A province is a territorial unit, almost always an administrative division, within a country or state.

Etymology

The English word "province" is attested since about 1330 and derives from the 13th-century Old French "''province''," which itself comes from the Latin word "''provincia''," which referred to the sphere of authority of a magistrate; in particular, to a foreign territory.

A possible Latin etymology is from "''pro-''" ("on behalf of") and "''vincere''" ("to triumph" or "to take control of"). Thus a "province" was a territory or function that a Roman magistrate held control of on behalf of his government. This, however, does not tally with the Latin term's earlier usage as a generic term for a jurisdiction under Roman law.

Geology

In geology, the term "province" refers to a specific physiogeographic area that comprises a grouping of like bathymetric or former bathymetric elements (now sedimentary strata above water) whose features are in obvious contrast to the surrounding regions, or other "provinces." The term usually refers to sections or regions of a craton recognized within a given time-stratigraphy, i.e., recognized within a major division of time within a geologic period.

History and culture

In France, the expression "''en province''" still tends to mean "outside the Paris region." Equivalent expressions are used in Peru ("''en provincias''," "outside the city of Lima"), Mexico ("''la provincia''," "lands outside Mexico City"), Romania ("''în provincie''," "outside the Bucharest region"), Poland ("''prowincjonalny''," "provincial") and Bulgaria ("''в провинцията''," "''v provintsiyata''," "in the provinces"; "''провинциален''," "''provintsialen''," "provincial"). Similarly, in Australia "provincial" refers to parts of a state outside of the state capital.

Before the French Revolution, France comprised a variety of jurisdictions (e.g., Ile-de-France, built around the early Capetian royal demesne), some being considered "provinces," though the term was also used colloquially for territories as small as a manor (''châtellenie''). Most commonly referred to as "provinces," however, were the ''Grands Gouvernements'', generally former medieval feudal principalities, or agglomerations of such. Today the expression "''province''" is sometimes replaced by "''en région''," "'' région''" now being the term officially used for the secondary level of government.

In Italy, "''in provincia''" generally means "outside the biggest regional capitals" (like Rome, Milan, Naples, etc.).

The historic European provinces—built up of many small regions, called "''pays''" by the French and "cantons" by the Swiss, each with a local cultural identity and focused upon a market town—have been depicted by Fernand Braudel as the optimum-size political unit in pre-industrial Early Modern Europe. He asks, "Was the province not its inhabitants' true 'fatherland'?" Even centrally-organized France, an early nation-state, could collapse into autonomous provincial worlds under pressure, as during the sustained crisis of the French Wars of Religion (1562—98).

To 19th- and 20th-century historians, in Europe, centralized government was a sign of modernity and political maturity. In the late 20th century, as the European Union drew nation-states closer together, centripetal forces seemed simultaneously to move countries toward more flexible systems of more localized, provincial governing entities under the overall European Union umbrella. Spain after Francisco Franco has been a "State of Autonomies," formally unitary but in fact functioning as a federation of Autonomous Communities, each exercising different powers. (See Politics of Spain.)

While Serbia, the rump of former Yugoslavia, fought the separatists in the province of Kosovo, the United Kingdom, under the political principle of "devolution," produced (1998) local parliaments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Strong local nationalisms have surfaced or developed in Britain's Cornwall, France's Brittany, Languedoc and Corsica, Spain's Catalonia and the Basque Country, Italy's Lombardy, Belgium's Flanders; and, east of Europe, in Abkhazia, Chechnya and Kurdistan.

Legal aspects

In many federations and confederations, the province or state is not clearly subordinate to the national or central government. Rather, it is considered to be sovereign in regard to its particular set of constitutional functions. The central- and provincial-government functions, or areas of jurisdiction, are identified in a constitution. Those that are not specifically identified are called "residual powers." In a decentralized federal system (such as the United States and Australia) these residual powers lie at the provincial or state level, whereas in a centralized federal system (such as Canada) they are retained at the federal level. Some of the enumerated powers can be quite important. For example, Canadian provinces are sovereign in regard to such important matters as property, civil rights, education, social welfare and medical services.

The evolution of federations has created an inevitable tug-of-war between concepts of federal supremacy versus "states' rights". The historic division of responsibility in federal constitutions is inevitably subject to multiple overlaps. For example, when central governments, responsible for foreign affairs, enter into international agreements in areas where the state or province is sovereign, such as the environment or health standards, agreements made at the national level can create jurisdictional overlap and conflicting laws. This overlap creates the potential for internal disputes that lead to constitutional amendments and judicial decisions that alter the balance of powers.

Though foreign affairs do not usually fall under a province’s or a federal state’s competency, some states allow them to legally conduct international relations on their own in matters of their constitutional prerogative and essential interest. Sub-national authorities have a growing interest in paradiplomacy, be it performed under a legal framework or as a trend informally admitted as legitimate by the central authorities.

In unitary states such as France and China, provinces are subordinate to the national, central government. In theory, the central government can create or abolish provinces within its jurisdiction.

Current provinces

Not all second-level political entities are termed "provinces." In Arab countries, the secondary level of government, called a ''muhfazah'', is usually translated as a "governorate."

In Poland, the equivalent of "province" is "''województwo''," sometimes rendered in English as "voivodeship."

In Peru, provinces are tertiary units of government, as the country is divided into twenty-five regions, subdivided into 194 provinces. Chile follows a similar pattern, being divided into 15 regions, subdivided into 53 provinces, each run by a governor appointed by the president.

Historically, New Zealand was divided into provinces, each with its own Superintendent and Provincial Council, and with considerable responsibilities conferred on them. However, the colony (as it then was) never developed into a federation; instead, the provinces were abolished in 1876. The old provincial boundaries continue to be used to determine the application of certain public holidays. Over the years, when the central Government has created special-purpose agencies at a sub-national level, these have often tended to follow or approximate the old provincial boundaries. Current examples include the 16 Regions into which New Zealand is divided, and also the 21 District Health Boards. Sometimes the term ''the provinces'' is used to refer collectively to rural and regional parts of New Zealand, that is, those parts of the country lying outside some or all of the "main centres"—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Hamilton and Dunedin.

Modern provinces

In many countries, a province is a relatively small non-constituent level of sub-national government, varying in size from that of a UK county to that of a U.S. state an autonomous level of government and a constituent element of a federation or confederation, often with a large territory. In China, a province is a sub-national region within a unitary state; this means that a province can be created or abolished by the central government.

A province is a distinct unit of government in the Philippines, Belgium, Spain and Italy; and a large constituent autonomous area in Canada, Congo and Argentina.

In Italy and Chile, a province is an administrative sub-division of a region, which is the first-order administrative sub-division of the state. Italian provinces comprise several administrative sub-divisions called ''comuni'' (communes). In Chile, they are referred to as ''comunas''.

Five Canadian provinces Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island have "counties" as administrative sub-divisions. The Canadian province of British Columbia has "regional districts" which function as equivalents of the aforesaid counties.

The island of Ireland is divided into four historic provinces (see Provinces of Ireland), each of which is sub-divided into counties. These provinces are Connacht (in the west), Leinster (in the east), Munster (in the south) and, perhaps most famously (due to The Troubles), Ulster (in the north). Nowadays these provinces have little or no administrative function, though do have sporting significance.

Some overseas parts of the British Empire bore the colonial title of "province" (in a more Roman sense), such as the Province of Canada and the Province of South Australia (the latter, to distinguish it from the penal "colonies" elsewhere in Australia). Similarly, Mozambique was a "province" as a Portuguese colony.

Russia

The term "province" is also sometimes used to refer to the historic governorates (''guberniyas'') of Russia. This terms also refers to the ''provinces'' (), which were introduced as the subdivisions of ''guberniyas'' in 1719 and existed until 1775. In more modern use, "province" is commonly used to refer to the oblasts and krais of Russia.

Largest

The world's most populous province is Henan, China, population 93,000,911.

The world's largest province by area is Quebec, Canada (1,500,000 km²).

Polities translated "province"

! Country	! local name(s)	! language	! Number of entities
Provinces of Afghanistan	''wilayat''	Pashto	34
Provinces of Algeria	''wilaya''		48
Provinces of Angola	''província''		18
Provinces of Argentina	''provincia''		23
Provinces of Armenia	''marz''		11
Provinces of Belarus	''voblast''		7
	''provincie''		5
	''province''		5
Provinces of Bolivia	''provincia''		100
Provinces of Bulgaria	''oblast''		28
Provinces of Burkina Faso	''province''		45
Provinces of Burundi	''province''		17
Provinces of Cambodia	''khaet''		20
	''province''	English language	10
[[Provinces of Chile	''provincia''		54
Provinces of China		Mandarin Chinese	22 + 1
Provinces of Costa Rica	''provincia''		7
Provinces of Colombia	''provincia''
Provinces of Cuba	''provincia''		15
Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	''province''		26
Provinces of the Dominican Republic	''provincia''		33
Provinces of Ecuador	''provincia''		24
Provinces of Equatorial Guinea	''provincia''		7
Provinces of Fiji	''yasana''		14
Provinces of Finland	''läänit'' or ''län''	Finnish language	6
[[Provinces of Gabon	''province''		9
Provinces of Greece	''επαρχία'' (eparchia)		73
Provinces of Indonesia	''provinsi'' or ''propinsi''		33
Provinces of Iran	''ostan''		30
Provinces of Ireland	''cúige''		4
Provinces of Italy	''provincia''		110
Provinces of Kazakhstan	''oblasy''		14
Provinces of Kenya	province		8
Provinces of Kyrgyzstan	''oblasty''	Kyrgyzian	7
Provinces of Laos	''khoueng''	Lao	16
Provinces of Madagascar	''faritany''		6
Provinces of Mongolia			6
Provinces of Mozambique	''província''		10
Provinces of the Netherlands	''provincie''		12
Provinces of North Korea	''do'' or ''to'' (도)		10
Provinces of Oman	''wilaya''	Arabic	appr. 60
Provinces of Pakistan	''suba''; plural: ''subai''	Urdu	5
Provinces of Panama	''provincia''		9
Provinces of Papua New Guinea	province		19
Provinces of Peru	''provincia''		195
Provinces of the Philippines	''lalawigan'' or ''probinsya''		80
Provinces of Rwanda	''intara''		5
Provinces of São Tomé and Príncipe	''província''		2
Provinces of Saudi Arabia	''mintaqah''	Arabic	13
Provinces of Sierra Leone	province		3
Provinces of the Solomon Islands			9
Provinces of South Africa	province		9
Provinces of South Korea	''do'' or ''to'' (도/道)		10
Provinces of Spain	''provincia''		50
Provinces of Sri Lanka	පළාත/palaatha,மாகாணம்/maahaanam & province	Sinhala, tamil & english	9
Provinces of Tajikistan	''veloyati'', from Arabic ''wilaya''	Tajik	3
Provinces of Thailand	''changwat'' (จังหวัด)		76 + 1
Provinces of Turkey	''il''		81
Provinces of Turkmenistan	''welayat'' (plural: ''welayatlar'') from ''wilaya''	Turkmeni	5
Provinces of Ukraine	''oblast''		24
Provinces of Uzbekistan	''viloyat'' (plural: ''viloyatlar'')	from Arabic ''wilaya''	12
Provinces of Vanuatu			6
Provinces of Vietnam	''tỉnh''		58
Provinces of Zambia	province		9
Provinces of Zimbabwe	province		8

Historic provinces

Ancient, medieval and feudal

Caliphate and subsequent sultanates: see Emirate

Khanate can also mean a province as well as an independent state, as either can be headed by a Khan

Byzantine Empire: see exarchate, thema

Pharaonic Egypt: see nome (Egypt)

Frankish (Carolingian) 're-founded' Holy Roman Empire: see gau and county

In the Habsburg territories, the traditional provinces are partly expressed in the ''Länder'' of 19th-century Austria-Hungary.

Mughal Empire: subah

The provinces of the Ottoman Empire had various types of governors (generally a pasha), but mostly styled vali, hence the predominant term ''vilayet'', generally subdivided (often in beyliks or sanjaks), sometimes grouped under a governor-general (styled beylerbey).

Achaemenid Persia (and probably before in Media, again after conquest and further extension by Alexander the Great, and in the larger Hellenistic successor states: see satrapy

The Roman Empire was divided into provinces (''provinciae'').

In the Tartar Khanate of Kazan: the five daruğa ('direction')

Colonial and Early Modern

Spanish empire, at several echelons:

*viceroyalty above

*intendencia

British colonies:

*Province of Canada (1840-1867)

* Provinces of India

* Provinces of New Zealand (1841-1876)

* Provinces of Nigeria

* Province of South Australia (now an Australian state)

The former provinces of Brazil

The former provinces of France

The former provinces of Ireland

The former provinces of Japan

The provinces of Prussia, a former German kingdom/republic

The former provinces of Sweden

The former Republic of the Seven United Provinces (The Netherlands)

The former United Provinces of Central America

The former United Provinces of the Río de la Plata

See also

Governor

Region

Provincialism

Regionalism (politics)

Rise: The Vieneo Province

Notes

References

Etymology OnLine

WorldStatesmen

External links

Interactive China province map with city guides and more.

Category:Administrative divisions

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name	Leon Schuster
birth name	Leon Schuster
birth date	May 21, 1951
birth place	Vereeniging, South Africa
othername	(Mr.) Schuks / Schucks
yearsactive	1975–present
residence	Johannesburg, South Africa
website	http://www.schuks.co.za/
notable role	Mr. Bones in Mr BonesMama Jack in Mama Jack
tonyawards	}}

Leon Ernest "Schuks" Schuster (born May 21, 1951) is a South African filmmaker, comedian, actor, presenter and singer.

Early life

Schuster was drawn to the filmmaking process at an early age. As children he and his brother would play practical jokes on his family and film these with an old home movie camera.

Schuster studied for a BA degree at the University of the Orange Free State and spent two years teaching at a high school in Bloemfontein.

Career

Schuster began working for the South African Broadcasting Corporation in 1975. During his time at the SABC, Leon created the Afrikaans radio series ''Vrypostige Mikrofoon'' with Fanus Rautenbach– where he would disguise his voice and take the mickey out of unsuspecting victims.

Music

In 1982, Leon was approached by Decibel Records to compile a series of sports songs and his first record, ''Leon Schuster'' sold 100,000 units. His second album ''Broekskeur'' sold in excess of 40,000 units and this was followed by ''Briekdans and Leon Schuster – 20 Treffers'' which sold in excess of 270,000 copies.

His hit CD ''Hier Kom Die Bokke'' garnered an FNB Sama Music Award for Biggest Selling CD of 1995. His following CD, ''Gatvol in Paradise'', sold in more than 125,000 units and gave rise to the unofficial Gauteng anthem, ''Gautengeling''.

Film

Schuster's first feature, ''You Must Be Joking!'' produced in collaboration with Johan Scholtz and Elmo de Witt became popular with South African audiences and it gave rise to the sequel ''You Must be Joking! Too''.

These films were candid camera sketches and Schuster made many more of these films as well as slap-stick films, the most notable of which was ''Mr Bones''. The film emerged as the most successful Schuster film of all time, earning more than R33 million at the South African box office.

Filmography

! Year !! Film !! Role !! Gross
1986		Schucks
1987	''You Must Be Joking! Too''	Schucks
1989	''Oh Schucks...It's Schuster!''	Schucks
1990	''Oh Shucks! Here Comes UNTAG''	Kwagga Robertse
1991	''Sweet 'n Short''	Sweet Coetzee
1993	''There's a Zulu On My Stoep''	Rhino Labuschagne
1997	''Panic Mechanic''	Schucks
1999	''Millennium Menace''	Schucks
2001	''Mr Bones''	Bones	R33 million
2004	''Oh Schuks... I'm Gatvol''	Schucks
2005	''Mama Jack''	Jack TheronMama
2008	''Mr Bones 2: Back from the Past''	Bones	R33 million
2010	''Schuks Tshabalala's Survival Guide to South Africa''	Schuks Tshabalala

Discography

Albums

Leon Schuster

Groen, Goud en White

Hie' Kommie Bokke

My Mates - Die Bokke

Gautvol in Paradise

Catchup Song and Every Cricket Hit

Op Dun Eish

References

Mr. Bones 2 Website

External links

Official Website

Category:1951 births Category:Living people Category:People from Vereeniging Category:Afrikaner people Category:University of the Free State alumni Category:South African film actors Category:South African film directors Category:South African screenwriters Category:South African comedians

af:Leon Schuster de:Leon Schuster fr:Leon Schuster id:Leon Schuster ro:Leon Schuster

Group	French people ''Les Français''
Population	c. 110 million''Including those with French ancestry''
Popplace	64,300,000
Region1
Pop1	17,000,000
Ref1
Region3
Pop3	10,421,365
Region4
Pop4	6,800,000
Ref4
Region5
Pop5	6,200,000
Ref5
Region6
Pop6	4,200,000
Ref6
Region7
Pop7	1,000,000
Ref7
Region9
Pop9	600,000
Ref9
Region10
Pop10	520,000
Ref10	.
Region11
Pop11	130,000
Ref11
Region12
Pop12	117,521
Ref12	'''
Langs	Australian English, French
Region13
Pop13	104,085
Ref13
Region14
Pop14	100,408
Ref14
Region15
Pop15	95,000
Ref15
Region16
Pop16	85,000
Ref16
Region17
Pop17	60,000
Ref17
Region18
Pop18	35,000
Ref18
Region19
Pop19	25,200
Ref19
Region20
Pop20	16,200
Ref20
Region21
Pop21	15,000
Ref21
Region22
Pop22	13,000
Ref22
Region23
Pop22	11,000
Ref23
Langs	French
Rels	see religion in France
Footnotes	including 2,080,000 of French Canadian ancestry Including persons of partial French ancestry Including ancestry and birth French born people were residing in the during the 2001 Census
Related	Other Latin peoples: Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians Various Germanic peoples (due to Frankish ancestry) : Germans, Dutch, English Various Celtic peoples (due to Gallo-Roman ancestry) : Bretons, Welsh, Cornish }}

French people refers mainly to citizens of France, regardless of ancestry. However, it can also refer to people of French ancestry who are found in other countries and some of them have a French cultural identity.

Citizenship and legal residence

To be French, according to the first article of the Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of one's origin, race, or religion (''sans distinction d'origine, de race ou de religion''). According to its principles, France has devoted herself to the destiny of a ''proposition nation'', a generic territory where people are bounded only by the French language and the assumed willingness to live together, as defined by Ernest Renan's "''plébiscite de tous les jours''" ("daily referendum" on the willingness to live together, in Renan's 1882 essay "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?").

The debate concerning the integration of this view with the principles underlying the European Community remains open.

A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France and succeeded in doing so. Indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renouncement of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries (for instance, this is the case with Switzerland: one can be both French and Swiss). The European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector (though not as trainees in reserved branches (e.g. as magistrates).

Seeing itself as an inclusive nation with universal values, France has always valued and strongly advocated assimilation. However, the success of such assimilation has recently been called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves (''communautarisme''). The 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs (''les quartiers sensibles'') were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts (as appeared before in other countries like the USA and the UK) but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration.

History

Most French people are the descendants of Gauls (a western European Celtic people), as well as Italic people, Sarmatian peoples (Alans, Taifals), Bretons, Belgae, Aquitanians (Basques), Iberians, Ligurians, Suebi, Saxons and Greeks in southern France, mixed with the Germanic people arriving at the end of the Roman Empire such as the Franks, the Visigoths and the Burgundians, and Vikings known as Normans, who settled mostly in Normandy in the 9th century.

The name "France" etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire.

Some regions were immensely affected by mass migrations of different peoples: Celtics in Brittany, and Germanics in Alsatia (Alemanni) before the existence of the Frankish kingdoms, and the languages and culture of these regions continue through self-perpetuation until this day.

Gaul

In the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul (an area of Western Europe that encompassed all of what is known today as France, Belgium, part of Germany and Switzerland, and Northern Italy) was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Their ancestors were Celtic immigrants who came from Central Europe in the 7th century BCE (and even before, according to new researchs), and dominated native peoples (which can't be clearly identified except the Ligures in Provence, the Iberians at the eastern bottom of the Pyrenees and Aquitanic people (among them, the Basques) in Aquitaine. Some, particularly in the northern and eastern areas, had Germanic admixture. Many of these peoples had already spoken Celtic by the time of the Roman conquest, but others seem to have spoken a Celto-Germanic creole.

Gaul was military conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar (except the south-east which had already been conquered about one century earlier and which became the only place with Roman settlements). The area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture. The Gaulish language came to be supplanted by Vulgar Latin, which would later split into dialects that would develop into the French language. Today, the last redoubt of Celtic culture and language in France can be found in the northwestern region of Brittany, although this is not the result of a survival of Gaulish language but of a 5th century A.D. migration of Brythonic speaking Celts from Britain.

The Franks

With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture: the Franks, from which the word "French" derives. The Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as ''laeti'', already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands and Germany between the third to the 7th century. At the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is still spoken as a kind of Dutch (Flemish - Low Frankish) in northern France and Frankish (Central Franconian) in German speaking Lorraine. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace: the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there. They were competitors of the Franks, that's why it became the word for German in French: ''Allemand''.

By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the country to which they gave their name. The other major Germanic people to arrive in France (after the Franks and the Visigoths) were the Norsemen or Northmen, (which was shortened to Norman in France), Viking raiders from modern Denmark and Norway, who settled with Anglo-Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons from the Danelaw in the northern region known today as Normandy but also in western France in the 9th and 10th century. The Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process. It was the Normans who, two centuries later, would go on to conquer England.

Eventually, though, the independent duchy of Normandy was incorporated back into the French kingdom in the Middle Ages. In the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, founded in 1099, at most 120 000 Franks (predominantly French-speaking Western Christians) ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.

15th to 18th century: the kingdom of France

In the roughly 900 years after the Norman invasions France had a fairly settled population . Unlike elsewhere in Europe, France experienced relatively low levels of emigration to the Americas, with the exception of the Huguenots. However, significant emigration of mainly Roman Catholic French populations led to the settlement of the Province of Acadia, Canada (New France) and Louisiana, all (at the time) French possessions, as well as colonies in the West Indies, Mascarene islands and Africa.

On 31 December 1687 a community of French Huguenots settled in South Africa. Most of these originally settled in the Cape Colony, but have since been quickly absorbed into the Afrikaner population. After Champlain's founding of Quebec City in 1608, it became the capital of New France. Encouraging settlement was difficult, and while some immigration did occur, by 1763 New France only had a population of some 65,000. From 1713 to 1787, 30,000 colonists immigrated from France to the St. Domingue. In 1805, when the French were forced out of St. Domingue (Haiti) 35,000 French settlers were given lands in Cuba.

By the beginning of the 17th century, some 20% of the total male population of Catalonia was made up of French immigrants. For the most part, the French were assimilated with relative ease into Catalan society.

In the 18th century and early 19th century, a small migration of French emigrated by official invitation of the Habsburgs to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now the nations of Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, Serbia and Romania. Some of them, coming from French-speaking communes in Lorraine and another wave are French Swiss ''Walsers'' from the Valais canton in Switzerland, they maintained for some generations the French language, and a specific ethnic identity, later labelled as Banat French, ''Français du Banat''. By 1788 there were 8 villages populated by French colonists.

Creation of the French nation-state

The French nation-state appeared following the 1789 French Revolution and Napoleon's empire. It replaced the ancient kingdom of France, ruled by the divine right of kings.

Hobsbawm highlighted the role of conscription, invented by Napoleon, and of the 1880s public instruction laws, which allowed mixing of the various groups of France into a nationalist mold which created the French citizen and his consciousness of membership to a common nation, while the various regional languages of France were progressively eradicated.

The 1870 Franco-Prussian War, which led to the short-lived Paris Commune of 1871, was instrumental in bolstering patriotic feelings; until World War I (1914–1918), French politicians never completely lost sight of the disputed Alsace-Lorraine region, which played a major role in the definition of the French nation, and therefore of the French people. During the Dreyfus Affair, anti-semitism became apparent. Charles Maurras, a royalist intellectual member of the far-right anti-parliamentarist ''Action Française'' party, invented the neologism of the ''anti-France'', which was one of the first attempts at contesting the republican definition of the French people as composed of all French citizens regardless of their ethnic origins or religious beliefs. Charles Maurras' expression of the ''anti-France'' opposed the Catholic French people to four "confederate states" incarning the Other: Jews, Freemasons, Protestants and, last but not least, the ''métèques'' ("metics").

Later immigration

Legally, the sovereign people of France are composed of all French citizens, regardless of ethnicity or religion. Citizens of any ethnicity are included in that definition. Successive waves of immigrants during the 19th and 20th centuries were thus rapidly assimilated into French culture.

The INSEE does not collect data about language, religion, or ethnicity – on the principle of the secular and unitary nature of the French Republic.

Nevertheless, there are some sources dealing with just such distinctions:

The CIA World Factbook defines the ethnic groups of France as being "Celtic and Latin with Teutonic, Slavic, North African, Sub-Saharan African, Indochinese, and Basque minorities. Overseas departments: black, white, mulatto, East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian". Its definition is reproduced on several Web sites collecting or reporting demographic data.

The U.S. Department of State goes into further detail: "Since prehistoric times, France has been a crossroads of trade, travel, and invasion. Three basic European ethnic stocks – Celtic, Latin, and Teutonic (Frankish) – have blended over the centuries to make up its present population. . . . Traditionally, France has had a high level of immigration. . . . In 2004, there were over 6 million Muslims, largely of North African descent, living in France. France is home to both the largest Muslim and Jewish populations in Europe."

The Encyclopædia Britannica says that "the French . . . hardly constitute a unified ethnic group by any scientific gauge", and it mentions as part of the population of France, the Basques, the Celts (called Gauls by Romans) and the Germanic (Teutonic) peoples (including the Norsemen or Vikings). France also became "in the 19th and especially in the 20th century, the prime recipient of foreign immigration into Europe. . . ."

It is said by some that France adheres to the ideal of a single, homogeneous national culture, supported by the absence of hyphenated identities and by avoidance of the very term "ethnicity" in French discourse.

The discussion about social discrimination has become more important, in particular concerning the so-called "second-generation immigrants"; that is, French citizens born in France to immigrant parents.

France has undergone a high rate of immigration from Europe, Africa, and Asia throughout the 20th century. Michèle Tribalat, researcher at INED, found it difficult to estimate the number of French immigrants or those born to immigrants because of the absence of official statistics. Only three previous attempts had been made: in 1927, 1942, and 1986. According to the 2004 Tribalat study, among about 14 million people of foreign ascendancy (immigrants or people with at least one parent or grandparent who was an immigrant), 5.2 million were from Southern European ascendancy (Italy, Spain, Portugal), and 3 million from the Maghreb. Thus it was found that 23 percent of French citizens had at least one immigrant parent or grandparent. No recognized studies have been done covering the years since mass immigration started in the 20th century.

According to a recent genetic study in 2008, 28.45% of all newborns in mainland France in 2007 had at least one parent of immigrant origin from the following regions (Overseas departments and territories of France, Africa, America, Southern Europe : Portugal, Greece and South Italy, Near and Middle East and the Indian sub-continent). The Paris metropolitan district (Île-de-France) is the region that accounts for the largest number with nearly 56% of all newborns in this area in 2007 having at least one parent of immigrant origin. The second largest number is in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur at nearly 42% and the lowest number is in Brittany at 4.40%.

France's population dynamics began to change in the middle of the 19th century, as France joined the Industrial Revolution. The pace of industrial growth attracted millions of European immigrants over the next century, with especially large numbers arriving from Poland, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain. In the period from 1915 to 1950, just as many immigrants came from Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Russia, Scandinavia and Yugoslavia. A small French descent group also subsequently arrived from Latin America (Argentina, Chile and Uruguay) in the 1970s. Small but significant numbers of Frenchmen in the North and Northeast regions have relatives in Germany and Great Britain. French law made it easy for thousands of ''colons'', ethnic or national French from former colonies of North and East Africa, India and Indochina to live in mainland France. It is estimated that 20,000 ''colons'' were living in Saigon in 1945. 1.6 million European ''pieds noirs'' migrated from Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 French Algerians left Algeria in the most massive relocation of population in Europe since the World War II. In the 1970s, over 30,000 French ''colons'' left Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge regime as the Pol Pot government confiscated their farms and land properties.

In the 1960s, a second wave of immigration came to France, which was needed for reconstruction purposes and for cheaper labour after the devastation brought on by World War II. French entrepreneurs went to Maghreb countries looking for cheap labour, thus encouraging work-immigration to France. Their settlement was officialized with Jacques Chirac's family regrouping act of 1976 (''regroupement familial''). Since then, immigration has become more varied, although France stopped being a major immigration country compared to other European countries. The large impact of North African and Arab immigration is the greatest and has brought racial, socio-cultural and religious questions to a country seen as homogenously European, French and Christian for thousands of years. Nevertherless, according to Justin Vaïsse, professor at Sciences Po Paris, in spite of obstacles and spectacular failures like the riots in November 2005, integration of Muslim immigrants is happening as part of a background evolution and recent studies confirmed the results of their assimilation, showing that "North Africans seem to be characterized by a high degree of cultural integration reflected in a relatively high propensity to exogamy" with rates ranging from 20% to 50%. According to Emmanuel Todd the relatively high exogamy among French Algerians can be explained by the colonial link between France and Algeria.

Between 1956 and 1967, about 235.000 North African Jews from Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco also immigrated to France due to the decline of the French empire and following the Six-Day War. Hence, by 1968, North African Jews were the majority in France. As these new immigrants were already culturally French they needed little time to adjust to French society.

In 2004, a total of 140,033 people immigrated to France. Of them, 90,250 were from Africa and 13,710 from Europe. In 2005, immigration level fell slightly to 135,890. The European Union allows free movement between the member states. While the UK and Ireland did not impose restrictions, France put in place controls to curb Central and Eastern European migration.

In November 2004, several thousand of the estimated 14,000 French nationals in Ivory Coast left the country after days of anti-white violence. There are 2.2 million French citizens, about 4 percent of the population, outside France.

Languages

In France

Most French people speak the French language as their mother tongue, but certain languages like Norman, Occitan, Corsican, Basque, French Flemish and Breton remain spoken in certain regions (see Language policy in France). There have also been periods of history when a majority of French people had other first languages (local languages such as Occitan, Catalan, Alsatian, West Flemish, Lorraine Franconian, Gallo, Picard or Ch'timi and Arpitan). Today, many immigrants speak another tongue at home.

According to historian Eric Hobsbawm, "the French language has been essential to the concept of 'France'", although in 1789, 50 percent of the French people did not speak it at all, and only 12 to 13 percent spoke it fairly well; even in oïl language zones, it was not usually used except in cities, and even there not always in the outlying districts.

Abroad

Abroad, the French language is spoken in many different countries – in particular the former French colonies. Nevertheless, speaking French is distinct from being a French citizen. Thus, ''francophonie'', or the speaking of French, must not be confused with French citizenship or ethnicity. For example, French speakers in Switzerland are not "French citizens".

Native English-speaking Blacks on the island of Saint-Martin hold French nationality even though they do not speak French as a first language, while their neighbouring French-speaking Haitian immigrants speak French créole yet remain foreigners. Large numbers of people of French ancestry outside Europe speak other first languages, particularly English, throughout most of North America (except French Canada), Spanish or Portuguese in southern South America, and Afrikaans in South Africa.

The adjective "French" can be used to mean either "French citizen" or "French-speaker", and usage varies depending on the context, with the former being common in France. The latter meaning is sometimes used in Canada, when discussing matters internal to Canada.

Nationality, citizenship, ethnicity

The modern ethnic French are the descendants of Celts, Iberians, Ligurians and Greeks in southern France, and some Vikings who mixed with the Normans and settled mostly in Normandy in the 9th century.

According to Dominique Schnapper, "The classical conception of the nation is that of an entity which, opposed to the ethnic group, affirms itself as an open community, the will to live together expressing itself by the acceptation of the rules of a unified public domain which transcends all particularisms". This conception of the nation as being composed by a "will to live together", supported by the classic lecture of Ernest Renan in 1882, has been opposed by the French far-right, in particular the nationalist ''Front National'' ("National Front" - FN) party, which claims that there is such a thing as a "French ethnic group". The discourse of ethno-nationalist groups such as the Front National (FN), however, forwards the concept of ''Français de souche'' or "indigenous" French.

Since the beginning of the Third Republic (1871–1940), the state has not categorized people according to their alleged ethnic origins. Hence, in contrast to the United States Census, French people are not asked to define their ethnic appartenance, whichever it may be. The usage of ethnic and racial categorization is avoided to prevent any case of discrimination, same regulations apply to religious membership data cannot be compiled under the French Census. This classic French republican non-essentialist conception of nationality is officialized by the French Constitution, according to which "French" is a nationality, and not a specific ethnicity.

Nationality and citizenship

Despite this official discourse of universality, French nationality has not meant automatic citizenship. Some categories of French people have been excluded, throughout the years, from full citizenship: Women: until the Liberation, they were deprived of the right to vote. The provisional government of General de Gaulle accorded them this right by the 21 April 1944 prescription. However, women still suffer from under-representation in the political class and from lesser wages at equal functions. The 6 June 2000 law on parity attempted to address this question.

Military: for a long time, it was called "''la grande muette''" ("the great mute") in reference to its prohibition from interfering in political life. During a large part of the Third Republic (1871–1940), the Army was in its majority anti-republican (and thus counterrevolutionary). The Dreyfus Affair and the 16 May 1877 crisis, which almost led to a monarchist ''coup d'état'' by MacMahon, are examples of this anti-republican spirit. Therefore, they would only gain the right to vote with the 17 August 1945 prescription: the contribution of De Gaulle to the interior French Resistance reconciled the Army with the Republic. Nevertheless, militaries do not benefit from the whole of public liberties, as the 13 July 1972 law on the general statute of militaries specify.

Young people: the July 1974 law, voted at the instigation of president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, reduced from 21 to 18 the age of majority.

Naturalized foreigners: since the 9 January 1973 law, foreigners who have acquired French nationality do not have to wait five years after their naturalization to be able to vote anymore.

Inhabitants of the colonies: the 7 May 1946 law meant that soldiers from the "Empire" (such as the ''tirailleurs'') killed during World War I and World War II were not citizens. the special case of foreign citizens of a EU member state who, even if not French, are allowed to vote in French local elections and may turn to any French consular or diplomatic mission.

France was one of the first countries to implement denaturalization laws. Philosopher Giorgio Agamben has pointed out this fact that the 1915 French law which permitted denaturalization with regard to naturalized citizens of "enemy" origins was one of the first example of such legislation, which Nazi Germany later implemented with the 1935 Nuremberg Laws.

Furthermore, some authors who have insisted on the "crisis of the nation-state" allege that nationality and citizenship are becoming separate concepts. They show as example "international", "supranational citizenship" or "world citizenship" (membership to international nongovernmental organizations such as Amnesty International or Greenpeace). This would indicate a path toward a "postnational citizenship".

Beside this, modern citizenship is linked to civic participation (also called positive freedom), which implies voting, demonstrations, petitions, activism, etc. Therefore, social exclusion may lead to deprivation of citizenship. This has led various authors (Philippe Van Parijs, Jean-Marc Ferry, Alain Caillé, André Gorz) to theorize a guaranteed minimum income which would impede exclusion from citizenship.

Multiculturalism versus universalism

In France, the conception of citizenship teeters between universalism and multiculturalism, especially in recent years. French citizenship has been defined for a long time by three factors: integration, individual adherence, and the primacy of the soil (''jus soli''). Political integration (which includes but is not limited to racial integration) is based on voluntary policies which aims at creating a common identity, and the interiorization by each individual of a common cultural and historic legacy. Since in France, the state preceded the nation, voluntary policies have taken an important place in the creation of this common cultural identity.

On the other hand, the interiorization of a common legacy is a slow process, which B. Villalba compares to acculturation. According to him, "integration is therefore the result of a double will: the nation's will to create a common culture for all members of the nation, and the communities' will living in the nation to recognize the legitimacy of this common culture". Villalba warns against confusing recent processes of integration (related to the so-called "second generation immigrants", who are subject to discrimination), with older processes which have made modern France. Villalba thus shows that any democratic nation characterize itself by its project of transcending all forms of particular memberships (whether biological - or seen as such, ethnic, historic, economic, social, religious or cultural). The citizen thus emancipates himself from the particularisms of identity which characterize himself to attain a more "universal" dimension. He is a citizen, before being member of a community or of a social class

Therefore, according to Villalba, "a democratic nation is, by definition, multicultural as it gathers various populations, which differs by their regional origins (Bretons, Corsicans or Lorrains...), their national origins (immigrant, son or grandson of an immigrant), or religious origins (Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Muslims, Agnostics or Atheists...)."

Ernest Renan's ''What is a Nation?'' (1882)

Ernest Renan described this republican conception in his famous 11 March 1882 conference at the Sorbonne, ''Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?'' ("What is a Nation?"). According to him, to belong to a nation is a subjective act which always has to be repeated, as it is not assured by objective criteria. A nation-state is not composed of a single homogeneous ethnic group (a community), but of a variety of individuals willing to live together.

Renan's non-essentialist definition, which forms the basis of the French Republic, is diametrically opposed to the German ethnic conception of a nation, first formulated by Fichte. The German conception is usually qualified in France as an "exclusive" view of nationality, as it includes only the members of the corresponding ethnic group, while the Republican conception thinks itself as universalist, following the Enlightenment's ideals officialized by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. While Ernest Renan's arguments were also concerned by the debate about the disputed Alsace-Lorraine region, he said that not only one referendum had to be made in order to ask the opinions of the Alsatian people, but a "daily referendum" should be made concerning all those citizens wanting to live in the French nation-state. This ''plébiscite de tous les jours'' might be compared to a social contract or even to the classic definition of consciousness as an act which repeats itself endlessly.

Henceforth, contrary to the German definition of a nation based on objective criteria, such as the "race" or the "ethnic group", which may be defined by the existence of a common language, among others criteria, the people of France are defined by all the people living in the French nation-state and willing to do so, i.e. by its citizenship. This definition of the French nation-state contradicts the common opinion according to which the concept of the French people would identify themselves with the concept of one particular ethnic group, and thus explains the paradox to which is confronted by some attempts in identifying the "French ethnic group": the French conception of the nation is radically opposed (and was thought in opposition to) the German conception of the ''Volk'' ("ethnic group").

This universalist conception of citizenship and of the nation has influenced the French model of colonization. While the British empire preferred an indirect rule system, which did not mix together the colonized people with the colons, the French Republic theoretically chose an integration system and considered parts of its colonial empire as France itself, and its population as French people. The ruthless conquest of Algeria thus led to the integration of the territory as a Département of the French territory.

This ideal also led to the ironic sentence which opened up history textbooks in France as in its colonies: "Our ancestors the Gauls...". However, this universal ideal, rooted in the 1789 French Revolution ("bringing liberty to the people"), suffered from the racism that impregnated colonialism. Thus, in Algeria, the Crémieux decrees at the end of the 19th century gave French citizenship to north African Jews, while Muslims were regulated by the 1881 Indigenous Code. Liberal author Tocqueville himself considered that the British model was better adapted than the French one, and did not balk before the cruelties of General Bugeaud's conquest. He went as far as advocating racial segregation there.

This paradoxical tension between the universalist conception of the French nation and the racism inherent in colonization is most obvious in Ernest Renan himself, who goes as far as advocating a kind of eugenics. In a 26 June 1856 letter to Arthur de Gobineau, author of ''An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races'' (1853–55) and one of the first theoreticians of "scientific racism", he thus wrote:

You have done here one of the most noteworthy book, full of vigour and spiritfull originality, but it is not made to be understood in France or rather it is to be misunderstood. The French spirit pays no attention to ethnographic considerations: France hardly believes to race... The fact of race is huge in its origins; but it always goes losing importance, and sometimes, as in France, it finally erases itself completely. Is that, in absolute, talking about decadence? Yes, surely if considering the stability of institutions, the originality of characters, a definite nobility which I, for my part, considers with the utmost importance in the whole of human things. But also how much compensations!

Doubtlessly, if the noble elements blended in a people's blood would erase themselves completely, then it would be a vilifying equality, analogous as in certain states of Orient and, in some respects, China. But in reality a very little quantity of noble blood put in circulation in a people is enough to nobilize it, at least as to historical effects: this is how France, a nation so completely fell in commonless [''roture''], plays in reality in the world the role of a gentleman. By setting apart the utterly inferior races whose interference with the great races would lead only to poison the human species, I plan for the future a homogeneous humanity"

''Jus soli'' and ''jus sanguinis''

During the ''Ancien Régime'' (before the 1789 French revolution), ''jus soli'' (or "right of territory") was predominant. Feudal law recognized personal allegeance to the sovereign, but the subjects of the sovereign were defined by their birthland. According to the 3 September 1791 Constitution, those who are born in France from a foreign father and have fixed their residency in France, or those who, after being born in foreign country from a French father, have come to France and have sworn their civil oath, become French citizens. Because of the war, distrust toward foreigners led to the obligation on the part of this last category to swear a civil oath in order to gain French nationality.

However, the Napoleonic Code would insist on ''jus sanguinis'' ("right of blood"). Paternity, against Napoléon Bonaparte's wish, became the principal criterion of nationality, and therefore broke for the first time with the ancient tradition of ''jus soli'', by breaking any residency condition toward children born abroad from French parents. However, according to Patrick Weil, it was not "ethnically motivated" but "only meant that family links transmitted by the pater familias had become more important than subjecthood".

With the 7 February 1851 law, voted during the Second Republic (1848–1852), "double ''jus soli''" was introduced in French legislation, combining birth origin with paternity. Thus, it gave French nationality to the child of a foreigner, if both are born in France, except if the year following his coming of age he reclaims a foreign nationality (thus prohibiting dual nationality). This 1851 law was in part passed because of conscription concerns. This system more or less remained the same until the 1993 reform of the Nationality Code, created by the 9 January 1973 law.

The 1993 reform, which defines the Nationality law, is deemed controversial by some. It commits young people born in France to foreign parents to solicit French nationality between the ages of 16 and 21. This has been criticized, some arguing that the principle of equality before the law was not complied with, since French nationality was no longer given automatically at birth, as in the classic "double ''jus soli''" law, but was to be requested when approaching adulthood. Henceforth, children born in France from French parents were differentiated from children born in France from foreign parents, creating a hiatus between these two categories.

The 1993 reform was prepared by the Pasqua laws. The first Pasqua law, in 1986, restricts residence conditions in France and facilitates expulsions. With this 1986 law, a child born in France from foreign parents can only acquire French nationality if he or she demonstrates his or her will to do so, at age 16, by proving that he or she has been schooled in France and has a sufficient command of the French language. This new policy is symbolized by the expulsion of 101 Malians by charter.

The second Pasqua law on "immigration control" makes regularisation of illegal aliens more difficult and, in general, residence conditions for foreigners much harder. Charles Pasqua, who said on 11 May 1987: "Some have reproached me of having used a plane, but, if necessary, I will use trains", declared to ''Le Monde'' on 2 June 1993: "France has been a country of immigration, it doesn't want to be one anymore. Our aim, taking into account the difficulties of the economic situation, is to tend toward 'zero immigration' ("''immigration zéro''")".

Therefore, modern French nationality law combines four factors: paternality or 'right of blood', birth origin, residency and the will expressed by a foreigner, or a person born in France to foreign parents, to become French.

European citizenship

The 1993 Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of European citizenship, which comes in addition to national citizenships.

Citizenship of foreigners

By definition, a "foreigner" is someone who does not have French nationality. Therefore, it is ''not'' a synonym of "immigrant", as a foreigner may be born in France. On the other hand, a Frenchman born abroad may be considered an immigrant (e.g. former prime minister Dominique de Villepin who lived the majority of his life abroad). In most of the cases, however, a foreigner is an immigrant, and vice-versa. They either benefit from legal sojourn in France, which, after a residency of ten years, makes it possible to ask for naturalisation. If they do not, they are considered "illegal aliens". Some argue that this privation of nationality and citizenship does not square with their contribution to the national economic efforts, and thus to economic growth.

In any cases, rights of foreigners in France have improved over the last half-century:

1946: right to elect trade union representative (but not to be elected as a representative)

1968: right to become a trade-union delegate

1972: right to sit in works council and to be a delegate of the workers at the condition of "knowing how to read and write French"

1975: additional condition: "to be able to express oneself in French"; they may vote at ''prud'hommes elections'' ("industrial tribunal elections") but may not be elected; foreigners may also have administrative or leadership positions in tradeunions but under various conditions

1982: those conditions are suppressed, only the function of ''conseiller prud'hommal'' is reserved to those who have acquired French nationality. They may be elected in workers' representation functions (Auroux laws). They also may become administrators in public structures such as Social security banks (''caisses de sécurité sociale''), OPAC (which administrates HLMs), Ophlm...

1992: for European Union citizens, right to vote at the European elections, first exercised during the 1994 European elections, and at municipal elections (first exercised during the 2001 municipal elections).

The National Front, multiculturalism and ''métissage culturel''

This republican conception of the French nation-state has been challenged since the 1980s by the ''Front National'' 's nationalist discourse of ''La France aux Français'' ("France to the French") or ''Les Français d'abord'' ("French first"). Their claims of an "ethnic French" group (''Français de souche'', which literally translated as "French with roots") have been adamantly refused by many other groups, which widely considered this Party as racist. Alain de Benoist's ''Nouvelle Droite'' movement, quite famous in the 1980s but which has since lost influence, has embraced a kind of European "white supremacy" ideology. It should be noted that the expression ''Français de souche'' has no official validity in France although it is used in everyday language, something which has been designed as ''lepénisation des esprits'' ("LePen-isation of the minds").

Indeed, the inflow of populations from other continents, who still can be physically and/or culturally distinguished from Europeans, sparked much controversies in France since the early 1980s, even though immigration inflow precisely began to decrease at this time. The rise of this racist discourse led to the creation of anti-racist NGOs, such as ''SOS Racisme'', more or less founded on the model of anti-fascist organisations in the 1930s. However, while those earlier anti-fascists organisations were often anarchists or communists, ''SOS Racisme'' was supported in its growth by the Socialist Party. Demonstrations gathering large crowds against the National Front took place. The last such demonstration took place in a dramatic situation, after Jean-Marie Le Pen's relative victory at the first turn of the 2002 presidential election. Shocked and stunned, large crowds, including many young people, demonstrated every day in between the two turns, starting from 21 April 2002, which remains a dramatic date in popular consciousness.

Now, the interracial blending of some native French and newcomers stands as a vibrant and boasted feature of French culture, from popular music to movies and literature. Therefore, alongside mixing of populations, exists also a cultural blending (''le métissage culturel'') that is present in France. It may be compared to the traditional US conception of the melting-pot. The French culture might have been already blended in from other races and ethnicities, in cases of some biographical research on the possibility of African ancestry on a small number of famous French citizens. Author Alexandre Dumas, père possessed one-fourth black Haitian descent,. We can mention as well, the most famous French singer Edith Piaf whose grandmother was a North African from Morocco or Jacques Derrida, a North African Jew from Algeria, who is known as the founder of deconstruction.

For a long time, the only objection to such outcomes predictably came from the far-right schools of thought. In the past few years, other unexpected voices are however beginning to question what they interpret, as the new philosopher Alain Finkielkraut coined the term, as an "ideology of miscegenation" (''une idéologie du métissage'') that may come from what one other philosopher, Pascal Bruckner, defined as the "sob of the White man" (''le sanglot de l'homme blanc''). These critics have been dismissed by the mainstream and their propagators have been labelled as new reactionaries (''les nouveaux réactionnaires''), even if racist and anti-immigration sentiment has recently been documented to be increasing in France at least according to one poll. Such critics, including Nicolas Sarkozy, the current President of France, take example on the United States' conception of multiculturalism to claim that France has consistently denied the existence of ethnic groups within their borders and has refused to grant them specific rights.

President Jacques Chirac as well as the Socialist Party and other organizations have condemned these views, arguing that this refusal of the traditional universalist republican conception only favorizes communitarianism, which the Republic does not recognize since the dissolving of intermediate associations of persons during the Estates-General of 1789 (the population of the kingdom of France was then divided into the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobles), and the Third Estate (people)). For this reason, associations were forbidden until the Waldeck-Rousseau 1884 labor laws which permitted the creation of trade unions and the famous 1901 law on non-profit associations, which has been largely used by civil society in order to organizes itself. Hervé Le Bras, head of the INED demographic institute, also insists that "ethnicisation of social relations is not a 'natural' phenomenon, but an ideological one"

Notable expatriates

Many people have resided in France while maintaining citizenship elsewhere.

Fernando Henrique Cardoso, former President of Brazil

Belinda Carlisle, American singer

Robert Crumb, American cartoonist

Miles Davis, American musician

Johnny Depp, American actor

John Malkovich, American actor

T. S. Eliot, American writer

Benjamin Franklin, American politician

Gabriel García Márquez, Colombian writer

Ernest Hemingway, American writer

Marc Jacobs, American fashion designer

Ayatollah Khomeini, Iranian politician and religious leader

Jim Morrison, American musician

Charlie Parker, American musician

Josephine Baker, American dancer

Pablo Picasso, Spanish painter

Ezra Pound, American writer

Molly Ringwald, American actress

Kristin Scott Thomas, British actress

Gertrude Stein, American writer

Cesar Vallejo, Peruvian writer

Vincent van Gogh, Dutch painter

Oscar Wilde, Irish writer

Populations with French ancestry

Between 1848 and 1939, 1 million people with French passports emigrated to other countries. The main communities of French ancestry in the New World are found in the United States, Canada and Argentina while sizeable groups are also found in Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Australia.

Canada

There are nearly seven million French speakers out of nine to ten million people of French and partial French ancestry in Canada. The Canadian province of Quebec (2006 census population of 7,546,131), where more than 95 percent of the people speak French as either their first, second or even third language, is the center of French life on the Western side of the Atlantic; however, French settlement began further east, in Acadia. Quebec is home to vibrant French-language arts, media, and learning. There are sizable French-Canadian communities scattered throughout the other provinces of Canada, particularly in Ontario, which has about 1 million francophones, and New Brunswick, which is the only fully bilingual province and is 33 percent Acadian.

United States

The United States is home to an estimated 13 to 16 million people of French descent, or 4 to 5 percent of the US population, particularly in Louisiana, New England and parts of the Midwest. The French community in Louisiana consists of the Creoles, the descendants of the French settlers who arrived when Louisiana was a French colony, and the Cajuns, the descendants of Acadian refugees from the Great Upheaval. Very few creoles remain in New Orleans in present times. In New England, the vast majority of French immigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries came not from France, but from over the border in Quebec, the Quebec diaspora. These French Canadians arrived to work in the timber mills and textile plants that appeared throughout the region as it industrialized. Today, nearly 25 percent of the population of New Hampshire is of French ancestry, the highest of any state.

English and Dutch colonies of pre-Revolutionary America attracted large numbers of French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution in France. In the Dutch colony of New Netherland that later became New York, northern New Jersey, and western Connecticut, these French Huguenots, nearly identical in religion to the Dutch Reformed Church, assimilated almost completely into the Dutch community. However, large it may have been at one time, it has lost all identity of its French origin, often with the translation of names (examples: ''de la Montagne'' > ''Vandenberg'' by translation; ''de Vaux'' > ''DeVos'' or ''Devoe'' by phonetic respelling). Huguenots appeared in all of the English colonies and likewise assimilated. Even though this mass settlement approached the size of the settlement of the French settlement of Quebec, it has assimilated into the English-speaking mainstream to a much greater extent than other French colonial groups, and has left few traces of cultural influence. New Rochelle, New York is named after La Rochelle, France, one of the sources of Huguenot emigration to the Dutch colony; and New Paltz, New York, is one of the few non-urban settlements of Huguenots that did not undergo massive recycling of buildings in the usual redevelopment of such older, larger cities as New York City or New Rochelle.

Mexico

In Mexico, a sizeable population can trace its ancestry to France, which was the second largest European contributor, after Spain. The bulk of French immigrants arrived in Mexico during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

From 1814 to 1955, inhabitants of Barcelonnette and the surrounding Ubaye valley emigrated to Mexico by the dozens. Many established textile businesses between Mexico and France. At the turn of the 20th century, there were 5000 French families from the Barcelonnette region registered with the French Consulate in Mexico. While 90% stayed in Mexico, some returned, and from 1880 to 1930, built grand mansions called ''Maisons Mexicaines'' and left a mark upon the city.

In the 1860s, during the Second Mexican Empire ruled by Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico-- which was part of Napoleon III's scheme to create a Latin empire in the New World (indeed responsible for coining the term or Amérique latine, or 'Latin America')-- many French soldiers, merchants, and families set foot upon Mexican soil. Emperor Maximilian's consort, Carlota of Mexico, a Belgian princess, was a granddaughter of Louis-Philippe of France.

Many Mexicans of French descent live in cities such as San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Monterrey, Puebla, Guadalajara, and the capital, Mexico City, where French surnames such as Derbez, Pierres, Zatarain, Betancourt, Alaniz, Blanc, Jurado (Jure), Colo (Coleau), Dumas, Tresmontrels, and Moussier can be found.

Argentina

French Argentines form the third largest ancestry group in Argentina, after Italian and Spanish Argentines. Most of French immigrants came to Argentina between 1871 and 1890, though considerable immigration continued until the late 1940s. At least half of these immigrants came from Southwestern France, especially from the Basque Country, Béarn (Basses-Pyrénées accounted for more than 20% of immigrants), Bigorre and Rouergue but also from Savoy and the Paris region. Today around 6.8 million Argentines have some degree of French descent (up to 17% of the total population). French Argentines had a considerable influence over the country, particularly on its architectural styles and literary traditions, as well as on the scientific field. Some notable Argentines of French descent include writer Julio Cortázar, physiologist and Nobel Prize winner Bernardo Houssay or activist Alicia Moreau de Justo. With akin Latin culture, the French immigrants quickly assimilated into mainstream Argentine society.

Chile

The French came to Chile in the 18th century, arriving at Concepción as merchants, and in the mid-19th century to cultivate vines in the haciendas of the Central Valley, the homebase of world-famous Chilean wine. The Araucanía Region also has an important number of people of French ancestry, as the area hosted settlers arrived by the second half of the 19th century as farmers and shopkeepers. With akin Latin culture, the French immigrants quickly assimilated into mainstream Chilean society.

From 1840 to 1940, around 25,000 Frenchmen immigrated to Chile. 80% of them were coming from Southwestern France, especially from Basses-Pyrénées (Basque country and Béarn), Gironde, Charente-Inférieure and Charente and regions situated between Gers and Dordogne.

Most of French immigrants settled in the country between 1875 and 1895. Between October 1882 and December 1897, 8,413 Frenchmen settled in Chile, making up 23% of immigrants (second only after Spaniards) from this period. In 1863, 1,650 French citizens were registered in Chile. At the end of the century they were almost 30,000. According to the census of 1865, out of 23,220 foreigners established in Chile, 2,483 were French, the third largest European community in the country after Germans and Englishmen. In 1875, the community reached 3,000 members, 12% of the almost 25,000 foreigners established in the country. It was estimated that 10,000 Frenchmen were living in Chile in 1912, 7% of the 149,400 Frenchmen living in Latin America.

In World War II, a group of over 10,000 Chileans of French descent, the majority have French relatives joined the Free French Forces and fought the Nazi occupation of France .

Today it is estimated that 500,000 Chileans are of French descent.

Former president of Chile, Michelle Bachelet is of French origin. Former president Augusto Pinochet was another Chilean of French descent. A large percentage of politicians, businessmen, professionals and entertainers in the country are of French ancestry.

Brazil

French Brazilians are presents in Brazil with a population of most 2,800,000 inabitants.

Some French Brazilians were politicians and two are Emperors, Pedro I and Pedro II.

Latin America

Elsewhere in the Americas, French settlement has taken place in the 16th to 20th centuries. They can be found in Haiti, Cuba (refugees from the Haitian Revolution), Peru and Uruguay. The Betancourt political families whom influenced Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama have some French ancestry.

Huguenots

Large numbers of Huguenots are known to have settled in the United Kingdom, in Protestant areas of Germany (especially the city of Berlin), in the Netherlands, in South Africa and in North America. Many people in these countries still bear French names, even though their culture and identity are now completely assimilated.

Asia

In Asia, a significant proportion of people with mixed French and Vietnamese descent can be found in Vietnam. Including the number of persons of pure French descent, this total numbers approximately 450,000. Many are descendants of French settlers who intermarried with local Vietnamese people. Approximately 5,000 in Vietnam are of pure French descent, however, this number is disputed. A small proportion of people with mixed French and Khmer descent can be found in Cambodia. These people number approximately 16,000 in Cambodia, among this number, approximately 3,000 are of pure French descent. An unknown number with mixed French and Lao ancestry can be found throughout Laos. In addition to these Countries, small minorities can be found elsewhere in Asia; the majority of these living as expatriates.

Elsewhere

Apart from Québécois, Acadians, Cajuns, and Métis, other populations with some French ancestry outside metropolitan France include the ''Caldoches'' of New Caledonia, Louisiana Creole people of the United States, the so-called ''Zoreilles'' and ''Petits-blancs'' of various Indian Ocean islands, as well as populations of the former French colonial empire in Africa. There are currently an estimated 400,000 French people in the United Kingdom, most of them in London.

Genetics

France has been influenced by the different human migrations that wide-crossed Europe all over the time. Prehistoric and Neolithic population movements could have influenced the genetic diversity of this country. A recent study in 2009 analysed 555 French individuals from 7 different regions in mainland France and found the following Y-DNA Haplogroups. The five main haplogroups are R1 (63.41%), E (11.41%), I (8.88%), J (7.97%) and G (5.16%). R1b (particularly R1b1b2) was found to be the most dominant Y chromosomal lineage in France, covering about 60% of the Y chromosomal lineages. The high frequency of this haplogroup is typical in all West European populations. Haplogroups I and G are also characteristic markers for many different West European populations. Haplogroups J and E1b1b (M35, M78, M81 and M34) consist of lineages with differential distribution within Middle East, North Africa and Europe. Only adults with French surname were analyzed by the study.

80 89 115 91 67 68 45 555

align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"	Region
1 Alsace	|	0	0	0	6.25	0	3.75	2.50	8.75	1.25	8.75	1.25	0	0	3.75	58.75	5
2 Auvergne (region)	Auvergne	|	0	2.25	0	3.37	5.62	1.12	8.99	4.49	3.37	7.87	1.12	0	0	5.62	52.80	3.37
3 Brittany (administrative region)	Brittany	|	0	0	0	0	0	0	1.74	13.04	0.87	2.61	0	0	0	0.87	80.88	0
4 Île-de-France (region)	Île-de-France	|	0	10.99	0	4.40	5.49	1.10	4.40	7.69	1.10	5.49	0	1.10	0	2.20	56.05	0
5 Midi-Pyrénées	|	0	1.49	1.49	2.99	1.49	1.49	4.48	10.45	4.48	7.46	0	0	0	2.99	59.69	1.49
6 Nord-Pas-de-Calais	|	0	1.47	1.47	5.88	4.41	0	7.35	8.82	0	5.88	0	0	0	2.94	61.76	0
7 Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur	|	2.22	0	2.22	8.89	2.22	0	6.67	8.89	0	6.67	0	0	4.44	0	55.55	2.22
Mainland France	|	0.32	2.31	0.74	4.54	2.75	1.07	5.16	8.88	1.58	6.39	0.34	0.16	0.63	2.62	60.78	1.73

See also

Caldoche

Quebec

Demographics of France

European ethnic groups

Franco-Mauritian

Pied-Noir (French citizens in French Algeria)

French American

French Argentine

French Brazilian

French Canadian

French Chilean

French Mexican

French Peruvian

French people in Madagascar

French people in Britain

Armenians in France

African Americans in France

Genetic history of Europe

Languages of France

List of French people

List of French people of immigrant origin

List of French Jews

Notes

Wieviorka, M ''L'espace du racisme'' 1991 Éditions du Seuil

Marc Abélès,''How the Anthropology of France Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing New Directions in the Field ''Cultural Anthropology'' 1999

External links

Discover France

The Rude French Myth

French Culture

INSEE - ''Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques'' - French official statistics from INSEE

CIA World Fact Book. 2005

US Department of State. 2005

Category:Ethnic groups in Europe People Category:Demographics of France Category:Romance peoples Category:Germanic peoples Category:Celtic people

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