Name	Port-au-Prince
Official name	Ville de Port-au-Prince
Settlement type
Pushpin map	Haiti relief
Pushpin label position
Coordinates display	inline,title
Coordinates region	HT
Subdivision type	Country
Subdivision name
Subdivision type1	Department
Subdivision name1	Ouest
Subdivision type2	Arrondissement
Subdivision name2	Port-au-Prince
Leader title	Mayor
Leader name	Jean Yves Jason
Leader title1
Established title	Founded
Established date	1749
Established title2	Colonial seat
Established date2	1770
Area total km2	36.04
Elevation footnotes
Population as of	2003
Population total	704776
Population density km2	auto
Population metro	1,728,100
Timezone	EST
Utc offset	-5
Postal code type
Footnotes	}}

Port-au-Prince (; ; Haitian Creole: ''Pòtoprens''; ) is the capital and largest city of the Caribbean nation of Haiti. The city's population was 704,776 as of the 2003 census, and was officially estimated to have reached 897,859 in 2009.

The city of Port-au-Prince is on the Gulf of Gonâve: the bay on which the city lies, which acts as a natural harbor, has sustained economic activity since the civilizations of the Arawaks. It was first incorporated under the colonial rule of the French, in 1749, and has been Haiti's largest metropolis since then. The city's layout is similar to that of an amphitheatre; commercial districts are near the water, while residential neighborhoods are located on the hills above. Its population is difficult to ascertain due to the rapid growth of slums in the hillsides above the city; however, recent estimates place the metropolitan area's population at around 3.5 million, nearly half of the country's national population.

Port-au-Prince was catastrophically affected by an earthquake on January 12, 2010, with large numbers of structures damaged or destroyed. Haiti's government has estimated the death toll at 230,000 and says more bodies remain uncounted.

History

Prior to the arrival of Christopher Columbus, the island of Hispaniola was inhabited by people known as the Taíno, who arrived in approximately 2600 BC in large dugout canoes. They are believed to come primarily from what is now eastern Venezuela. By the time Columbus arrived in 1492 AD, the region was under the control of Bohechio, Taíno cacique of Xaragua. He, like his predecessors, feared settling too close to the coast—such settlements would have proven to be tempting targets for the Caribes, who lived on neighboring islands. Instead, the region served as a hunting ground. The population of the region was approximately 400,000 at the time, but the Taínos were gone within 30 years of the arrival of the Spaniards.

With the arrival of the Spaniards, the Amerindians were forced to accept a protectorate, and Bohechio, childless at death, was succeeded by his sister, Anacaona, wife of the cacique Caonabo. Anacaona tried to maintain cordial relations with the Spaniards, but this proved to be difficult, as the latter came to insist upon larger and larger tributes. Eventually, the Spanish colonial administration decided to rule directly, and in 1503, Nicolas Ovando, then governor, set about to put an end to the régime headed by Anacaona. He invited her and other tribal leaders to a feast, and when the Amerindians had drunk a good deal of wine -- the Spaniards did not drink on that occasion—he ordered most of the guests killed. Anacaona was spared, though only to be hanged publicly some time later. Through violence and disease, the Spanish settlers decimated the native population.

Direct Spanish rule over the area having been established, Ovando founded a settlement not far from the coast (west of Etang Saumâtre), ironically named ''Santa Maria de la Paz Verdadera'', which would be abandoned several years later. Not long thereafter, Ovando founded ''Santa Maria del Puerto''. The latter was first burned by French explorers in 1535, then again in 1592 by the English. These assaults proved to be too much for the Spanish colonial administration, and in 1606, it decided to abandon the region.

For more than 50 years, the area that is today Port-au-Prince saw its population drop off drastically. Finally, some buccaneers began to use it as a base, and Dutch merchants began to frequent it in search of leather, as game was abundant there. Around 1650, French pirates, or ''flibustiers'', running out of room on the Île de la Tortue began to arrive on the coast, and established a colony at Trou-Borded. As the colony grew, they set up a hospital not far from the coast, on the Turgeau heights. This led to the region being known as Hôpital.

Although there had been no real Spanish presence in Hôpital for well over 50 years, Spain retained its formal claim to the territory, and the growing presence of the French ''flibustiers'' on ostensibly Spanish lands provoked the Spanish crown to dispatch Castilian soldiers to Hôpital to retake it. The mission proved to be a disaster for the Spanish, as they were outnumbered and outgunned, and in 1697, the Spanish government signed the Treaty of Ryswick, renouncing any claims to Hôpital. Around this time, the French also established bases at Ester (part of Petite-Rivière) and Gonaïves.

Ester was a rich village, inhabited by merchants, and equipped with straight streets; it was here that the governor lived. On the other hand, the surrounding region, Petite-Rivière, was quite poor. Following a great fire in 1711, Ester was abandoned. Yet the French presence in the region continued to grow, and not long thereafter, a new city was founded to the south: Léogane.

While the first French presence in Hôpital, the region that was later to contain Port-au-Prince, was that of the ''flibustiers'', as the region became a real French colony, the colonial administration began to worry about the continual presence of these pirates. While useful in repelling Englishmen intent on encroaching upon French territory, they were relatively independent, unresponsive to orders from the colonial administration, and a potential threat to it. Therefore, in the winter of 1707, Choiseul-Beaupré, the governor of the region, sought to get rid of what he saw as a threat. He insisted upon control of the hospital, but the ''flibustiers'' refused, considering this humiliating. They proceeded to close the hospital, rather than cede control of it to the governor, and many of them became ''habitans'' (farmers) -- the first long-term European inhabitants in the region.

Though the elimination of the ''flibustiers'' as a group from Hôpital reinforced the authority of the colonial administration, it also made the region a more attractive target for the English. In order to protect the area, in 1706 a captain named de Saint-André sailed into the bay just below the hospital, in a ship named ''Le Prince''. It is said that M. de Saint-André named the area ''Port-au-Prince'' (meaning "Port of the ''Le Prince''"), although the port and the surrounding region continued to be known as ''Hôpital'' (however, the islets in the bay had already been known as ''les îlets du Prince'' as early as 1680.)

The English did not trouble the area, and various nobles sought land grants from the French crown in Hôpital; the first noble to control Hôpital was Sieur Joseph Randot. Upon his death in 1737, Sieur Pierre Morel gained control over part of the region, with Gatien Bretton des Chapelles acquiring another portion of it.

By this time, the colonial administration was convinced that a capital needed to be chosen, in order better to control the French portion of Santo-Domingo (Hispaniola). For a time, Petit-Goâve and Léogâne vied for this honor, but both were eventually ruled out, for various reasons. thumb|right|Colonial mansion in Port-au-Prince, 18th century.First of all, neither was centrally located. Petit-Goâve's climate was too malarial, and Léogane's topography made it difficult to defend. Thus, in 1749 a new city was built: Port-au-Prince.

Colonial history

In 1770, Port-au-Prince replaced Cap-Français (the modern Cap-Haïtien) as capital of the colony of Saint-Domingue, and in 1804, it became the capital of newly independent Haïti. Before Haïtian independence, it was captured by British troops on June 4, 1794.

French colonial commissioner Étienne Polverel proclaimed the city Port-Républicain on 23 September 1793 "in order that the inhabitants be kept continually in mind of the obligations which the French revolution imposed on them". It was later renamed Port-au-Prince by Jacques I, emperor of Haïti. When Haiti was divided between a kingdom in the north and a republic in the south, Port-au-Prince was the capital of the republic, under the leadership of Alexandre Pétion. Henri Christophe renamed the city Port-aux-Crimes after the assassination of Jacques I at Pont Larnage (now known as Pont-Rouge, and located north of the city.)

2010 earthquake

On 12 January 2010, a 7.0 earthquake struck Port-au-Prince, devastating the city. Most of the central historic area of the city was destroyed, including Haiti's prized Cathédrale de Port-au-Prince, the capital building, Legislative Palace (the parliament building), Palace of Justice (Supreme Court building), several ministerial buildings, and at least one hospital. The second floor of the Presidential Palace was thrown into the first floor, and the domes skewed at a severe tilt. The seaport and airport were both damaged, limiting aid shipments. The seaport was severely damaged by the quake and was unable to accept aid shipments for the first week. The airport's control tower was damaged and the US military had to set up a new control center with generators to get the airport prepared for aid flights. Aid has been delivered to Port-au-Prince by numerous nations and voluntary groups as part of a global relief effort. On Wednesday, January 20, 2010, an aftershock rated at a magnitude of 5.9 caused additional damage.

Geography

The metropolitan area is subdivided into various districts (communes). There is a ring of districts that radiates out from the commune of Port-au-Prince. Pétionville is an affluent suburban commune located southeast of the city. Delmas is located directly south of the airport and north of the central city, and the rather poor commune of Carrefour is located southwest of the city. Port-au-Prince commune harbors many low-income slums plagued with poverty and violence in which the most notorious, Cité Soleil is situated. However, Cité Soleil has been recently split off from Port-au-Prince proper to form a separate commune. The Champ de Mars area has begun some modern infrastructure development as of recently. The downtown area is the site of several projected modernization efforts in the capital.

Climate

Port-au-Prince features a tropical wet and dry climate and relatively constant temperatures throughout the course of the year. Port-au-Prince’s wet season runs from March through November, though the city experiences a relative break in rainfall during the month of July. The city’s dry season covers the remaining three months. Port-au-Prince generally experiences warm and humid conditions during the dry season and hot and humid conditions during the wet season.

Demographics

The population of the area was 1,234,742. The majority of the population is of African descent, but a prominent multiracial minority controls many of the city's businesses. There are sizable numbers of Hispanic residents, as well as small numbers of Europeans (mostly foreign-born). Citizens of Middle East (particularly Syrian and Lebanese) ancestry are a minority with a presence in the capital. Arab Haitians (a large number of whom live in the capital) are more often than not, concentrated in financial areas where the majority of them establish businesses. Most of the mulattoes in the city are concentrated and reside within wealthier areas of Port-au-Prince.

Economy

Port-au-Prince is one of the nation's largest centers of economy and finance. The capital currently exports its most widely consumed produce of coffee and sugar, and has, in the past, exported other goods, such as shoes and baseballs. Port-au-Prince has food-processing plants as well as soap, textile, and cement factories. Despite political unrest, the city also relies on the tourism industry and construction companies to move its economy. Port-au-Prince was once a popular place for cruises, but has lost nearly all of its tourism, and no longer has cruise ships coming into port.

Though unemployment is very high in Port-au-Prince, it would be more accurate to say that people are underemployed. A person can expect extremely high levels of economic activity throughout the city, especially among people selling goods and services right off the streets. One author argues that virtually no one is unemployed in Port-au-Prince's slums, because they would be unable to survive if they were. Port-au-Prince also has several upscale districts in which crime rates are much lower than in the center of the capital.

Port-au-Prince has a tourism industry. The Toussaint Louverture International Airport (referred to often as the Port-au-Prince International Airport) is the country's main international gateway for tourists. Tourists often visit the Pétionville area of Port-au-Prince. Other sites of interest include gingerbread houses.

Health and public safety

There are a number of hospitals including Sacred Heart Hospital Center (CDTI, Centre Hospitalier du Sacre-Coeur). Hopital de l' Universite d'Etat d'Haiti, Centre Obstetrico Gynecologique Isaie Jeanty-Leon Audain,Hopital du Canape-Vert, Hopital Francais (Asile Francais), Hopital Saint Francois de Sales, Hopital-Maternite Sapiens, Hopital OFATMA, Clinique de la Santé, Maternite de Christ Roi, Centre Hospitalier Rue Berne and Maternite Mathieu. After the 2010 Earthquake, two hospitals remained that were operational. The University of Miami in parternship with Project Medishare has created a new hospital to provide inpatient and outpatient care for those impacted by the January 2010 earthquake. This hospital is volunteer staffed and provides level 1 trauma care to Port-au-Prince and the surrounding regions.

CDTI closed in April 2010 when international aid failed to materialize. It had been considered the country's premiere hospital.

Culture

The culture of the city lies primarily in the center around the National Palace as well as its surrounding areas. The National Museum is located in the grounds of the palace, established in 1938. The National Palace was one of the early structures of the city but was destroyed and then rebuilt in 1918. It was destroyed again by the earthquake on 12 January 2010 which collapsed the center's domed roof.

Another popular destination in the capital is the Hotel Oloffson, a 19th century gingerbread mansion that was once the private home of two former Haïtian presidents. It has become a popular hub for tourist activity in the central city. The Cathédrale de Port-au-Prince is a famed site of cultural interest and attracts foreign visitors to its Neo-Romantic architectural style.

The Musée d'Art Haïtien du Collège Saint-Pierre contains work from some of the country's most talented artists, and the Musée National is a museum featuring historical artifacts such as King Henri Christophe's actual suicide pistol and a rusty anchor that museum operators claim was salvaged from Christopher Colombus' ship, the ''Santa María''. Other notable cultural sites include the Archives Nationales, and the Bibliothèque Nationale (National library). The city is the birthplace of internationally known naïve artist Gesner Abelard, who was associated with the Centre d' Art.

Government

The current mayor of Port-au-Prince is Jean Yves Jason, who headed the city at the time of the 2010 earthquake. The city's separate districts (primarily the districts of Delmas, Carrefour, and Pétionville) are all administered by their own local mayors who in turn fall under the jurisdiction of the city's general mayor. The seat of the state, the Presidential Palace, is located in the Champ de Mars plaza of the city. The PNdH (''Police Nationale d’Haïti'') is the authority governing the enforcement of city laws. The national police force as of recently, have been increasing in number. However because of its ailing ineffectiveness and insufficient manpower, a significant number of UN personnel is present throughout the city as part of the stabilization mission in Haiti.

The Port-au-Prince City Hall was destroyed in the 2010 earthquake. Most of the city's other government municipal buildings also collapsed in the earthquake.

Education

Port-au-Prince contains various educational institutions, ranging from small vocational schools to universities. Influential international schools in Port-au-Prince include Union School, founded in 1919, and Quisqueya Christian School, founded in 1974. Both schools offer an American-style pre-college education. French-speaking students can attend the Lycée Français (Lycée Alexandre Dumas), located in Bourdon. Another school is Anís Zunúzí Bahá'í School north west of Port-au-Prince which opened its doors in 1980 which survived the 2010 Haiti earthquake and its staff were cooperating in relief efforts and sharing space and support with neighbors. A clinic was run at the school by a medical team from the United States and Canada. Its classes offered transition from Haitian Creole to the French language but also a secondary language in English. The State University of Haiti (''Université d'État d'Haïti'' in French or UEH), is located within the capital along other universities such as the Quisqueya University and the ''Université des Caraïbes''. There are many other institutions that observe the Haitian scholastic program. Many of them are religious academies led by foreign missionaries from France or Canada. These include Institution Saint-Louis-de-Gonzague, École Sainte-Rose-de-Lima, École Saint-Jean-Marie Vianney, Institution du Sacré-Coeur, and Collège Anne-Marie Javouhey.

The Ministry of Education is also located in downtown Port-au-Prince at the Palace of Ministries, adjacent to the National Palace in the Champ de Mars plaza.

The Haïtian Group of Research and Pedagogical Activities (GHRAP) has set up several community centers for basic education. UNESCO’s office at Port-au-Prince has taken a number of initiates in upgrading the educational facilities in Port-au-Prince.

Transportation

All of the major transportation systems in Haiti are located near or run through the capital. The northern highway, Route Nationale #1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince. The southern highway, Route Nationale #2 also runs through Port-au-Prince. Maintenance for these roads lapsed after the 1991 coup, prompting the World Bank to lend USD$ 50 million designated for road repairs. The project was canceled in January 1999, however, after auditors revealed corruption. A third major highway, the Haitian Route Nationale #3, which connects Port-au-Prince which links the capital to the central plateau; however, due to its poor condition, it sees limited use.

The most common form of public transportation in Haiti is the use of brightly painted pickup trucks as taxis called "tap-taps."

The seaport, Port international de Port-au-Prince, has more registered shipping than any of the over dozen ports in the country. The port's facilities include cranes, large berths, and warehouses, but these facilities are in universally poor shape. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees compared to ports in the Dominican Republic.

The Toussaint Louverture International Airport (Aéroport International Toussaint Louverture also known as Maïs Gâté), which opened in 1965 (as the François Duvalier International Airport), is located north of the city. It is Haiti's major jetway, and as such, handles the vast majority of the country's international flights. Transportation to smaller cities from the major airport is done via smaller aircraft. Companies providing this service include Caribintair and Sunrise Airways.

Sister cities

Port-au-Prince has two sister cities: Miami, United States - 1991 Montreal, Canada - 1995

See also

Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone

Famous People from Port-au-Prince

References

External links

Tour Virtual of Port au Prince - Brazilian Site

Port-au-Prince U.S Embassy

Live Radios from Haiti

Scientists: Why Haiti Should Move Its Capital by ''Time Magazine''

Category:Capitals in North America Category:Capitals in the Caribbean Category:Populated places in Haiti Category:Populated coastal places in Haiti Category:Gulf of Gonâve Category:Ouest Department Category:Port cities in the Caribbean Category:Populated places established in 1749 Category:Communes of Haiti

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name	François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture
birth date	20 May, c.1743
birth place	Saint-Domingue
death date	April 07, 1803
death place	France
other names	Toussaint L'Ouverture, Toussaint l'Ouverture. Toussaint Breda
movement	Haitian Revolution
religion	Roman Catholic

}}

François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture , also Toussaint Bréda, Toussaint-Louverture (May 20, 1743 – April 7, 1803) was the leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military genius and political acumen led to the establishment of the independent black state of Haiti, transforming an entire society of slaves into a free, self-governing people. The success of the Haitian Revolution shook the institution of slavery throughout the New World.

Toussaint Louverture began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint Domingue. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo, Toussaint switched allegiance to the French when they abolished slavery. He gradually established control over the whole island, expelling the British invaders and using political and military tactics to gain power over his rivals. Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and security of Saint Domingue. He restored the plantation system using free labour, negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the USA and maintained a large and well-disciplined army.

In 1801 he promulgated an autonomist constitution for the colony, with himself as governor for life. In 1802 he was forced to resign by forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte to restore French authority in the colony. He was deported to France where he died in 1803. The Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence in 1804. Most histories give Toussaint’s father as Gaou Guinou, a younger son of the king of Arrada in modern-day Benin, who had been captured in war and sold into slavery. His mother, Pauline, was Gaou Guinou’s second wife. The couple had several children, of whom Toussaint was the eldest son. Some historians believe that his father was Pierre Baptiste, who is conventionally held to have been his godfather.

Toussaint is thought to have been born on the plantation of Bréda at Haut de Cap in Saint-Domingue, owned by the Comte de Noé and later managed by Bayon de Libertat. His date of birth is uncertain, but his name suggests he was born on All Saints Day, and he was about 50 at the start of the revolution in 1791. In childhood, he earned the nickname Fatras Baton, suggesting he was small and weak, though he was to become known for his stamina and riding prowess. An alternative explanation of Toussaint's origins is that he arrived at Bréda with Bayon de Libertat when the new overseer took up his duties in 1772.

Education

Toussaint is believed to have been well educated by his godfather, Pierre Baptiste. Historians have speculated as to Toussaint's intellectual background. His extant letters demonstrate a command of French in addition to Creole patois; he was familiar with Epictetus, the Stoic philosopher who had also lived as a slave; and his public speeches as well as his life's work, according to his biographers, evidence a familiarity with Machiavelli. Some cite Abbe Raynal, who wrote against slavery, as a possible influence:

All that the negroes lack is a leader courageous enough to carry them to vengeance and carnage. Where is he, this great man, that nature owes to its vexed, oppressed, tormented children? Where is he? He will appear, do not doubt it. He will show himself and will raise the sacred banner of liberty. A few legal documents signed on Toussaint's behalf between 1778 and 1781 raise the possibility that he could not write at that time. Throughout his military and political career, he made use of secretaries for most of his correspondence, but a few surviving documents in his own hand confirm that he could write, though his spelling in the French language was "strictly phonetic".

Marriage and children

In 1782, Toussaint married Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture, who is sometimes thought to have been his cousin or his godfather's daughter. Towards the end of his life, he told General Cafarelli that he had fathered 16 children, of whom 11 had predeceased him. Not all his children can be identified for certain, but his three legitimate sons are well known. The eldest, Placide, was probably adopted by Toussaint and is generally thought to be Suzanne’s first child with a mulatto, Seraphim Le Clerc. The two sons born of his marriage with Suzanne were Isaac and Saint Jean.

Slavery, freedom and working life

I was born a slave, but nature gave me the soul of a free man.

Until recently, historians believed that Toussaint had been a slave until the start of the revolution. The discovery of a marriage certificate dated 1777 shows that he was actually freed in 1776 at the age of 33, and this retrospectively clarified a letter of 1797 in which he said he had been free for twenty years. It seems he still maintained an important role on the Breda plantation until the outbreak of the revolution, presumably as a salaried employee. He had initially been responsible for the livestock, but by 1791, his responsibilities most likely included acting as coachman to the overseer, de Libertat, and as a driver, charged with organising the work force.

As a free man, Toussaint began to accumulate wealth and property of his own. Surviving legal documents show him briefly renting a small coffee plantation, worked by a dozen slaves. He would later say that by the start of the revolution, he had acquired a reasonable fortune, and was the owner of a number of properties at Ennery.

Religion and spirituality

Throughout his life, Toussaint was known as a devout Catholic. Although Vodou was generally practiced on Saint-Domingue in combination with Catholicism, little is known for certain of Toussaint’s connection with it, except that, as effective ruler of Saint-Domingue, his official policy was to discourage it.

It has been suggested that he was a member of high degree of the Masonic Lodge of Saint-Domingue, mostly based on a Masonic symbol he used in his signature. The membership of several free blacks and white men close to him has been confirmed.

The Haitian Revolution

The Rebellion: 1791-1794

Beginning in 1789, the French Revolution led to instability on St Domingue, though initially the black population did not become involved in the conflict. In August 1791, a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caiman marked the start of a major slave rebellion in the north. Toussaint apparently did not take part in the earliest stages of the rebellion, but after a few weeks he sent his family to safety in Spanish Santo Domingo and helped the overseers of the Breda plantation to leave the island. He joined the forces of Georges Biassou as doctor to the troops, commanding a small detachment. Surviving documents show him participating in the leadership of the rebellion, discussing strategy, and negotiating with the Spanish supporters of the rebellion for supplies. When the offer was rejected, he was instrumental in preventing the massacre of Biassou’s white prisoners. The prisoners were released after further negotiations with the French commissioners and taken to Le Cap by Toussaint. He hoped to use the occasion to present the rebellion’s demands to the colonial assembly, but they refused to meet with him.

Throughout 1792, Toussaint, as a leader in an increasingly formal alliance between the black rebellion and the Spanish, ran the fortified post of La Tannerie and maintained the Cordon de l’Ouest, a line of posts between rebel and colonial territory. He gained a reputation for running an orderly camp, trained his men in guerrilla tactics and "the European style of war", and began to attract soldiers who would play an important role throughout the revolution. After hard fighting, he lost La Tannerie in January 1793 to the French general Étienne Maynaud Bizefranc de Lavaux, but it was in these battles that the French first recognized him as a significant military leader.

Some time in 1792-3 Toussaint adopted the surname Louverture, from the French word for ‘opening‘. The most common explanation is that it refers to his ability to create openings in battle, and it is sometimes attributed to French commissioner Polverel’s exclamation: “That man makes an opening everywhere”. However, some writers think it was more prosaically due to a gap between his front teeth.

Despite adhering to royalist political views, Toussaint had also begun to use the language of freedom and equality associated with the French revolution. From being willing to bargain for better conditions of slavery late in 1791, he had become committed to its complete abolition. On 29 August 1793 he made his famous declaration of Camp Turel to the blacks of St Domingue:

Brothers and friends, I am Toussaint Louverture; perhaps my name has made itself known to you. I have undertaken vengeance. I want Liberty and Equality to reign in St Domingue. I am working to make that happen. Unite yourselves to us, brothers, and fight with us for the same cause.

Your very humble and obedient servant, Toussaint Louverture,

General of the armies of the king, for the public good.

On the same day, the beleaguered French commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, proclaimed emancipation for all slaves in French St Domingue, hoping to bring the black troops over to his side. Initially, this failed, perhaps because Toussaint and the other leaders knew that Sonthonax was exceeding his authority. However, on 4 February 1794, the French revolutionary government proclaimed the abolition of slavery. For months, Toussaint had been in diplomatic contact with the French general Étienne Maynaud Bizefranc de Lavaux. During this time, competition between himself and other rebel leaders was growing and the Spanish had started to look with disfavor on his near-autonomous control of a large and strategically important region. In May 1794, when the decision of the French government became known in St Domingue, he switched allegiance from the Spanish to the French and rallied his troops to Lavaux.

Allegiance with the French: 1794-1796

Toussaint joined the French in early May 1794, raising the republican flag over the port of Gonaives and provoking a mass exodus of refugees. In the first weeks he eradicated all Spanish supporters from the Cordon de l’Ouest which he had held on their behalf. He now faced attack from multiple sides. His former colleagues in the black rebellion were now fighting against him for the Spanish. As a French commander, he was under attack from the British troops who had landed on Saint Domingue in September. On the other hand, he was able to pool his 4000 men with Lavaux’s troops in joint actions. By now his officers included men who were to remain important throughout the revolution: his brother, Paul, his nephew, Moise, Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe.

Before long Toussaint had put an end to the Spanish threat to French Saint Domingue. In any case, the Treaty of Basel of July 1795 marked a formal end to hostilities between the two countries. Even then, the black leaders, Jean-Francois and Biassou, continued to fight against Toussaint until November, when they left for Spain and Florida respectively. At that point, most of their men joined Toussaint's forces. Toussaint also made inroads against the British troops but was unable to oust them from Saint-Marc, so he contained them and rendered them ineffective by returning to guerilla tactics.

Throughout 1795 and 1796, Toussaint was also concerned with re-establishing agriculture and keeping the peace in areas under his control. In speeches and policy he revealed his belief that the long-term freedom of the people of Saint Domingue depended on the economic viability of the colony. He was held in general respect and resorted to a mixture of diplomacy and force to return the field hands to the plantations as emancipated and paid workers. Nevertheless, there were regular small rebellions by workers protesting poor conditions, their lack of real freedom or fearing a return to slavery.

Another of Toussaint’s concerns was to manage potential rivals for power within the French part of the colony. The most serious of these involved the mulatto commander, Villate, based in Cap Francais. Toussaint and Villate had been in competition over the right to command some sections of troops and territory since 1794. By 1796 Villate was able to drum up popular support by accusing the French authorities of plotting a return to slavery. On March 20, he imprisoned Toussaint’s friend and ally, the French Governor Lavaux and appointed himself Governor in his place. Toussaint’s troops quickly fell on Cap Francais to deliver Lavaux and rout Villate. Toussaint famously opened the warehouses to the public, proving that they were empty of the chains supposedly imported to prepare for a return to slavery. The insurrection ended in a triumphal ceremony in which Toussaint and Lavaux asserted their partnership in power. Lavaux proclaimed Toussaint Lieutenant Governor, announcing at the same time that he would do nothing without his approval, to which Toussaint replied “After God, Lavaux“.

The Third Commission: 1796-1797

A few weeks after the triumph over the Villate insurrection France’s representatives of the third commission arrived on Saint Domingue. Among them was Sonthonax, the commissioner who had previously declared abolition on the same day as Toussaint’s proclamation of Camp Turel. At first the relationship between the two was positive. Sonthonax promoted Toussaint to general and arranged for his sons, Placide and Isaac, to attend the school that had been established in France for the children of colonials.

In September 1796, elections were held to choose colonial representatives for the French national assembly. Toussaint’s letters show that he encouraged Lavaux to stand, and historians have speculated as to whether he was seeking to place a firm supporter in France or to remove a rival in power. Sonthonax was also elected, either at Toussaint’s instigation or on his own initiative, but while Lavaux left Saint Domingue in October, Sonthonax remained.

Sonthonax, a fervent revolutionary and fierce supporter of racial equality, soon rivalled Toussaint in popularity and although their goals were similar, there were several points of conflict. The worst of these was over the return of the white planters who had fled Saint Domingue at the start of the revolution. To Sonthonax, they were potential counter-revolutionaries, to be assimilated, officially or not, with the ‘émigrés’ who had fled the French revolution and were forbidden to return under pain of death. To Toussaint, they were bearers of useful skills and knowledge and he wanted them back. In summer 1797, Toussaint authorised the return of Bayon de Libertat, the ex-overseer of Breda with whom he had a lifelong relationship. Sonthonax wrote to Toussaint threatening him with prosecution and ordering him to get Bayon off the territory. Toussaint then went over his head and wrote to the French Directoire directly for permission for Bayon to stay. Only a few weeks later, he abruptly turned against Sonthonax and on 24 August 1797, he forcibly deported him from the island.

There were in fact several reasons why Toussaint might want to get rid of Sonthonax, but the one he gave out officially was that Sonthonax had tried to involve him in a plot to make Saint Domingue independent, starting with a massacre of the whites of the island. The accusation played on Sonthonax’s political radicalism and known hatred of the aristocratic white planters, but historians have varied as to how credible they consider it. On reaching France, Sonthonax countered by accusing Toussaint of royalist, counter-revolutionary and pro-independence tendencies. Toussaint knew that he had asserted his authority to such an extent that the French government might well suspect him of seeking independence. At the same time, the French Directoire government was considerably less revolutionary than it had been, and suspicions began to brew that it might reconsider the abolition of slavery. In November 1797, Toussaint wrote again to the Directoire, assuring them of his loyalty but reminding them firmly that abolition must be maintained.

Treaties with Britain and America: 1798

For several months, Toussaint found himself in sole command of French Saint Domingue, except for a semi-autonomous state in the south, where the mulatto general, Andre Rigaud, had rejected the authority of the third commission. Both generals continued attacking the British, whose position on Saint Domingue was looking increasingly weak. Toussaint was negotiating their withdrawal when France’s latest commissioner, Gabriel Hédouville, arrived in March 1798, with orders to undermine his authority.

On 30 April 1798, Toussaint signed a treaty with the British general, Maitland, exchanging the withdrawal of British troops from western Saint Domingue for an amnesty for the French counter-revolutionaries in those areas. In May, Port au Prince was returned to French rule in an atmosphere of order and celebration.

In July, Toussaint and Rigaud met commissioner Hedouville together. Hoping to create a rivalry that would diminish Toussaint's power, Hedouville displayed a strong preference for a flattered Rigaud, and an aversion for Toussaint However, General Maitland was also playing on French rivalries and evaded the authority of Hedouville to deal with Toussaint directly. In August, Toussaint and Maitland signed treaties for the evacuation of the remaining British troops. On August 31, they signed a secret treaty which lifted the British blockade on Saint Domingue in exchange for a promise that Toussaint would not export the black revolution to Jamaica.

As Toussaint's relationship with Hedouville reached breaking point, an uprising began amongst the troops of Toussaint’s adopted nephew, Moise. Attempts by Hedouville to manage the situation made matters worse and Toussaint declined to help him. As the rebellion grew to a full-scale insurrection, Hedouville prepared to leave the island, while Toussaint and Dessalines threatened to arrest him as a troublemaker. Hedouville sailed for France in October 1798, nominally transferring his authority to Rigaud. Toussaint decided instead to work with Phillipe Roume, a member of the third commission who had been posted to the Spanish parts of the colony. Though he continued to protest his loyalty to the French government, he had expelled a second government representative from the territory and was about to negotiate another autonomous agreement with one of France’s enemies.

The USA had suspended trade with France in 1798 because of increasing conflict over piracy. The two countries were almost at war, but trade between Saint-Domingue and the USA was desirable to both Toussaint and the USA. With Hedouville gone, Toussaint sent Joseph Bunel to negotiate with the government of John Adams. The terms of the treaty were similar to those already established with the British, but Toussaint continually resisted suggestions from either power that he should declare independence. As long as France maintained the abolition of slavery, it seems that he was content that the colony remain French, at least in name.

Expansion of territory: 1799-1801

In 1799, the tensions between Toussaint and André Rigaud came to a head. Toussaint accused Rigaud of trying to assassinate him to gain power over Saint Dominque for himself. Rigaud claimed Toussaint was conspiring with the British to restore slavery. The conflict was complicated by racial overtones which escalated tension between blacks and mulattoes. Toussaint had other political reasons for bringing down Rigaud. Only by controlling every port could he hope to prevent a landing of French troops if necessary.

Toussaint persuaded Roume to declare Rigaud a traitor in July 1799, and attacked the southern state. The civil war lasted over a year, with the defeated Rigaud fleeing to Guadeloupe, then France, in August 1800. Toussaint delegated most of the campaign to his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who became infamous, during and after the war, for massacring mulatto captives and civilians. The number of deaths is contested: James claims a few hundred deaths in contravention of the amnesty. The contemporary French general, Pamphile de Lacroix suggested 10,000.

In November 1799, during the civil war, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France and passed a new constitution declaring that the colonies would be subject to special laws. Although the colonies suspected this meant the re-introduction of slavery, Napoleon began by confirming Toussaint’s position and promising to maintain the abolition. But he also forbade Toussaint to invade Spanish Santo Domingo, an action that would put Toussaint in a powerful defensive position. Toussaint was determined to proceed anyway and coerced Roume into supplying the necessary permission. In January 1801, Toussaint and Moise invaded the Spanish territory, taking possession from the Governor, Don Garcia, with few difficulties. The area had been wilder and less densely populated than the French section. Toussaint brought it under French law which abolished slavery, and embarked on a program of modernization. He was now master of the whole island.

The Constitution of 1801

Napoleon had made it clear to the inhabitants of Saint-Domingue that France would draw up a new constitution for its colonies, in which they would be subjected to special laws. Despite his initial protestations to the contrary, it seemed likely all along that he might restore slavery. In March 1801, Toussaint formed a constitutional assembly to draft a constitution for Saint-Domingue that would preempt these ‘special laws’.

Toussaint promulgated the Constitution of 1801 on 7 July, officially establishing his authority over the entire island of Hispaniola and confirming most of his existing policies. It made him governor general for life with near absolute powers and the possibility of choosing his successor. Article 3 of the constitution states: “There cannot exist slaves [in Saint-Domingue], servitude is therein forever abolished. All men are born, live and die free and French." The constitution guaranteed equal opportunity and equal treatment under the law for all races, but also confirmed Toussaint‘s policies of forced labour and the importation of workers through the slave trade. Toussaint was willing to compromise the dominant Vodou faith for Catholicism. Article 6 clearly states that “the Catholic, Apostolic, Roman faith shall be the only publicly professed faith.”

Toussaint charged Colonel Vincent with the task of presenting the new constitution to Napoleon, even though Vincent himself was horrified to discover that the general had gone so far. Several aspects of the constitution were damaging to France: the absence of provision for French government officials, the lack of advantages to France in trade with its own colony, and Toussaint’s breach of protocol in publishing the constitution before submitting it to the French government. Despite his disapproval, Vincent attempted to submit the constitution to Napoleon in a positive light, but was briefly exiled to Elba for his pains.

Toussaint professed himself a Frenchman and strove to convince Bonaparte of his loyalty. He wrote to Napoleon, "From the First of the Blacks to the First of the Whites", but received no reply. During this time, Bonaparte was under pressure from refugee planters who assured him that the colony had been most profitable with enslaved labour. He eventually decided to send an expedition of 20,000 men to Saint-Domingue to restore French authority.

Leclerc's campaign

Napoleon’s troops, under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Emmanuel Leclerc were to seize control of the island by diplomatic means, proclaiming peaceful intentions, and keeping secret his orders to deport all black officers. Meanwhile, Toussaint was preparing for defence and insuring discipline. This may have contributed to a rebellion against forced labour led by his nephew and top general, Moyse, in October 1801. It was violently repressed with the result that when the French ships arrived not all of Saint Domingue was automatically on Toussaint’s side. In late January 1802, while Leclerc sought permission to land at Cap Francais and Christophe held him off, Rochambeau suddenly attacked Fort Liberte, effectively squelching the diplomatic option.

Toussaint’s plan in case of war was to burn the coastal cities and as much of the plains as possible, retreat with his troops into the inaccessible mountains and wait for fever to decimate the European troops. The biggest impediment to this plan proved to be difficulty in internal communications. Christophe burned Cap Francais and retreated, but Paul Louverture was tricked by a false letter into allowing the French to occupy Santo Domingo, other officiers believed Napoleon’s diplomatic proclamation, while some attempted resistance instead of burning and retreating. French reports to Napoleon show that in the months of fighting that followed, the French felt their position was weak, but that Toussaint and his generals were not fully conscious of their strength.

With both sides shocked by the violence of the initial fighting, Leclerc tried belatedly to revert to the diplomatic solution. Toussaint’s sons and their tutor had accompanied the expedition with this end in mind and were now sent to present Napoleon’s proclamation to Toussaint. When these talks broke down, months of inconclusive fighting followed. On May 6, 1802, Toussaint rode into Cap Francais to treat with Leclerc. He negotiated an amnesty for all his remaining generals, then retired with full honors to his plantations at Ennery.

Imprisonment

After three weeks, Leclerc sent troops to seize Toussaint Louverture and his family. He deported them to France on a warship, claiming that he suspected the former leader of plotting an uprising. It was during this crossing that Toussaint Louverture famously warned his captors that the rebels would not repeat his mistake:

In overthrowing me you have cut down in Saint Domingue only the trunk of the tree of liberty; it will spring up again from the roots, for they are many and they are deep.

They reached France on 2 July 1802 and, on 25 August, Toussaint Louverture was sent to the jail in Fort-de-Joux in the Doubs. While in prison, he died of pneumonia in April 1803. In his absence, Jean-Jacques Dessalines led the Hatitian rebellion until its completion, finally defeating the French forces in 1803.

Memorials

On August 29, 1954, the Haitian ambassador to France, Léon Thébaud, inaugurated a stone cross memorial for Toussaint Louverture at the foot of the fort. Years afterward, the French government ceremoniously presented a shovelful of soil from the grounds of Fort-de-Joux to the Haitian government as a symbolic transfer of Toussaint Louverture's remains. A plaque in his memory can be found in the Panthéon in Paris, inscribed with the following description:

''Combattant de la liberté, artisan de l'abolition de l'esclavage, héros haïtien mort déporté au Fort-de-Joux en 1803.''(Combatant for liberty, artisan of the abolition of slavery, Haitian hero died in deportation at Fort-de-Joux in 1803.)

Cultural references

English poet William Wordsworth published his sonnet "To Toussaint L'Ouverture" in January 1803.

African American novelist Frank J. Webb references Toussaint in his novel ''The Garies and Their Friends'' about free African Americans in 1857.

Alphonse de Lamartine, a preeminent French poet and statesman of the early 19th century, wrote a verse play about Toussaint entitled ''Toussaint Louverture: un poeme dramatique en cinq actes'' (1850). In 1936, Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James wrote a play entitled ''Toussaint Louverture'', which was performed at the Westminster Theatre in London and starred actors including Paul Robeson (in the title role), Robert Adams and Orlando Martins. The play was later revised and re-published in 1938 as ''The Black Jacobins''. In 1938, American artist Jacob Lawrence created a series of paintings about the life of Toussaint Louverture, which he later adapted into a series of prints. His painting, titled ''Toussaint L’Ouverture,'' hangs in the Butler Institute of American Art in Youngstown, Ohio, USA.

In 1944, the African American writer, Ralph Ellison, wrote the story, ''Mr. Toussan'', in which two African American youths exaggerate the story of Toussaint L'Ouverture. In this story, Toussaint is seen as a symbol of Blacks asserting their identities and liberty over white dominance.

Kenneth Roberts' best-selling novel ''Lydia Bailey'' (1947) is set during the Haitian Revolution and features L'Ouverture, Dessalines, and Cristophe as the principal historical characters. The 1952 American film based on the novel was directed by Jean Negulesco; Toussaint is portrayed by the actor Ken Renard.

In Frank Webb's novel, ''The Garies and their Friends'', Toussaint's portrait is a source of inspiration for the real estate tycoon Mr. Walters.

1971 album 'Santana (III)' features a song (almost an instrumental; lyrics are minimal) titled "Toussaint L'Ouverture". It has remained a staple of the band's concert repertoire since that time. Officially released live instrumental versions are included on the 1974 album ' 'Lotus' ' as well as the 1998 CD re-issue of ''Abraxas''.

In 1975 black feminist playwright Ntozake Shange referenced Toussaint Louverture in her Broadway play ''For Colored Girls Who've Considered Suicide When the Rainbow is Enuf''.

In 1977 The opera ''Toussaint'' by David Blake was produced by English National Opera at the Coliseum Theatre in London, starring Neil Howlett in the title role.

The 1979 song 'Tribute to the Martyrs' by British reggae group Steel Pulse, from the album of the same name, mentions Toussaint Louverture as one of the martyred Black heroes of modern culture, along with Steve Biko, Paul Bogle, George Jackson, Marcus Garvey, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X.

1983, Jean-Michel Basquiat, the Brooklyn-born New York painter of the 1980s, whose father was from Haiti, painted the monumental work ''Toussaint L'Ouverture vs Savonarolla'', with a portrait of L'Ouverture.

1995-2004, Madison Smartt Bell published a trilogy of novels inspired by the slave uprising and Haitian Revolution, with Toussaint Louverture a key figure. ''All Souls' Rising'' (1995) was shortlisted for both the PEN/Faulkner and National Book awards. ''Master of the Crossroads'' (2000) and ''The Stone That the Builder Refused'' (2004) completed the trilogy.

In 2003, Hakim Adi published a book about great political figures from Africa since 1787 which he included Toussaint Louverture as one of the greatly influential political leaders in those years.

In 2004, John Agard had published 'Half-Caste and Other Poems' (Hodder Children's, 2004) which features the poem 'Checking Out Me History; a poem that references Toussaint and 'Nanny de Maroon'. This poem is now being studied [2010] for GCSE English. The poem is copyrighted 1996, implying writing around that time.

Bell also published ''Freedom's Gate: A Brief Life of Toussaint L'Ouverture'' (2007)

Wyclef Jean created an album in 2009 referencing Toussaint L'Ouverture's life and influence on Haiti. The album is called From the Hut, To the Projects, To the Mansion

Derick Alexander directed ''The Last Days of Toussaint Louverture'', starring Joseph Ademola Adeyemo as Toussaint Louverture (2009)

Notes

Bibliography

Madison Smartt Bell. "Toussaint Louverture: A Biography", New York: Pantheon, 2007 (Vintage Books, 2008). ISBN 1400079357

David Brion Davis. "He changed the New World." Review of M.S. Bell's "Toussaint Louverture: A Biography", ''The New York Review of Books'', 31 May 2007, pp. 54–58.

C.L.R. James. ''The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution'', Vintage Books, 1963. (Penguin Books, 2001) ISBN 0140299815

Laurent Dubois and John D. Garrigus. ''Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, 1789-1804: A Brief History with Documents'' (St. Martin's Press,2006). ISBN 031241501X

Junius P. Rodriguez, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion''. (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006). ISBN 0313332711

Graham Gendall Norton - ''Toussaint Louverture'', in ''History Today'', April 2003.

Arthur L. Stinchcombe. ''Sugar Island Slavery in the Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the Caribbean World'' (Princeton University Press, 1995). ISBN 1400807778

Ian Thomson. 'Bonjour Blanc: A Journey Through Haiti' (London, 1992). A colourful, picaresque, historically- and politically-engaged travelogue; regular asides on Louverture's career (New edition, Vintage, 2004). ISBN 0099452154

Martin Ros - ''The Night of Fire: The Black Napoleon and the Battle for Haiti'' (in Dutch, 1991). 1994, Published by Sarpedon, New York, ISBN 0962761370

DuPuy, Alex. ''Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment since 1700'' (West View Press, 1989). ISBN 0813373484

Alfred N. Hunt. ''Haiti's Influence on Antebellum America: Slumbering Volcano in the Caribbean'' (Louisiana State University Press, 1988). ISBN 0807131970

Aimé Cesaire - ''Toussaint Louverture'' (Présence africaine, Paris, 1981). Written by a prominent French thinker, this book is well written, well argued, and well researched. ISBN 2708703978

Robert Heinl and Nancy Heinl - ''Written in Blood: The story of the Haitian people, 1492-1971'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1978). A bit awkward, but studded with quotations from original sources. ISBN 0395263050

Thomas Ott - ''The Haitian Revolution: 1789-1804'' (University of Tennessee Press, 1973). Brief, but well-researched. ISBN 0870495453

George F. Tyson, ed. - ''Great Lives Considered: Toussaint L'Ouverture'' (Prentice Hall, 1973). A compilation,indeed includes some of Toussaint's writings. ISBN 013925529X

Ralph Korngold - ''Citizen Toussaint'' (1944, Greenwood Press, reissued 1979). ISBN 0313207941

J. R. Beard - ''The Life of Toussaint L'Ouverture: The Negro Patriot of Hayti'' (1853). Still in print. A pro-Toussaint history written by an Englishman. ISBN 1587420104

J. R. Beard - ''Toussaint L'Ouverture: A Biography and Autobiography'' (1863). Out of print, but published online. Consists of the earlier "Life", supplemented by an autobiography of Toussaint written by himself.

Victor Schoelcher - ''Vie de Toussaint-Louverture'' (1889). A sympathetic biography by a French abolitionist, with good scholarship (for the time), and generous quotation from original sources, but entertaining and readable nonetheless. Important as a source for many other biographers (e.g. C.L.R. James).

F. J. Pamphile de Lacroix - ''La révolution d'Haïti'' (1819, reprinted 1995). Memoirs of one of the French generals involved in fighting Toussaint. Surprisingly, he esteemed his rival and wrote a long, well-documented, and generally highly regarded history of the conflict.

Toussaint L'Ouverture - ''The Haitian Revolution'' (New York: Verso, 2008). A collection of L'Ouverture's writings and speeches, with an introduction by Jean-Bertrand Aristide. ISBN 1844672611

The Collective Works of Yves. Book I explains Haiti's past to be recognized. Book 2 culminates haiti's scared present day epic history.

External links

Toussaint L'Ouverture: A Biography and Autobiography by J. R. Beard, 1863

A section of Bob Corbett's on-line course on the history of Haïti that deals with Toussaint's rise to power.

The Louverture Project

"Égalité for All: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution". Noland Walker. PBS documentary. 2009.

Spencer Napoleonica Collection at Newberry Library

Category:1743 births Category:1803 deaths Category:People from Nord Department Category:French generals Category:French people of Beninese descent Category:People of the Latin American wars of independence Category:Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars Category:Governors of Saint-Domingue Category:Haitian Roman Catholics Category:People of the Haitian Revolution Category:Haitian rebel slaves Category:House slaves

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