce is traditionally wheat-free, and some tamari available commercially today is wheat- and gluten-free. Kikkoman now make a gluten free soy sauce using rice flour instead of wheat.

Carcinogens

A 2001 test of various soy sauces and related products by the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency (FSA) found that 22 out of 100 samples contained a substance called 3-MCPD (3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol) at levels considerably higher than those deemed safe by the European Union. About two-thirds of the 22 samples also contained a second chemical called 1,3-DCP (1,3-dichloropropane-2-ol) which experts advise should not be present at any levels in food. Both chemicals are carcinogenic, and 1,3-DCP can cause genetic damage to be passed on to offspring who never consumed the sauces. The FSA recommended that the affected products be withdrawn, and in June 2001 issued a Public Health Advice leaflet warning against a small number of soy sauce products that were found to contain high levels of potentially cancer-causing chemicals. The leaflet singled out brands and products (some by batch numbers) imported from Thailand, China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Although the leaflet primarily looked at soy sauce, it also included oyster sauce, marinades and other types of sauces, that affected the brands Golden Mountain, King Imperial, Pearl River Bridge, Jammy Chai, Lee Kum Kee, Golden Mark, Kimlan, Golden Swan, Sinsin and Tung Chun. Despite these being small in number in the UK, they are the dominant brands in their respective nations.

In Vietnam, 3-MCPD was found in toxic levels (In 2004 the HCM City Institute of Hygiene and Public Health found 33 of 41 sample of soya sauce with high rates of 3-MCPD, including six samples with 11,000 to 18,000 times more 3-MPCD than permitted, compared to about 5,000 times in 2001) in soy sauces there in 2007, along with formaldehyde in the national dish Pho, and banned pesticides in vegetables and fruits. The newspaper ''Thanh Nien Daily'' commented: "Health agencies have known that Vietnamese soy sauce, the country's second most popular sauce after fish sauce, has been chock-full of cancer agents since at least 2001."

See also

Doenjang

Fermented bean paste

Miso

Yellow soybean paste

Notes

References

Titsingh, Isaac. (1781). "''Bereiding van de Soya"'' ("Producing Soy Sauce"), ''Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap'' (''Transactions of the Batavian Academy''), Vol. III. OCLC 9752305

Category:Chinese condiments Category:Soy products Category:Fermented foods Category:Japanese condiments Category:Japanese cuisine Category:Philippine cuisine Category:Vietnamese cuisine Category:Korean condiments Category:Umami enhancers

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