A city charter or town charter (generically, municipal charter) is a legal document (charter) establishing a municipality such as a city or town. The concept developed in Europe during the middle ages.

Traditionally the granting of a charter gave a settlement and its inhabitants the right to town privileges under the feudal system. Townspeople who lived in chartered towns were burghers, as opposed to serfs who lived in villages. Towns were often "free", in the sense that they were directly protected by the king or emperor, and were not part of a feudal fief.

Today the process for granting charters is determined by the type of government of the state in question. In monarchies, charters are still often a royal charter given by the Crown or the state authorities acting on behalf of the Crown. In federations, the granting of charters may be within the jurisdiction of the lower level of government such as a state or province.

Canada[link]

In Canada charters are granted by provincial authorities.

Philippines[link]

Since the beginning of American colonial rule, Philippines cities were formally established through laws enacted by the various national legislatures in the country. The Philippine Commission gave the city of Manila its charter in 1901, while the city of Baguio was established by the Philippine Assembly which was composed by elected members instead of appointed ones. During the Commonwealth era, the National Assembly established an additional ten cities. Since achieving independence from the United States in 1946 the Philippine Congress has established 124 more cities (as of September 2007), the majority of which required the holding of a plebiscite within the proposed city's jurisdiction to ratify the city's charter.

Sweden[link]

In Sweden until 1951, cities were established by royal charter; see City status in Sweden.

United Kingdom[link]

In the United Kingdom, towns and cities are established by royal charter; see city status in the United Kingdom.

United States[link]

In the United States, such charters are established either directly by a state legislature by means of local legislation, or indirectly under a general municipal corporation law, usually after the proposed charter has passed a referendum vote of the affected population.

Literature[link]

• Winfield, P.H., The charter of San Francisco (The fortnightly review Vol. 157-58:2 (1945), p. 69-75)

See also[link]

• German town law

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Rudolph F. "Rudy" Crew (born September 10, 1950, in Poughkeepsie, New York^[1]) is professor of Clinical Education at the University of Southern California's Rossier School of Education. He is a former Superintendent of Miami-Dade County Public Schools. Appointed to the post in 2004, Crew previously was an executive at the Stupski Foundation, as well as a board member at The Center for Arts Education. Prior to that he served as the executive director of the University of Washington's Institute for K-12 Leadership. Before the university position, he served as chancellor of the New York City Board of Education, 1995–1999,^[2] where many educators, including Thomas Sobol who served as the state education commissioner, believe Crew left behind an important legacy.^[3]

Crew’s leadership in Miami was reflected in recognition as a finalist for the prestigious Broad Prize for three consecutive years (2006–08),^[4] and in School Improvement Zone being named a Top 50 Innovation by Harvard Kennedy School's Ash Institute,^[5] 12 high schools being named among the best by Newsweek,^[6] Crew was named the 2008 National Superintendent of the Year by the American Association of School Administrators (AASA), topping the 50 state winners.^[7] His initiatives have led the District to be viewed nationally as a model of success,^[8] with the secondary-school reform program being credited with Miami’s graduation-rate boost.^[9]

Crew has also garnered controversy. At a June 2008 school board meeting, Crew said the district had overspent millions of dollars during the past two years because it had hired more teachers than budgeted, lost state funding, and encountered rising costs.^[10] School Board member Renier Diaz De La Portilla called for Crew's ouster, criticizing the way he has managed the schools' budget.^[11][12] Ana Rivas Logan, another board member, called Crew "insubordinate."^[11] At an August 4, 2008 school board meeting, the item to terminate Crew's contract failed. Despite Crew's strong support from business and community leaders,^[13] the School Board bought out his contract at its September 10, 2008 meeting.

Early years[link]

Crew's mother died when he was an infant and he was raised by his father, Eugene Crew. Crew was the first male in his family to attend college, and he was among the African-American students that helped integrate Babson College as undergraduates. He holds Master of Education and a Doctor of Education from the University of Massachusetts Amherst.^[12]

He began his career as a school administrator in Worcester, Massachusetts.^[14] He also worked in administrative positions in Boston, Massachusetts and was the assistant superintendent and superintendent of schools in Sacramento, California.^[12]

Relations with New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani[link]

Crew replaced Ramon C. Cortines as chancellor of New York City's Board of Education. As chancellor of the nation’s largest school district, Crew was referred to as the “other” Rudy.^[15]

He opposed Mayor Giuliani's plan to initiate a private school voucher system. The New York Times wrote that Giuliani "drove the chancellor out with a campaign of public criticism.^[16]

Career after New York[link]

In 2005 and in 2007 Crew's name was floated as a potential superintendent of District of Columbia Public Schools.^[17]

There has been substantial academic research on changes to oversight in New York City that indicate Crew's creation of a more autonomous "Chancellor's District" was effective turning around failing schools.^[18] In 2010, the Coalition for Educational Justice in New York City cited the Chancellor’s District and Crew's School Improvement Zone in Miami as a framework for their School Transformation Zone.^[19]

Controversies[link]

During his career, Crew's administrations have been marred by unreported cases of sexual assaults, drops in test scores and efforts to remove independent oversight.

In New York, a 1997 report by Edward F. Stancik, the Special Commissioner of Investigation, questioned school administrators for not following procedures and delaying the report of a rape of a 14-year old girl, which was the third instance in that high school. In response to the report, Crew initiated due process procedures to determine disciplinary action for the administrators involved.^[20] In Miami, Crew’s administration was once again involved in not reporting a crime and obstructing the investigation involving the sexual assault of a 14-year-old female student by a football player, who was later charged with lewd and lascivious assault on a minor.^[21]

In both New York and Miami, Crew was blamed for organizing efforts to remove independent oversight during his tenure. Crew engaged in a campaign to have New York’s independent investigator Edward F. Stancik removed by accusing him of exaggerating his reports saying they were overly dramatic and adversely affected the school system.^[22] In Miami, a civil suit was brought against Crew by the former Miami-Dade County Public Schools Inspector General, Herbert Cousins, a former FBI agent who alleges Crew and his staff slandered and defamed him to obstruct his investigation and disclosure of illegal activities by Crew and some board members.^[21]

When looking at Crew’s student achievement record, some point to one-year drops in test scores as a picture of his overall record. The Abt report concluded that Tacoma’s 1995 increase in test scores was most likely a result of efforts to increase student test-taking skills, but Tacoma school officials believe the short-term gains were a result of Crew leaving for New York causing a setback in continued improvement.^[23] Peter Sacks, an author and journalist, said that Crew is one of a breed of superintendent who focuses on short-term gains that may not be good for the district in the long-term.^[21] However, in New York, reforms initiated during Crew’s tenure have been credited with playing a role in the continually improving test scores that his successors have achieved.^[24] During Crew’s tenure, student achievement levels had been rising steadily for several years when math and science scores dropped in 1997, as a result of new tests and higher standards. At the time, Mayor Giuliani placed blame on the school board and the dysfunctional system itself.^[25]

In Miami, critics point to an increase in “F” schools during 2007 that was actually a state-wide phenomenon caused by a change in the school grading formula.^[26] The Greater-Miami Chamber of Commerce stated that Crew’s success was reflected in the District’s performance on the FCAT, which continues a trend that adds up to significant improvement over the last five years.^[27] In 2009, this overall trend continued, and Miami high school students made greater gains than their peers statewide.^[28] Crew’s secondary school reform initiative was credited by his successor for boosting the district’s high school graduation rate.^[29]

In June 2008, the Miami Herald reported that Crew's School Improvement Zone generated few noteworthy achievements in its first year. One school board member stated, "We spent $100 million and it didn't do anything. To me, that's a complete failure."^[30] Defenders of the program note that over the project's three year history, substantial gains have been made, including the percentage of "D" and "F" schools dropping from 90% in 2005 to 22% in 2007.^[31] One principal credited the initiative with helping her school raise its grade from a “D” to an “A” in three years.^[9]

Book by Crew[link]

• Only Connect: The Way to Save Our Schools. New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux. (2007) ISBN 0-374-29401-1

See also[link]

Biography portal

• Mayoralty of Rudy Giuliani
• Miami-Dade County Public Schools
• New York City Board of Education

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• Official Site
• PBS Frontline interview

Thomas Thornton (1885–1951) was a footballer who played for Stoke before he returned to amateur football with Newport County. He made 20 appearances for Stoke.^[1]

References[link]

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