Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. Galatia was named for the immigrant Gauls from Thrace (cf. Tylis), who settled here and became its ruling caste in the 3rd century BC, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC. It has been called the "Gallia" of the East, Roman writers calling its inhabitants "Galli" ("Gauls"). The Galateans themselves were not literate, and their name for themselves remains unknown.

Geography

Celtic Galatia

The Galatians were in their origin a part of the great Celtic migration which invaded Macedon, led by Brennus. The original Celts who settled in Galatia came through Thrace under the leadership of Leotarios and Leonnorios circa 270 BC. Three tribes comprised these Celts, the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii.

Brennus invaded Greece in 281 BC with a huge war band and was turned back in the nick of time from plundering the temple of Apollo at Delphi. At the same time, another Gaulish group of men, women, and children were migrating through Thrace. They had split off from Brennus' people in 279 BC, and had migrated into Thrace under their leaders Leonnorius and Lutarius. These invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278–277 BC; others invaded Macedonia, killed the Ptolemaic ruler Ptolemy Ceraunus but were eventually ousted by Antigonus Gonatas, the grandson of the defeated Diadoch Antigonus the One-Eyed.

The invaders came at the invitation of Nicomedes I of Bithynia, who required help in a dynastic struggle against his brother. Three tribes crossed over from Thrace to Asia Minor. They numbered about 10,000 fighting men and about the same number of women and children, divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and Tectosages. They were eventually defeated by the Seleucid king Antiochus I, in a battle where the Seleucid war elephants shocked the Celts. While the momentum of the invasion was broken, the Galatians were by no means exterminated.

Instead, the migration led to the establishment of a long-lived Celtic territory in central Anatolia, which included the eastern part of ancient Phrygia, a territory that became known as Galatia. There they ultimately settled, and being strengthened by fresh accessions of the same clan from Europe, they overran Bithynia and supported themselves by plundering neighbouring countries.

The Gauls invaded the eastern part of Phrygia on at least one occasion.

The constitution of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably to custom, each tribe was divided into cantons, each governed by a chief ('tetrarch') of its own with a judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in cases of murder, which were tried before a council of 300 drawn from the twelve cantons and meeting at a holy place, twenty miles southwest of Ancyra, written in Greek as ''Drynemeton'' (Gallic *daru-nemeton ''holy place of oak''). It is likely it was a sacred oak grove, since the name means "sanctuary of the oaks" (from ''drys'', meaning "oak" and ''nemeton'', meaning "sacred ground"). The local population of Cappadocians were left in control of the towns and most of the land, paying tithes to their new overlords, who formed a military aristocracy and kept aloof in fortified farmsteads, surrounded by their bands.

These Celts were warriors, respected by Greeks and Romans (''illustration, right''). They were oftentimes hired as mercenary soldiers, sometimes fighting on both sides in the great battles of the times. For years the chieftains and their war bands ravaged the western half of Asia Minor, as allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious check, until they sided with the renegade Seleucid prince Antiochus Hierax, who reigned in Asia Minor. Hierax tried to defeat king Attalus I of Pergamum (241–197 BC), but instead, the hellenized cities united under Attalus's banner, and his armies inflicted several severe defeats upon them, about 232 forcing them to settle permanently and to confine themselves to the region to which they had already given their name. The theme of the ''Dying Gaul'' (a famous statue displayed in Pergamon) remained a favorite in Hellenistic art for a generation.

Their right to the district was formally recognized. The three Celtic Galatian tribes remained as described above: #the Tectosages in the centre, round with their capital Ancyra, #the Tolistobogii on the west, round Pessinus as their chief town, sacred to Cybele, and #the Trocmi on the east, round their chief town Tavium. Each tribal territory was divided into four cantons or tetrarchies. Each of the twelve tetrarchs had under him a judge and a general. A council of the nation consisting of the tetrarchs and three hundred senators was periodically held at Drynemeton.

The king of Attalid Pergamene employed their services in the increasingly devastating wars of Asia Minor; another band deserted from their Egyptian overlord Ptolemy IV after a solar eclipse had broken their spirits.

In the early 2nd century BC, they proved terrible allies of Antiochus the Great, the last Seleucid king trying to regain suzerainty over Asia Minor. In 189 BC, Rome sent Gnaeus Manlius Vulso on an expedition against the Galatians, the Galatian War. He defeated them. Galatia was henceforth dominated by Rome through regional rulers from 189 BC onward. Galatia declined and fell at times under Pontic ascendancy. They were finally freed by the Mithridatic Wars, during which they supported Rome.

In the settlement of 64 BC, Galatia became a client-state of the Roman empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled "tetrarchs") were appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of Cicero and Julius Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and was finally recognized by the Romans as 'king' of Galatia.

Roman and Christian Galatia

On the death of the third king Amyntas in 25 BC, however, Galatia was incorporated by Octavian Augustus into the Roman Empire, becoming a Roman province. Near his capital Ancyra (modern Ankara), Pylamenes, the king's heir, rebuilt a temple of the Phrygian god Men to venerate Augustus (the Monumentum Ancyranum), as a sign of fidelity. It was on the walls of this temple in Galatia that the major source for the Res Gestae of Augustus were preserved for modernity. Few of the provinces proved more enthusiastically loyal to Rome. The Galatians also practised a form of Romano-Celtic polytheism, common in Celtic lands.

During his second missionary journey, St. Paul of Tarsus, accompanied by Silas and Timothy (), visited the ''"region of Galatia,"'' where he was detained by sickness ().

Josephus related the Biblical figure Gomer to Galatia (or perhaps to Gaul in general). "For Gomer founded those whom the Greeks now call Galatians, [Galls,] but were then called Gomerites." Antiquities of the Jews, I:6. Others have related Gomer to Cimmerians.

The Galatians were still speaking the Galatian language (Gaulish) in the time of St. Jerome (347–420 AD), who wrote that the Galatians of Ancyra and the Treveri of Trier (in what is now the German Rhineland) spoke the same language (''Comentarii in Epistolam ad Galatos'', 2.3, composed c. 387).

There was a short-lived eleventh century attempt to re-establish an independent Galatia by Roussel de Bailleul.

Notes

References

External links

Category:Historical regions of Anatolia Category:Ancient peoples Category:Ancient Roman provinces Category:Celtic culture Category:Pauline churches Category:Former countries in the Middle East Category:Hellenistic Phrygia

Max Hardcore (born Paul F. Little on August 10, 1956 in Racine, Wisconsin) is a male pornographic actor, producer and director, who rose to prominence in 1992 with the film series ''Anal Adventures of Max Hardcore''. His work has been classified as gonzo pornography and described as "testing the limits of acceptability". His company, Max World Entertainment, was headquartered in Altadena, California.

Nature of content

The sexual situations depicted in Max Hardcore's films frequently include acts such as urinating on his female co-stars, fisting them, or inserting specula into their anuses or vaginas and widening them to extreme degree, as well as scenes of vomiting and blowing snot into the mouths of the girls. Films by Max Hardcore often depict their director and star inflicting apparent pain and humiliation on his co-stars.

Hardcore calls his own material "vile and crazy" and considers that he has been influential on the porn industry, spawning many imitators.

Writer Susannah Breslin, reviewing Hardcore's work, has commented: "In Max Hardcore movies – ''Pure Max'', ''Hardcore Schoolgirls'', ''Max! Don't Fuck Up My Mommy!'' – women are verbally and physically degraded in an unprecedented myriad of ways." The treatment by Hardcore of his female co-stars has been described by several critics as occasionally abusive. The tone of Hardcore's work has been considered misogynistic. His films and alleged work methods have reportedly made him relatively unpopular in the porn industry.

Prosecutions

On October 5, 2005, while Little was in Barcelona to attend an international FICEB Erotic Expo, the offices of Max World Entertainment were raided by the FBI. Five video titles and the office's computer servers were seized, ostensibly for research toward a federal obscenity indictment or a charge related to the 2257 record-keeping law.

In the execution of the search warrant, one officer accidentally discharged a weapon into the floor of an upstairs office, as the housekeeper was being detained below. No one was injured.

After the FBI raid, Little released the following statement:

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In 2007, Little and his company, Max World Entertainment, Inc., were indicted by the United States Department of Justice Child Exploitation and Obscenity Section with five counts of transporting obscene matter by use of an interactive computer service and five counts of mailing obscene matter, relating to five movies showing fisting, urination and vomiting. Little was subsequently found guilty on all charges, and sentenced to 46 months in prison. On appeal, the 11th Circuit Court in Atlanta, Georgia upheld the conviction, but remanded his sentence. Little began serving his sentence on January 29, 2009.

The jury ordered the internet domain www.MaxHardcore.com to be forfeited but declined to forfeit Little's house in Altadena, California.

Little was originally held at Federal Correctional Institution, La Tuna in Anthony, Texas, a low security correctional facility for men. He was transferred to the management of the Community Corrections Management, Long Beach facility on January 21, 2011 in preparation for his release, and served the final five months of his sentence under house arrest. He is Federal Bureau of Prisons number 44902-112 and was released on July 19, 2011.

References in Popular Culture

References

External links

Category:1956 births Category:Living people Category:American pornographic film directors Category:American pornographic film actors Category:American prisoners and detainees Category:Male pornographic film actors Category:People convicted of obscenity Category:People from Racine, Wisconsin Category:Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government