Anarchism has been variously defined by sources. Most often, the term describes the political philosophy which considers the state undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, and instead promotes a stateless society, or anarchy, while others have defined it as opposing authority in the conduct of human relations. Anarchists widely disagree on what additional criteria are essential to anarchism. According to ''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', "there is no single defining position that all anarchists hold, and those considered anarchists at best share a certain family resemblance."

Overview

There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive. Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of social and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications. Anarchism is often considered to be a radical left-wing ideology, and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti-statist interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism or participatory economics. However, anarchism has always included an individualist strain supporting a market economy and private property, or morally unrestrained egoism. Some individualist anarchists are also socialists or communists while some anarcho-communists are also individualists or egoists while some anarcho-communists are also individualists.

Anarchism as a social movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. The central tendency of anarchism as a mass social movement has been represented by anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism, with individualist anarchism being primarily a literary phenomenon which nevertheless did have an impact on the bigger currents and individualists also participated in large anarchist organizations. Most anarchists oppose all forms of aggression, supporting self-defense or non-violence (anarcho-pacifism), while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution and propaganda of the deed, on the path to an anarchist society.

Etymology and terminology

The term ''anarchism'' derives from the Greek ἄναρχος, ''anarchos'', meaning "without rulers", from the prefix ἀν- (''an-'', "without") + ἀρχή (''archê'', "sovereignty, realm, magistracy") + -ισμός (''-ismos'', from the suffix -ιζειν, ''-izein'' "-izing"). There is some ambiguity with the use of the terms "libertarianism" and "libertarian" in writings about anarchism. Since the 1890s from France, the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States; its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. Accordingly, "libertarian socialism" is sometimes used as a synonym for socialist anarchism, to distinguish it from "individualist libertarianism" (individualist anarchism). On the other hand, some use "libertarianism" to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as "libertarian anarchism".

History

Origins

The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, and in later centuries by Zhuangzi and Bao Jingyan. Zhuangzi, specifically, was called by economist Ludwig von Mises as "the first anarchist in the history of human thought". According to Austrian School economists Murray Rothbard and Mises, Zhuangzi was the first to develop the idea of spontaneous order, independently discovered by Proudhon in the nineteenth century. Zhuangzi wrote, ''"A petty thief is put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation,"'' while Bao Jingyan said that as soon as "the relationship between lord and subject is established, hearts become daily filled with evil designs, until the manacled criminals sullenly doing forced labour in the mud and the dust are full of mutinous thoughts." Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, also introduced similar topics.

The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the ''Enragés'', began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as oxymoronic. By the turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its initial negative connotation.

Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom. From this climate William Godwin developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought. Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work", while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early Edmund Burke. Benjamin Tucker instead credits Josiah Warren, an American who promoted stateless and voluntary communities where all goods and services were private, with being "the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism." The first to describe himself as an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a French philosopher and politician, which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory.

The anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque was the first person to describe himself as "libertarian". Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature."

The First International

In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848, during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt. In 1864 the International Workingmen's Association (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of Proudhon, Blanquists, Philadelphes, English trade unionists, socialists and social democrats.

Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization. Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the mutualists, opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings.

In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the League of Peace and Freedom (LPF), Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin and his collectivist anarchist associates joined the First International (which had decided not to get involved with the LPF). They allied themselves with the federalist socialist sections of the International, who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property.

At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as centralist and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the ruling class they had fought against.

In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the Hague Congress, where Bakunin and James Guillaume were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the St. Imier Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.

Organised labour

The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor." In 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the eight-hour work day would become standard.

In response, unions across the United States prepared a general strike in support of the event. On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when strikebreakers attempted to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd. The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square. A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer. In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other. Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed. Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the Haymarket affair, and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight hour day was made.The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair. Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of International Workers' Day on May Day had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday. In 1907, the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including Errico Malatesta, Pierre Monatte, Luigi Fabbri, Benoît Broutchoux, Emma Goldman, Rudolf Rocker, and Christiaan Cornelissen. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, popular education issues, the general strike or antimilitarism. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and syndicalism (or trade unionism). Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a social revolution, while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient. He thought that the trade-union movement was reformist and even conservative, citing as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of professional union officials. Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it.

The Spanish Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics, attracting 1.58 million members at one point and playing a major role in the Spanish Civil War. The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. In Latin America in particular "The anarchists quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers throughout South and Central America, and until the early 1920s most of the trade unions in Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Chile, and Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook; the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organization was undoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation. The largest and most militant of these organizations was the Federación Obrera Regional Argentina...it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a quarter of a million, which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions."

Propaganda of the deed and illegalism

Some anarchists, such as Johann Most, advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda." By the 1880s, the slogan "propaganda of the deed" had begun to be used both within and outside of the anarchist movement to refer to individual bombings, regicides and tyrannicides. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal ‘expropriations’." Illegalism as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("propaganda by the deed") and the anarchist burglars ("individual reappropriation") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary , invitations to revolt.". France's Bonnot Gang was the most famous group to embrace illegalism.

However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts. Peter Kropotkin thus wrote that year in ''Le Révolté'' that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite". A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favor of collective revolutionary action, for example through the trade union movement. The anarcho-syndicalist, Fernand Pelloutier, argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter."

State repression (including the infamous 1894 French ''lois scélérates'') of the anarchist and labor movements following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally state repression, in the first place, may have played a role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement, into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871 Paris Commune, the execution and exile of many ''communards'' to penal colonies, favored individualist political expression and acts.

Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement. For example, U.S. President McKinley's assassin Leon Czolgosz claimed to have been influenced by anarchist and feminist Emma Goldman. Bombings were associated in the media with anarchists because international terrorism arose during this time period with the widespread distribution of dynamite. This image remains to this day.

Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist movement after World War I (1914–1918) and the 1917 October Revolution.

Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s

Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October revolutions, and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution. However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to the Ukraine. There, in the Free Territory, they fought in the civil war against the Whites (a grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno, who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months.

Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, Bakunin's predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist" Marxist state would become a new elite had proved all too true.

The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of the CGT and IWW left the organizations and joined the Communist International.

The revolutionary wave of 1917–23 saw the active participation of anarchists in varying degrees of protagonism. In the German uprising known as the Bavarian Soviet Republic the anarchists Gustav Landauer, Silvio Gesell and Erich Mühsam had important leadership positions within the revolutionary councilist structures. In the Italian events known as the ''biennio rosso'' the anarcho-syndicalist trade union Unione Sindacale Italiana "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus ''Umanita Nova'', its daily paper) grew accordingly...Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces. In the Mexican Revolution the Mexican Liberal Party was established and during the early 1910s it lead a series of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts in Baja California with the leadership of anarcho-communist Ricardo Flores Magón.

In Paris, the Dielo Truda group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included Nestor Makhno, concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the ''Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)'', was supported. Platformist groups active today include the Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland and the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists of North America. Synthesis anarchism emerged as an organizational alternative to platformism which tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives. In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents Volin and Sebastien Faure. It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations.

Fight against fascism, the Spanish revolution and World War II

In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of fascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. Italian anarchists played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation ''Arditi del Popolo'', which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions, and achieved some success in their activism, such as repelling Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922. The veteran Italian anarchist, Luigi Fabbri, was one of the first critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive counter-revolution." In France, where the far right leagues came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a united front policy.

In Spain, the CNT initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivised the land. But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet Union. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and anarchists.

Anarchists in France and Italy were active in the Resistance during World War II.

Post-war years

right|thumb|200px|[[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman, influential American anarchist author of ''Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized Society'' among other works critical of contemporary societies]]Anarchism sought to reorganize itself after the war. The Mexican Anarchist Federation was established on 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Center united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District. In the early 1940s Antifascist International Solidarity and Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merge into the large national organization Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association). From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerges as part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but is repressed by the new Communist regime. In 1945 in France the Fédération Anarchiste is established and the also synthesist Federazione Anarchica Italiana is founded in Italy. Korean anarchists form the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945 and in 1946 the Japanese Anarchist Federation is founded. An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe is held in Paris in May 1948. In 1956 the Uruguayan Anarchist Federation is founded. In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renames itself as the Argentine Libertarian Federation.

Anarchism continued to be influential in important literary and intellectual personalities of the time such as Albert Camus, Herbert Read, Paul Goodman, Dwight Macdonald, Allen Ginsberg, Julian Beck and the French Surrealist group led by André Breton which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the Fédération Anarchiste.

Anarcho-pacifism became influential in the Anti-nuclear movement and anti war movements of the time as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Alex Comfort or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifist Ammon Hennacy. Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War." The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham's Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, ''Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939-1977)''.

Contemporary anarchism

thumb|left|The famous ''okupas'' [[squatting|squat near Parc Güell, overlooking Barcelona. Squatting was a prominent part of the emergence of renewed anarchist movement from the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s.]] A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s. Anarchism was influential in the Counterculture of the 1960s and anarchists actively participated in the late sixties students and workers revolts. In 1968 in Carrara, Italy the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France, the Italian and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile.

In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the punk rock movement, as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like that of Barcelona, Spain. In Denmark, squatters occupied a disused military base and declared the Freetown Christiania, an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen.

Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century, a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of anarcha-feminism, they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. The American Civil Rights Movement and the movement against the war in Vietnam also contributed to the revival of North American anarchism. European anarchism of the late 20th century drew much of its strength from the labour movement, and both have incorporated animal rights activism. Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber and anarchist historian Andrej Grubacic have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by indigenous, feminist, ecological and cultural-critical ideas", and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.

Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Group of Eight, and the World Economic Forum. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as ''black blocs''; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include security culture, affinity groups and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at WTO conference in Seattle in 1999.

International anarchist federations in existence include the International of Anarchist Federations, the International Workers' Association, and International Libertarian Solidarity. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) and the CNT. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for 2003. Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden and the Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation; the CNT-AIT in France; the Union Sindicale Italiana in Italy; in the US Workers Solidarity Alliance and the UK Solidarity Federation. The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial Workers of the World, claiming 2,000 paying members, and the International Workers Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active.

Anarchist schools of thought

Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions, individualist anarchism and social anarchism, which have some different origins, values and evolution. The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises negative liberty, i.e. opposition to state or social control over the individual, while those in the social wing emphasise positive liberty to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement". In chronological and theoretical sense there are classical — those created throughout the 19th century — and post-classical anarchist schools — those created since the mid-20th century and after.

Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is philosophical anarchism, which embodies the theoretical stance that the state lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a minimal state as unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "anarchism without adjectives", a call for toleration first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time. In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist- and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the anti-authoritarian beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought.

Mutualism

Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States. Proudhon proposed spontaneous order, whereby organization emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he wishes" and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."

Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to William Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount." Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."

Individualist anarchism

Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.

In 1793, William Godwin, who has often been cited as the first anarchist, wrote ''Political Justice'', which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism. Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.

An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism," or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German Max Stirner. Stirner's ''The Ego and Its Own'', published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy. According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality. To Stirner, rights were ''spooks'' in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality". Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the state. Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay.

Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', was the first anarchist periodical published,. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent...that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews...William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form.". Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his books ''Walden'', a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, ''Civil Disobedience'', an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner´s egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication ''Liberty''.

From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals, free love and birth control advocates (see Anarchism and issues related to love and sex), individualist naturists nudists (see anarcho-naturism) , freethought and anti-clearical activists as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as illegalism and individual reclamation(see European individualist anarchism). These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde, Emile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others.

Social anarchism

Social anarchism calls for a system with public ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organizations, without any government authority or coercion. It is the largest school of thought in anarchism. Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality, and emphasises cooperation and mutual aid. Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of such, is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most. Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or "propaganda by the deed", which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production.

However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by anarchist communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system". Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society. Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not mutually exclusive; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.

Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections.Anarchist communism proposes that the freest form of social organisation would be a society composed of self-managing communes with collective use of the means of production, organised democratically, and related to other communes through federation. While some anarchist communists favour direct democracy, others feel that its majoritarianism can impede individual liberty and favour consensus democracy instead. In anarchist communism, as money would be abolished, individuals would not receive direct compensation for labour (through sharing of profits or payment) but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune. Anarchist communism does not always have a communitarian philosophy. Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are egoist and strongly influenced by radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom. Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.

In the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism. With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically self-managed by the workers. It is often combined with other branches of anarchism, and anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to anarchist communist or collectivist anarchist economic systems. An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938 pamphlet ''Anarchosyndicalism'' outlined a view of the movement's origin, aims and importance to the future of labour.

Post-classical currents

Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources, and syncretic, combining disparate and contrary concepts to create new philosophical approaches. Since the revival of anarchism in the United States in the 1960s, a number of new movements and schools have emerged. Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-state libertarianism and individualist anarchism, drawing from Austrian School economics, study of law and economics and public choice theory, while the burgeoning feminist and environmentalist movements also produced anarchist offshoots.

Anarcha-feminism developed as a synthesis of radical feminism and anarchism that views patriarchy (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of compulsory government. It was inspired by the late 19th century writings of early feminist anarchists such as Lucy Parsons, Emma Goldman, Voltairine de Cleyre, and Dora Marsden. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticise and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and gender roles. Green anarchism (or eco-anarchism) is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues, with an important precedent in anarcho-naturism and whose main contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology. Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency which rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social change. It developed "mostly in the Netherlands, Britain, and the United States, before and during the Second World War". Christian anarchism is a movement in political theology that combines anarchism and Christianity. Its main proponents included Leo Tolstoy, Dorothy Day, Ammon Hennacy, and Jacques Ellul.

Post-left anarchy is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from traditional left-wing politics and to escape the confines of ideology in general. Post-anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought drawing from diverse ideas including post-modernism, autonomist marxism, post-left anarchy, situationism and postcolonialism.

Another recent form of anarchism critical of formal anarchist movements is insurrectionary anarchism, which advocates informal organization and active resistance to the state; its proponents include Wolfi Landstreicher and Alfredo M. Bonanno.

Topics of interest in anarchist theory

Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory.

Free love

An important current within anarchism is free love. Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah Warren and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures. The most important American free love journal was ''Lucifer the Lightbearer'' (1883–1907) edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker, but also there existed Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood's ''''The Word'''' (1872–1890, 1892–1893). ''Free Society'' (1895-1897 as ''The Firebrand''; 1897-1904 as ''Free Society'') was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The publication staunchly advocated free love and women's rights, and critiqued "Comstockery" -- censorship of sexual information.Also M. E. Lazarus was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.

In New York City's Greenwich Village, bohemian feminists and socialists advocated self-realisation and pleasure for women (and also men) in the here and now. They encouraged playing with sexual roles and sexuality, and the openly bisexual radical Edna St. Vincent Millay and the lesbian anarchist Margaret Anderson were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by Emma Goldman, among others. Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman "has campaigned boldly and steadfastly for individual rights, and especially for those deprived of their rights. Thus it came about that she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public." In fact, before Goldman, heterosexual anarchist Robert Reitzel (1849–1898) spoke positively of homosexuality from the beginning of the 1890s in his Detroit-based German language journal ''Der arme Teufel''. In Argentina anarcha-feminist Virginia Bolten published the newspaper called '''' (), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897, and was revived, briefly, in 1901.

In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Emile Armand. He proposed the concept of ''la camaraderie amoureuse'' to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of polyamory. In Germany the stirnerists Adolf Brand and John Henry Mackay were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality.

More recently, the British anarcho-pacifist Alex Comfort gained notoriety during the sexual revolution for writing the bestseller sex manual ''The Joy of Sex''. The issue of free love has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-hedonist philosopher Michel Onfray in such works as ''Théorie du corps amoureux : pour une érotique solaire'' (2000) and ''L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques'' (2002).

Libertarian education and freethought

150px|left|thumb|Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia, [[Catalan people|Catalan anarchist pedagogue and free-thinker]] For English anarchist William Godwin education was "the main means by which change would be achieved." Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness For Godwin education had to have "A respect for the child’s autonomy which precluded any form of coercion", "A pedagogy that respected this and sought to build on the child’s own motivation and initiatives" and "A concern about the child’s capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school." In his ''Political Justice'' he criticizes state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with national government". Early American anarchist Josiah Warren advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established. Max Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called ''The False Principle of our Education''. In it Stirner names his educational principle "personalist," explaining that self-understanding consists in hourly self-creation. Education for him is to create "free men, sovereign characters," by which he means "eternal characters...who are therefore eternal because they form themselves each moment".

In the United States "freethought was a basically anti-christian, anti-clerical movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to ''Liberty'' (anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of ''Freethought'' and, for a time, ''The Truth Seeker''. E.C. Walker was co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal ''Lucifer, the Light-Bearer''". "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as ''Lucifer, the Light-Bearer'', ''Freethought'' and ''The Truth Seeker'' appeared in ''Liberty''...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".

In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free-thinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established "modern" or progressive schools in Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church. The schools' stated goal was to "educate the working class in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free from the authority of church and state. Murray Bookchin wrote: "This period [1890s] was the heyday of libertarian schools and pedagogical projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists exercised some degree of influence. Perhaps the best-known effort in this field was Francisco Ferrer's Modern School (Escuela Moderna), a project which exercised a considerable influence on Catalan education and on experimental techniques of teaching generally." La Escuela Moderna, and Ferrer's ideas generally, formed the inspiration for a series of ''Modern Schools'' in the United States, Cuba, South America and London. The first of these was started in New York City in 1911. It also inspired the Italian newspaper ''Università popolare'', founded in 1901. Russian christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy established a school for peasant children on his estate. Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police. Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture. He thought that "Education is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself... Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary". For him "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".

A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of unschooling and the free school in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to A. S. Neill founding what became Summerhill School in 1921. Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice. However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political class struggle-approach. In addition to organizing schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term deschooling was popularized by Ivan Illich, who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.

Internal issues and debates

thumb|The use of [[anarchism and violence|violence is a subject of much dispute in anarchism.]] Anarchism is a philosophy which embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism and religion with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as Marxism, communism and capitalism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism or any number of alternative ethical doctrines.

Phenomena such as civilization, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism and insurrectionary anarchism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.

On a tactical level, while propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the Nihilist movement), some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative direct action methods such as nonviolence, counter-economics and anti-state cryptography to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones. The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many definitional concerns in anarchist theory.

Criticisms

Criticisms of anarchism include moral criticisms and practical criticisms which claim that anarchism is unworkable in practice.

See also

Outline of anarchism

Anarchist symbolism

Lists of anarchism topics

List of anarchist communities

List of anarchist movements by region

References

Further reading

''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas.'' Robert Graham, editor.

* ''Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'' Black Rose Books, Montréal and London 2005. ISBN 1-55164-250-6.

* ''Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006)'' Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 978-1-55164-311-3.

''Anarchism'', George Woodcock (Penguin Books, 1962). .

''Anarchy: A Graphic Guide'', Clifford Harper (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork.

''The Anarchist Reader'', George Woodcock (ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0-00-634011-3): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including Proudhon, Kropotkin, Bakunin, Malatesta, Bookchin, Goldman, and many others.

''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' by Daniel Guerin. Monthly Review Press. 1970. ISBN 0-85345-175-3

''Anarchy through the times'' by Max Nettlau. Gordon Press. 1979. ISBN 0-8490-1397-6

''Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism'' by Peter Marshall. PM Press. 2010. ISBN 1-60486-064-2

''People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy'' (2nd ed.) by Harold Barclay, Left Bank Books, 1990 ISBN 1-871082-16-1

''The Political Theory of Anarchism'' by April Carter. Harper & Row. 1971. ISBN 978-0-0613-6050-3

External links

Infoshop.org - the largest online collection of news and information about anarchism.

"An Anarchist FAQ Webpage" –An Anarchist FAQ

Anarchist Theory FAQ –by Bryan Caplan

The Anarchist Library large online library with texts from anarchist authors

Anarchism: A Bibliography

Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia –700+ entries, with short biographies, links and dedicated pages

Anarchy Archives – information relating to famous anarchists including their writings (see Anarchy Archives).

KateSharpleyLibrary.net –website of the Kate Sharpley Library, containing many historical documents pertaining to anarchism

They Lie We Die –anarchist virtual library containing 768 books, booklets and texts

Category:Political culture Category:Political ideologies Category:Social theories Category:Anti-fascism

af:Anargisme ar:لاسلطوية an:Anarquismo ast:Anarquismu az:Anarxizm bn:নৈরাজ্যবাদ zh-min-nan:Hui-thóng-tī-chú-gī be:Анархізм be-x-old:Анархізм bo:གཞུང་མེད་ལམ་སྲོལ། bs:Anarhizam br:Anveliouriezh bg:Анархизъм ca:Anarquisme cs:Anarchismus cy:Anarchiaeth da:Anarkisme pdc:Anarchism de:Anarchismus et:Anarhism el:Αναρχισμός es:Anarquismo eo:Anarkiismo eu:Anarkismo fa:آنارشیسم hif:Khalbali fo:Anarkisma fr:Anarchisme fy:Anargisme ga:Ainrialachas gd:Ain-Riaghailteachd gl:Anarquismo ko:아나키즘 hi:अराजकता hr:Anarhizam id:Anarkisme ia:Anarchismo is:Stjórnleysisstefna it:Anarchismo he:אנרכיזם jv:Anarkisme kn:ಅರಾಜಕತಾವಾದ krc:Анархизм ka:ანარქიზმი kk:Анархизм sw:Utawala huria lad:Anarkismo la:Anarchismus lv:Anarhisms lb:Anarchismus lt:Anarchizmas jbo:nonje'asi'o hu:Anarchizmus mk:Анархизам ml:അരാജകത്വവാദം mr:अराजकता arz:اناركيه ms:Anarkisme mwl:Anarquismo mn:Анархизм nl:Anarchisme ja:アナキズム no:Anarkisme nn:Anarkisme oc:Anarquisme pnb:انارکی ps:انارشيزم pl:Anarchizm pt:Anarquismo ro:Anarhism rue:Анархізм ru:Анархизм sah:Анархизм sco:Anarchism simple:Anarchism sk:Anarchizmus sl:Anarhizem ckb:ئانارکیزم sr:Анархизам sh:Anarhizam fi:Anarkismi sv:Anarkism tl:Anarkismo ta:அரசின்மை th:อนาธิปไตย tg:Анархизм tr:Anarşizm uk:Анархізм ur:فوضیت ug:ئانارخىزم za:Fouzcwngfujcujyi vec:Anarchismo vi:Chủ nghĩa vô chính phủ fiu-vro:Anarkism war:Anarkismo yi:אנארכיזם zh-yue:無政府主義 diq:Anarşizm bat-smg:Anarkėzmos zh:无政府主义

Coordinates	28°36′50″N77°12′32″N
name	Ana Vidović

Ana Vidović (born 8 November 1980 in Karlovac, Croatia) is a Croatian virtuoso classical guitarist. A child prodigy, she started playing guitar at the age of five, inspired by her brother Viktor. By the age of 11 she was performing internationally, and at 13 became the youngest student to attend the prestigious National Musical Academy in Zagreb where she studied with Professor Istvan Romer. Vidović's reputation in Europe led to an invitation to study at the Peabody Conservatory in Baltimore, U.S., with Manuel Barrueco, from where she graduated in May 2003. In an interview, she has stated that she plays lots of scales and uses a metronome.

Vidović has won an impressive number of prizes and international competitions all over the world. These include first prizes in the Albert Augustine International Competition in Bath, England, the Fernando Sor competition in Rome, Italy, and the Francisco Tárrega competition in Benicasim, Spain. Other top prizes include the Eurovision Competition for Young Artists, the Mauro Giuliani competition in Italy, the Printemps de la Guitare in Belgium, and the Young Concert Artists International Auditions in New York.

Ana Vidović has given over one thousand public performances since first taking the stage in 1988. Her international performance career includes recitals in London, Paris, Vienna, Salzburg, Rome, Budapest, China, Warsaw, Tel Aviv, Oslo, Copenhagen, Toronto, Baltimore, San Francisco, Knoxville, Houston, Austin, Dallas, St. Louis, Jakarta, Mauritius, and Zuidlaren.

Vidović plays a Redgate classical guitar.

Gallery

References

Source

''This content adapted from a program provided by the Bloomington Classical Guitar Society for Vidović's March 5, 2005 performance in Bloomington, Indiana, USA''

External links

Ana's website

Ana's Redgate Guitar

Ana performing Torroba's Suite Castellana

Naxos CD releases

Interview with NYCGS in 2007

Interview with Tokafi Guitar Magazine in 2007

Interview with Urban Guitar Magazine in 2006

Live Performance at the Kennedy Center in 2004

Interview with Cithara (Luxembourg) in 2003

Mel Bay Artist Interview with Erica Cantrell.

Category:Croatian classical guitarists Category:1980 births Category:Living people Category:People from Karlovac

de:Ana Vidovic es:Ana Vidovic fr:Ana Vidović hr:Ana Vidović he:אנה וידוביץ' ja:アナ・ヴィドヴィチ pt:Ana Vidović sr:Ана Видовић sh:Ana Vidović zh:安娜·维多维奇

Coordinates	28°36′50″N77°12′32″N
name	Vieux Farka Touré
background	solo_singer
origin	25px Bamako, Mali
genre	Rock, Reggae, Soul, World
years active	2006–present
label	Modiba, Six Degrees Records
website	http://www.vieuxfarkatoure.com }}

Boureima "Vieux" Farka Touré is a Malian singer and guitarist. He is the son of Grammy-winning Malian musician Ali Farka Touré.

Biography

Touré was born in Niafunké, Mali in 1981 to Ali Farka Touré. Despite his father's discouragement and his family's lineage as a tribe of soldiers, Touré secretly took up the guitar and enrolled in the ''Institut National des Arts'' in Bamako, Mali.

In 2005, Eric Herman of Modiba expressed interest in producing an album for Touré; to do so, he had to acquire permission from Ali Touré, Toumani Diabaté, and other community elders. This led to his self-titled debut album, produced by Modiba and released by World Village on 12 February 2007. The album featured Toumani Diabaté, as well as his late father.

Following the release of a remix album, ''UFOs Over Bamako'' in 2008, and multiple tours, Vieux released his second studio album in May 2009. ''Fondo'' peaked at #5 on Billboard's World Albums chart the week of 11 July 2009 and was included in the Village Voice's Top 100 list for 2009.

In June 2010, Vieux was invited to perform at the Opening Celebration of the 2010 FIFA World Cup; other performers included Shakira, Alicia Keys and K’naan. That month, Vieux also released his first live album, ''LIVE''.

Vieux released his third studio album, ''The Secret'', on May 24, 2011. The album was produced by Soulive guitarist Eric Krasno and features Dave Matthews, Derek Trucks, and John Scofield. It also features the last collaboration between Touré and his late father. The album reached the #1 spot on CMJ's New World chart on 10 June 2011.

See also

African fingerstyle guitar

African music

Discography

''Vieux Farka Touré'' (2007)

''Vieux Farka Touré Remixed: UFOs Over Bamako'' (2008)

''Fondo'' (2009)

''LIVE'' (2010)

''The Secret'' (2011)

References

External links

Official Site

Category:Living people Category:Malian guitarists Category:Malian musicians Category:1981 births

de:Vieux Farka Touré fr:Vieux Farka Touré

Coordinates	28°36′50″N77°12′32″N
name	Ana Tijoux
years active	1997–present
background	solo_singer
birth name	Anamaría Merino
born	June 12, 1977Lille, France
genre	Hip hop, Pop, Trip hop, Urban, R&B;
website	Ana Tijoux.com, MySpace}}

Anamaría Merino (born 1977), commonly known by her stage name Ana Tijoux or Anita Tijoux, is a French-Chilean musician. She became famous in Latin America as the female MC of hip-hop group Makiza during the late 1990s. In 2006, she crossed over to the Latin mainstream pop due to her collaboration with Mexican songstress Julieta Venegas in the radio hit "Eres para mí". She is currently promoting her second solo album, ''1977''.

Tijoux is the daughter of Chilean parents living in political exile in France during Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship of Chile.

Biography

After the return to democracy in Chile, Tijoux flew back to her father's land. Being a teenager, she found home in the emerging hip-hop scene of Santiago and she started rhyming first in French, then in Spanish. For a while, she formed part of a group that included Zaturno, later of Tiro de Gracia. In 1997, she joined Seo2, Cenzi, and DJ Squat to form Makiza.

Makiza released their first cassette in 1998, ''Vida Salvaje''. It was an independent production but gained huge acceptance in the local scene.

At the same time, Tiro de Gracia became the best selling Chilean rap group of all times with their debut ''Ser humano!!'' and that focused the interest of major record labels in rap music. As a result of this, Sony approached Makiza and offered them a record deal. ''Aerolíneas Makiza'' was the result of this deal, a CD that included new and improved versions of some songs from ''Vida Salvaje'' plus new song, including the hit single "La Rosa De Los Vientos".

''Aerolíneas Makiza'' put Makiza instantly at the top of the game of Latin American hip-hop. Their style of rap was much more evolved than most the other Spanish speaking rap published in the continent to the moment. Their production style resembled the New York underground sound inspired by the Native Tongues. Their lyrics lacked the overwhelming machismo and violence of average rap, focusing more in more sensitive matters. That helped them receive the approval from a wider audience that was not involved in hip-hop culture.

Right before the release of their second single and their touring through neighbor countries, Tijoux decided to break off the group for personal reasons. At the moment, she announced that she was abandoning not only Makiza but hip-hop as a whole and her music career as well.

In 2001, Tijoux moved back to France where half of her relatives still lived. She stayed in France until 2004 and during that period, she did not release any music.

After her return to Chile in 2004, she started singing with a Chilean funk band called Aluzinati. That same year, she appeared as a featured artist in Control Machete's last album, ''Uno Dos Bandera'', and she also recorded a song with Julieta Venegas for the soundtrack of the movie ''Subterra''.

It came as a surprise to the fans when Makiza announced a reunion show to promote the re-release of ''Vida Salvaje'', now re-mastered and in CD format. Due to the success of that historical concert, Anita and Seo2, the only two remaining members of Makiza decided to reunite the group and started working on new material.

''Casino Royale'' was the name of the new Makiza CD, released on 2005 under the independent lavel Bizarro Records. The new formation of Makiza included a third MC, Sonido Acido, and instead of using only one producer like they used to do in the past, they collaborated with different producers. In 2006, Tijoux announced she was leaving Makiza again and launching her solo career.

Tijoux started recording demos for her long-awaited solo debut with different producers. At one point, she even had a full band of live musicians, straying a bit from her pure hip-hop roots and exploring new forms and collaborations. During this time, she also collaborated as a guest vocalist in Julieta Venegas' radio-hit "Eres para Mí," which suddenly launched Tijoux to the mainstream pop market all over Latin America, Spain, and the United States.

In September 2007, Tijoux finally released her solo debut, named ''Kaos'', under the independent label Oveja Negra. . Thanks to the first single, "Despabílate", Anita was nominated for the Latin version of the MTV Video Music Awards 2007 under the categories Best New Artist and Best Urban Artist. At the same time, she was nominated for song of the year together with Julieta Venegas for "Eres Para Mí".

In October 2009, Tijoux released her second solo album, titled ''1977'' after the year she was born. It is a return to her rap roots, an homage to the "golden age of hip-hop", and largely auto-biographical, exploring mature themes from her own life, from the death of a close friend to having a creative crises, from friendship to bad luck, amongst others. It is simple and straight to the point—this being emphasized by her leaving behind a lot of the singing she had been doing of late in other more pop collaborations, and concentrating on rap, both in Spanish and French. After years of sharing the spotlight with her group, collaborating with other artists, and trying to find her way as a solo artist, she has finally arrived in her own right—a raw, direct, and mature MC.

Recorded between May and September 2009, the new album was produced by Hordatoj, Foex y Tee, of the label Potoco Discos, together with Habitación del Pánico. Guests on the record include the saxophonist Agustín Moya with whom she worked with in Aluzinati, Andrés Celis, Solo Di Medina, Bubaseta, Stailok from the group Movimiento Original, DJ Dacel, Quique Neira from Godwana, Cómo Asesinar A Felipes, and the Detroit-based MC Invincible, who she met over MySpace and did a virtual collaboration for the song "Sube".

The album and its first single ''1977'' were an immediate hit in the underground rap circles of Chile, where she was welcomed back after a bit of a stray. The record was amongst the top 10 of 2009 for the blog [worldhiphopmarket.com], and it was soon picked up by the U.S.-based Latin Alternative label Nacional Records, who released it in April 2010. She was invited to attend the prestigious South By South West Music Festival in Austin, Texas, in March 2010, and from there went on to her first ever North American tour. The song ''1977'' is featured in FIFA 11 soundtrack, and it also appears in episode five of the fourth season of Breaking Bad.

Discography

''Vida Salvaje'' (Independent, 1998)

''Aerolíneas Makiza'' (Sony, 1999)

''Casino Royale'' (Bizarro, 2005)

''Kaos'' (Oveja Negra, 2007)

''1977'' (Oveja Negra, 2009) (Nacional Records, 2010)

''Elefant Mixtape'' (2011)

Featured collaborations

''Subdemo'' - FDA

''Uno, Dos Bandera'' - Control Machete

''Roda Do Funk'' - Funk Como Le Gusta

''Limón y Sal'' - Julieta Venegas

''Freno de Mano'' - Los Tres

''La Medicina'' - Los Tetas

''Supervielle'' - Bajofondo Tango Club

''Música Para Después del Almuerzo'' - Bitman & Roban

References

Category:1977 births Category:Chilean female singers Category:Chilean singer-songwriters Category:Chilean people of French descent Category:Living people Category:Female rappers

es:Anita Tijoux fr:Anita Tijoux pt:Anita Tijoux

Lawson Rollins (born c. 1970) is an American guitarist and composer from North Carolina noted for his lightning-fast speed solos, virtuoso fingerstyle technique, and melodic compositional skills featured in his recordings. His music spans a wide range of genres but is generally classed as Latin Jazz and World Music, with elements of Samba, Bossanova, Middle Eastern music, Classical guitar, and Flamenco added to the mix.

He is best known for his compositions ''The Fire Cadenza'', ''Santa Ana Wind'' and ''Moonlight Samba'' and his albums ''Infinita'' and ''Espirito'' which were both critically acclaimed by the jazz community. He has reached a wide audience on both radio and the internet. Video performances of ''The Fire Cadenza'' and ''Santa Ana Wind'' have been viewed millions of times on Youtube. His songs ''Moonlight Samba,'' ''Infinita,'' and ''Havana Heat'' have proven popular on jazz radio stations and landed on the ''Billboard'' radio charts.

Influenced by Andres Segovia from his mid-teens, he developed an interest in Jazz, Flamenco, and improvisational Latin and Brazilian guitar styles in his early twenties. After studying classical music in Europe he moved to Washington, D.C. in 1998 where he met guitarist Daniel Young (Dan Young) at a local flamenco shop and formed the Latin guitar fusion group Young & Rollins. They released several albums together, including ''Salsa Flamenca'', which landed on the Billboard Chart in 2000, ''Sevilla'' (2001), ''Esperanza'' (2005) and ''Mosaic'' (2006) and played at many major venues such as the Kennedy Center and Sydney Opera House. Rollins was based in Washington until 2007 when he moved to San Francisco.

His three solo albums ''Infinita'', ''Espirito'', and ''Elevation'', are characterized by an eclectic mix of Middle Eastern, Brazilian, and Arabic music fused with Spanish guitar and backed by an all-star cast of musicians from around the world including Brazilian singer Flora Purim, percussionist Airto Moreira, Cuban drummer Horacio Hernandez, Shahin Shahida of Shahin and Sepehr, Iranian kamancheh player Kayhan Kalhor, Grammy-winning violinist Charlie Bisharat, and electric guitarist Buckethead, among others.

Albums

As solo artist:

Elevation

Espirito [ Review at AMG] Infinita [ Review at AMG]

As part of Young & Rollins

Salsa Flamenca

Sevilla

Esperanza

Mosaic

References

External links

Official site

[ The All Music Guide]

Category:American jazz guitarists Category:Gypsy jazz guitarists Category:Flamenco guitarists Category:Living people Category:Musicians from North Carolina