name	Henry VIII
succession	King of England
moretext	(more...)
reign	21 April 1509 – 28 January 1547
coronation	24 June 1509
predecessor	Henry VII
successor	Edward VI
spouses	Catherine of Aragon (annulled)Anne Boleyn (widower)Jane Seymour (widower)Anne of Cleves (annulled)Catherine Howard (widower)Catherine Parr (widow)
issue	Mary I of EnglandHenry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and SomersetElizabeth I of EnglandEdward VI of England
issue-link	#Marriages and issue
issue-pipe	Among others
house	House of Tudor
father	Henry VII of England
mother	Elizabeth of York
birth date	June 28, 1491
birth place	Greenwich Palace, Greenwich
death date	January 28, 1547
death place	Palace of Whitehall, London
place of burial	St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
signature	HenryVIIISig.svg
religion	Christian (Anglican, previously Roman Catholic)

Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the second monarch of the House of Tudor, succeeding his father, Henry VII.

Besides his six marriages, Henry VIII is known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry's struggles with Rome led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and establishing himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Yet he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, even after his excommunication from the Catholic Church. Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–42.

Henry was an attractive and charismatic man in his prime, educated and accomplished. He was an author and a composer. He ruled with absolute power. His desire to provide England with a male heir—which stemmed partly from personal vanity and partly because he believed a daughter would be unable to consolidate the Tudor Dynasty and the fragile peace that existed following the Wars of the Roses—led to the two things that Henry is remembered for: his wives, and the English Reformation that made England a mostly Protestant nation. In later life he became morbidly obese and his health suffered; his public image is frequently depicted as one of a lustful, egotistical, harsh, and insecure king.

Early years: 1491–1509

Born at Greenwich Palace, Henry VIII was the third child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henry's six siblings, only three — Arthur, Prince of Wales; Margaret; and Mary — survived infancy. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. In 1494, he was made Duke of York. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Henry was given a first-rate education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin, French, and Spanish. As it was expected that the throne would pass to Prince Arthur, Henry's older brother, Henry was prepared for a clerical career. Elizabeth of York, his mother, died when Henry was aged 11.

Death of Prince Arthur

In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15, after only 20 weeks of marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry, who then became Prince of Wales. Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering his second son in marriage to Prince Arthur's widow, Catherine of Aragon, youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. For the new Prince of Wales to marry his brother's widow, a dispensation from the Pope was normally required to overrule the impediment of affinity because, as told in the Book of Leviticus, "If a brother is to marry the wife of a brother they will remain childless." Catherine swore that her marriage to Prince Arthur had not been consummated. Still, both the English and Spanish parties agreed that an additional papal dispensation of affinity would be prudent to remove all doubt regarding the legitimacy of the marriage.

The impatience of Catherine's mother, Queen Isabella I, induced Pope Julius II to grant dispensation in the form of a Papal bull. So, 14 months after her young husband's death, Catherine was betrothed to his even younger brother, Henry. Yet by 1505, Henry VII lost interest in a Spanish alliance and the younger Henry declared that his betrothal had been arranged without his consent.

Continued diplomatic manoeuvring over the fate of the proposed marriage lingered until the death of Henry VII in 1509. Only 17 years old, Henry married Catherine on 11 June 1509 and, on 24 June 1509, the two were crowned at Westminster Abbey.

Early reign: 1509–1525

Two days after his coronation he arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley. They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510. This was to become Henry's primary tactic for dealing with those who stood in his way, as believed by historians such as Crofton. Henry also returned to the public some of the money supposedly extorted by the two.

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Henry cultivated the image of a Renaissance Man and his court was a centre of scholarly and artistic innovation and glamorous excess, epitomised by the Field of the Cloth of Gold. He was an accomplished musician, author, and poet. His best known musical composition is "Pastime with Good Company" or "The Kynges Ballade". He was an avid gambler and dice player, and excelled at sports, especially jousting, hunting, and real tennis. He was known for his strong defence of conventional Christian piety. Meeting Francis I on 7 June 1520 near Calais, he entertained the French king with a fortnight of lavish entertainment to establish a closer diplomatic relationship after the military conflicts of the previous decade.

France and the Habsburgs

In 1511, Pope Julius II proclaimed a Holy League against France. The new alliance rapidly grew to include not only Spain and the Holy Roman Empire but England as well. Henry decided to use the occasion to expand his holdings in northern France. He concluded the Treaty of Westminster, a pledge of mutual aid with Spain against France, in November 1511 and prepared for involvement in the War of the League of Cambrai.

In 1513, Henry invaded France and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs. His brother-in-law, James IV of Scotland, invaded England at the behest of Louis XII of France, but failed to draw Henry's attention away from France. The Scots were defeated at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513. Among the dead was the Scottish King, ending Scotland's brief involvement in the war.

On 18 February 1516, Queen Catherine bore Henry his first child to survive infancy, Princess Mary. (A son, Henry, Duke of Cornwall, had been born in 1511 but lived only a few weeks.)

Power and authority

Government and finances under Henry

thumb|200px|left|Half-[[Groat (coin)|Groat of Henry VIII]]Financially, the reign of Henry was a near-disaster. Although he inherited a prosperous economy (augmented by seizures of church lands), Henry's heavy spending and high taxes damaged the economy. For example, Henry expanded the Royal Navy from 5 to 53 ships. He loved palaces; he began with a dozen and died with fifty-five, in which he hung 2,000 tapestries. By comparison, his neighbour and nephew James V of Scotland had five palaces and 200 tapestries. He took pride in showing off his collection of weapons, which included exotic archery equipment, 2,250 pieces of land ordinance and 6,500 handguns.

Henry began his reign with heavy reliance on advisors and ended with complete control. From 1514 to 1529, Thomas Wolsey (1473–1530), a Catholic cardinal, served as lord chancellor and practically controlled domestic and foreign policy for the young king. He negotiated the truce with France that was signaled by the dramatic display of amity on the Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520). He switched England back and forth as an ally of France and the Holy Roman Empire. Wolsey centralised the national government and extended the jurisdiction of the conciliar courts, particularly the Star Chamber. His use of forced loans to pay for foreign wars angered the rich, who were annoyed as well by his enormous wealth and ostentatious living. Wolsey disappointed the king when he failed to secure a quick divorce from Queen Catherine. The treasury was empty after years of extravagance; the peers and people were dissatisfied and Henry needed an entirely new approach; Wolsey had to be replaced. After 16 years at the top he lost power in 1529 and in 1530 was arrested on false charges of treason and died in custody. Wolsey's fall was a warning to the Pope and to the clergy of England of what might be expected for failure to comply with the king's wishes. Henry then took full control of his government, although at court numerous complex factions continued to try to ruin and destroy each other.

Elton (1962) argues there was a major Tudor revolution in government. While crediting Henry with intelligence and shrewdness, Elton finds that much of the positive action, especially the break with Rome, was the work of Thomas Cromwell and not the king. Elton sees Henry as competent, but too lazy to take direct control of affairs for any extended period; that is, the king was an opportunist who relied on others for most of his ideas and to do most of the work. Henry's marital adventures are part of Elton's chain of evidence; a man who marries six wives, Elton notes, is not someone who fully controls his own fate. Elton shows that Thomas Cromwell had conceived of a commonwealth of England that included popular participation through Parliament and that this was generally expressed in the preambles to legislation. Parliamentary consent did not mean that the king had yielded any of his authority; Henry VIII was a paternalistic ruler who did not hesitate to use his power. Popular "consent" was a means to augment rather than limit royal power.

Reformation

Henry never formally repudiated the doctrines of the Catholic Church, but he declared himself supreme head of the church in England in 1534. This, combined with subsequent actions, eventually resulted in a separated church, the Church of England. Henry and his advisors felt the pope was acting in the role of an Italian prince involved in secular affairs, which obscured his religious role. They said Rome treated England as a minor stepchild, allowing it one cardinal out of fifty, and no possibility of that cardinal becoming pope. For reasons of state it was increasingly intolerable to Henry that major decisions in England were settled by Italians. The divorce issue exemplified the problem but was not itself the cause of the problem.

Henry's reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new wife and an heir. Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one factor in Henry's desire to reform the church. In 1532–37, he instituted a number of statutes — the act of appeal (Statute in Restraint of Appeals, 1533), the various Acts of Succession (1533, 1534, and 1536), the first Act of Supremacy (1534), and others — that dealt with the relationship between the king and the pope and the structure of the Church of England. During these years, Henry suppressed monasteries and pilgrimage shrines in his attempt to reform the church. The king was always the dominant force in the making of religious policy; his policy, which he pursued skillfully and consistently, is best characterised as a search for the middle way.

Questions over what was the true faith were resolved with the adoption of the orthodox "Act of Six Articles" (1539) and a careful holding of the balance between extreme factions after 1540. Even so, the era saw movement away from religious orthodoxy, the more so as the pillars of the old beliefs, especially Thomas More and John Fisher, had been unable to accept the change and had been executed in 1535 for refusing to renounce papal authority. Critical for the Henrician reformation was the new political theology of obedience to the prince that was enthusiastically adopted by the Church of England in the 1530s. It reflected Martin Luther's new interpretation of the fourth commandment ("Honor thy father and mother") and was mediated to an English audience by William Tyndale. The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments, and thus on the word of God, was a particularly attractive feature of this doctrine, which became a defining feature of Henrician religion. Rival tendencies within the Church of England sought to exploit it in the pursuit of their particular agendas. Reformers strove to preserve its connections with the broader framework of Lutheran theology, with the emphasis on faith alone and the word of God, while conservatives emphasised good works, ceremonies, and charity. The Reformers linked royal supremacy and the word of God to persuade Henry to publish the ''Great Bible'' in 1539, an English translation that was a formidable prop for his new-found dignity.

Response to the reforms was mixed. The reforms, which closed down monasteries that were the only support of the impoverished, alienated most of the population outside of London and helped provoke the great northern rising of 1536–37, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. It was the only real threat to Henry's security on the throne in all his reign. Some 30,000 rebels in nine groups were led by the charismatic Robert Aske, together with most of the northern nobility. Aske went to London to negotiate terms; once there he was arrested, charged with treason and executed. About 200 rebels were executed and the disturbances ended. Elsewhere the changes were accepted and welcomed, and those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy. They would reemerge in the reign of Henry's daughter Mary (1553–58).

Dissolving the monasteries

England possessed numerous religious houses that owned large tracts of land worked by tenants. Henry dissolved them (1536–1541) and transferred a fifth of England's landed wealth to new hands. The program was designed primarily to create a landed gentry beholden to the crown, which would use the lands much more efficiently.

Henry made radical changes in traditional religious practices. He ordered the clergy to preach against superstitious images, relics, miracles, and pilgrimages, and to remove most candles. The catechism of 1545, called the ''King's Primer,'' left out the saints. Latin rituals gave way to English. Shrines to saints were destroyed — including the popular one of St. Thomas of Canterbury — and relics were ridiculed as worthless old bones.

Mistresses

Contrary to popular belief, Henry may not have had very many affairs outside marriage. Apart from women he later married, the identities of only two mistresses are completely undisputed: Elizabeth Blount and Mary Boleyn. However, it is unlikely that they were the only two; Alison Weir has argued that, aside from the affairs listed below, there were numerous other short-term and secret liaisons, most of them conducted in the king's river-side mansion of Jordan House.

Elizabeth "Bessie" Blount gave birth in June 1519 to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy. The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to legitimizing him. In 1533, FitzRoy married Mary Howard, Anne Boleyn's first cousin, but died three years later without any children. At the time of FitzRoy's death (July 1536), Parliament was enacting the Second Succession Act, which could have allowed Henry's illegitimate son to become king.

Mary Boleyn was Henry's mistress before her sister, Anne, became his second wife. She is thought to have been Catherine's lady-in-waiting at some point between 1519 and 1526. There has been speculation that Mary's two children, Catherine and Henry, were fathered by Henry, but this has never been proved and the King never acknowledged them as he did Henry FitzRoy.

In 1510 it was reported that Henry was conducting an affair with one of the sisters of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon. Her brother, the Duke of Buckingham, became enraged and Lord George Hastings, her husband, sent her to a convent. Eustace Chapuys wrote, "the husband of that lady went away, carried her off and placed her in a convent sixty miles from here, that no one may see her.".

Biographer Antonia Fraser has claimed that Henry had an affair with Mary Shelton in 1535, in opposition to the traditional belief that Margaret ("Madge") Shelton was Henry's lover.

King's Great Matter: 1525–1533

Henry became impatient with Catherine's inability to produce the heir he desired. All of Catherine's children died in infancy except their daughter Mary. Henry wanted a male heir to consolidate the power of the Tudor dynasty.

In 1525, as Henry grew more impatient, he became enamoured of a charismatic young woman in the Queen's entourage, Anne Boleyn. Anne at first resisted his attempts to seduce her, and refused to become his mistress as her sister Mary Boleyn had. She said "I beseech your highness most earnestly to desist, and to this my answer in good part. I would rather lose my life than my honesty." This refusal made Henry even more attracted, and he pursued her relentlessly.

Eventually, Anne saw her opportunity in Henry's infatuation and determined she would only yield to his embraces as his acknowledged queen. It soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to Catherine.

Henry appealed directly to the Holy See, independently from Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, from whom he kept his plans for Anne secret. Instead, Henry's secretary, William Knight, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for the annulment. The grounds were that the bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretences, because Catherine's brief marriage to the sickly Arthur had been consummated. Henry petitioned, in the event of annulment, a dispensation to marry again to any woman even in the first degree of affinity, whether the affinity was contracted by lawful or unlawful connection. This clearly had reference to Anne.

However, as the pope was at that time imprisoned by Catherine's nephew, Emperor Charles V, Knight had difficulty in getting access to him, and so only managed to obtain the conditional dispensation for a new marriage. Henry now had no choice but to put the matter into the hands of Wolsey. Wolsey did all he could to secure a decision in the King's favour, going so far as to arrange an ecclesiastical court to meet in England, with a representative from the Pope. Shakespeare's play, ''Henry VIII'', accurately records Catherine of Aragon's astounding coup in that remarkable courtroom in Act II, scene iv. She bows low to Henry, put herself at his mercy, states her case with irrefutable eloquence and then sweeps out of the courtroom, a woman both formidable and clearly wronged. However much this moment swayed those present and the rest of the world to her side, the Pope had never had any intention of empowering his legate. Charles V resisted the annulment of his aunt's marriage, but it is not clear how far this influenced the pope. But it is clear that Henry saw that the Pope was unlikely to give him an annulment from the Emperor's aunt. The pope forbade Henry to proceed to a new marriage before a decision was given in Rome, not in England. Wolsey bore the blame. Convinced that he was treacherous, Anne Boleyn maintained pressure until Wolsey was dismissed from public office in 1529. After being dismissed, the cardinal begged her to help him return to power, but she refused. He then began a plot to have Anne forced into exile and began communication with Queen Catherine and the Pope to that end. When this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and had it not been for his death from illness in 1530, he might have been executed for treason. His replacement, Sir Thomas More, initially cooperated with the king's new policy, denouncing Wolsey in Parliament and proclaiming the opinion of the theologians at Oxford and Cambridge that the marriage of Henry to Catherine had been unlawful. As Henry began to deny the authority of the Pope, More's qualms grew.

A year later, Queen Catherine was banished from court and her rooms were given to Anne. With Wolsey gone, Anne had considerable power over political matters. She was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her time, and was keenly absorbed and engaged with the ideas of the Protestant Reformers. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, Anne had the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, appointed to the vacant position. Through the intervention of the King of France, this was conceded by Rome, the pallium being granted to him by Clement.

Breaking the power of Rome in England proceeded slowly. In 1532, a lawyer who was a supporter of Anne, Thomas Cromwell, brought before Parliament a number of acts including the Supplication against the Ordinaries and the Submission of the Clergy, which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church. Following these acts, Thomas More resigned as Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister.

Second marriage

In the winter of 1532 Henry attended a meeting with Francis I of France at Calais in which he enlisted the support of the French king for his new marriage. Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service. She soon became pregnant and there was a second wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the king's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid.

Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen, and Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. The queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. The child was christened Elizabeth, in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. Rejecting the decisions of the Pope, Parliament validated the marriage of Henry and Anne with the First Succession Act (Act of Succession 1533). Catherine's daughter, Mary, was declared illegitimate, and Anne's issue were declared next in the line of succession. Most notable in this declaration was a clause repudiating "any foreign authority, prince or potentate". All adults in the Kingdom were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions by oath; those who refused were subject to imprisonment for life. Any publisher or printer of any literature alleging that the marriage was invalid was automatically guilty of high treason and could be punished by death.

Separation from Rome: 1533–1540

Meanwhile, Parliament had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted the penalties of praemunire against all who introduced papal bulls into England. Parliament prohibited the Church from making any regulations (canons) without the king's consent. It was only then that Pope Clement at last took the step of launching sentences of excommunication against Henry and Thomas Cranmer, declaring at the same time the archbishop's decree of annulment to be invalid and the marriage with Anne null and papal nuncio was withdrawn from England and diplomatic relations with Rome were broken off. Several more laws were passed in England. The Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534 required the clergy to elect bishops nominated by the Sovereign. The Act of Supremacy in 1534 declared that the King was "the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England" and the Treasons Act 1534 made it high treason, punishable by death, to refuse to acknowledge the King as such. In response to the excommunications, the Peter's Pence Act was passed in and it reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope.

In defiance of the Pope the Church of England was now under Henry’s control, not Rome's. Protestant Reformers still faced persecution, particularly over objections to Henry's annulment. Many fled abroad where they met further difficulties, including the influential William Tyndale, who was eventually burned at King Henry's behest. Theological and practical reforms would follow only under Henry's successors (see end of section).

Personal troubles

The king and queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her. The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for the largely ceremonial role of a royal wife, given that Henry expected absolute obedience from those who interacted with him in an official capacity at court. It made her many enemies. For his part, Henry disliked Anne’s constant irritability and violent temper. After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine.

Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England. A number of dissenting monks were tortured and executed. The most prominent resisters included John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, Henry's former Lord Chancellor, both of whom refused to take the oath to the King and were subsequently convicted of high treason and beheaded at Tower Hill, just outside the Tower of London.

These suppressions, including the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act of 1536, in turn contributed to further resistance among the English people, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace, a large uprising in northern England in October, 1536. Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues to his attention, then invited the rebel leader, Robert Aske to a royal banquet. At the banquet, Henry asked Aske to write down what had happened so he could have a better idea of the problems he would "change." Aske did what the King asked, although what he had written was later used against him as a confession. The King's word could not be questioned (as he was held as God's chosen, and second only to God himself) so Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. However, because Henry saw the rebels as traitors, he did not feel obliged to keep his promises. The rebels realised that the King was not keeping his promises and rebelled again later that year, but their strength was less in the second attempt and the King ordered the rebellion crushed. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason.

Execution of Anne Boleyn

On 8 January 1536 news reached the king and the queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. Upon hearing the news of her death, Henry and Anne reportedly decked themselves in bright yellow clothing, yellow being the colour of mourning in Spain at the time. Henry called for public displays of joy regarding Catherine's death. The queen was pregnant again, and she was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Her life could be in danger, as with both wives dead, Henry would be free to remarry and no one could claim that the union was illegal. Later that month, the King was unhorsed in a tournament and was badly injured. It seemed for a time that the King's life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the queen, she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child that was about 15 weeks old, on the day of Catherine’s funeral, 29 January 1536. For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage.

Given the King's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Author Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the birth of the male child she miscarried in 1536. Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months gestation, in January 1536. As Anne recovered from her final miscarriage, Henry declared that his marriage had been the product of witchcraft. The King's new mistress, Jane Seymour, was quickly moved into new quarters. This was followed by Anne's brother, George Boleyn, being refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, which was instead given to Jane Seymour's brother.

Five men, including Anne's own brother, were arrested on charges of incest and treason, accused of having sexual relationships with the queen. On 2 May 1536 Anne was arrested and taken to the Tower of London. She was accused of adultery, incest and high treason. Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death by the peers. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536. At 8 a.m. on 19 May 1536, the queen was executed on Tower Green. She knelt upright, in the French style of executions. The execution was swift and consisted of a single stroke.

Birth of a prince

One day after Anne's execution in 1536 Henry became engaged to Jane Seymour, one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting to whom the king had been showing favour for some time. They were married 10 days later. At about the same time as this, his third marriage, Henry granted his assent to the Laws in Wales Act 1535, which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into one unified nation. This was followed by the Second Succession Act (Act of Succession 1536), which declared Henry's children by Queen Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne. The king was granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his will. In 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI. The birth was difficult and the queen died at Hampton Court Palace on 24 October 1537 from an infection. After Jane's death, the entire court mourned with Henry for an extended period. Henry considered Jane to be his "true" wife, being the only one who had given him the male heir he so desperately sought. He was later to be buried next to her at his death.

Final years: 1540–1547

In 1540, Henry sanctioned the destruction of shrines to saints. At this time, Henry desired to marry once again to ensure the succession. Thomas Cromwell, created Earl of Essex, suggested Anne, the sister of the Protestant Duke of Cleves, who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England. Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the king. Although it has been said that he painted her in a more flattering light, it is unlikely that the portrait was highly inaccurate, since Holbein remained in favour at court. After regarding Holbein's portrayal, and urged by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, Henry agreed to wed Anne. On Anne's arrival in England, Henry is said to have found her utterly unattractive, privately calling her a "Flanders Mare".

Henry wished to annul the marriage so he could marry another. The Duke of Cleves had become engaged in a dispute with the Holy Roman Emperor, with whom Henry had no desire to quarrel. Queen Anne was intelligent enough not to impede Henry's quest for an annulment. Upon the question of marital sex, she testified that her marriage had never been consummated. Henry was said to have come into the room each night and merely kissed his new bride on the forehead before retiring. All impediments to an annulment were thus removed.

The marriage was subsequently dissolved and Anne received the title of "The King's Sister", and was granted Hever Castle, the former residence of the Boleyn family. Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favour for his role in arranging the marriage and was subsequently attainted and beheaded. The office of Vicegerent in Spirituals, which had been specifically created for him, was not filled.

On 28 July 1540 (the same day Cromwell was executed), Henry married the young Catherine Howard, Anne Boleyn's first cousin and a lady-in-waiting of Anne's. He was absolutely delighted with his new queen. Soon after her marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with the courtier Thomas Culpeper. She employed Francis Dereham, who was previously informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. Thomas Cranmer, who was opposed to the powerful Roman Catholic Howard family, brought evidence of Queen Catherine's activities to the king's notice. Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations, he allowed Cranmer to conduct an investigation, which resulted in Queen Catherine's implication. When questioned, the queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Queen Catherine's relationship with Thomas Culpeper. Catherine was executed on 13 February 1542. She was aged between 17 and 22 when she died (opinions differ as to her year of birth). That same year, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords; only archbishops and bishops came to comprise the ecclesiastical element of the body. The Lords Spiritual, as members of the clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known, were for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal.

Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr, in 1543. She argued with Henry over religion; she was a reformer, but Henry remained a conservative. This behaviour nearly proved her undoing, but she saved herself by a show of submissiveness. She helped reconcile Henry with his first two daughters, the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth. In 1544, an Act of Parliament put the daughters back in the line of succession after Edward, Prince of Wales, though they were still deemed illegitimate. The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will.

A wave of political executions that commenced with Edmund de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk in 1513 ended with Henry Earl of Surrey in January, 1547. Although some sources claim that, according to Holinshed, the number of executions in this reign amounted to 72,000, the figure referred to "great thieves, petty thieves, and rogues," and the source is not Holinshed but the English clergyman William Harrison. This inflated figure came from Gerolamo Cardano who in turn got it from the Roman Catholic Bishop of Lisieux.

Death and succession

Late in life, Henry became obese (with a waist measurement of 54 inches/137 cm) and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical inventions. He was covered with painful, pus-filled boils and possibly suffered from gout. His obesity and other medical problems can be traced from a jousting accident in 1536 in which he suffered a leg wound. The accident actually re-opened and aggravated a previous leg wound he had sustained years earlier, to the extent that his doctors found it difficult (if not impossible) to treat it. The wound festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated, thus preventing him from maintaining the same level of physical activity and daily exercise that he had previously enjoyed. The jousting accident is believed to have caused in Henry mood swings, which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament. Concurrently, Henry developed a binge-eating habit, consisting of a diet of mainly fatty red meats and few vegetables. It is believed that this habit was used as a coping mechanism for stress. Henry's obesity undoubtedly hastened his death at the age of 55, which occurred on 28 January 1547 in the Palace of Whitehall, on what would have been his father's 90th birthday. He expired soon after allegedly uttering these last words: "Monks! Monks! Monks!"

The theory that Henry suffered from syphilis has been dismissed by most serious historians. Syphilis was a well-known disease in Henry's time, and although his contemporary Francis I of France was treated for it, the notes left from Henry's physicians do not indicate that the English king was. A more recent and credible theory suggests that Henry's medical symptoms, and those of his older sister Margaret Tudor, are characteristic of untreated Type II diabetes. According to research published in March 2011, his wives' pattern of pregnancies and his mental deterioration suggests that the king may have been Kell positive and suffered from McLeod syndrome.

Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle, next to his wife Jane Seymour. Over a hundred years later Charles I was buried in the same vault.

Within a little more than a decade after his death, all three of his royal heirs sat on the English throne, but none of the three left any descendants. Under the Act of Succession 1543, Henry's only surviving legitimate son, Edward, inherited the Crown, becoming Edward VI. Since Edward was only nine years old at the time, he could not exercise actual power. Henry's will designated 16 executors to serve on a council of regency until Edward reached the age of 18. The executors chose Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, Jane Seymour's elder brother, to be Lord Protector of the Realm. In default of heirs to Edward, the throne was to pass to Henry VIII's daughter by Catherine of Aragon, the Princess Mary, and her heirs. If Mary's issue failed, the crown was to go to Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn, Princess Elizabeth, and her heirs. Finally, if Elizabeth's line became extinct, the crown was to be inherited by the descendants of Henry VIII's deceased younger sister, Mary. The descendants of Henry's sister Margaret Tudor—the royal family of Scotland—were therefore excluded from succession according to this act. This final provision failed when James VI of Scotland subsequently became James I of England upon Elizabeth's death.

Public image and memory

Henry worked hard to present an image of unchallengeable authority and irresistible power. He executed at will, beheading more English notables than any monarch before or since. The roll of heads included two wives, twenty peers, four leading public servants, and six of the king's close attendants and friends, not to mention one cardinal and various heads of monasteries. In addition Cardinal Wolsey died en route to his treason trial.

A big, strong man (over six feet tall and broad in proportion), he excelled at jousting and hunting. More than pastimes, they were political devices that served multiple goals, from enhancing his athletic royal image to impressing foreign emissaries and rulers, to conveying Henry's ability to suppress any rebellion. Thus he arranged a jousting tournament at Greenwich in 1517, where he wore gilded armour, gilded horse trappings, and outfits of velvet, satin and cloth of gold dripping with pearls and jewels. It suitably impressed foreign ambassadors, one of whom wrote home that, "The wealth and civilisation of the world are here, and those who call the English barbarians appear to me to render themselves such." Henry finally retired from the lists in 1536 after a heavy fall from his horse left him unconscious for two hours, but he continued to sponsor two lavish tournaments a year. He then started adding weight and lost that trim athletic look that had made him so handsome; Henry's courtiers began dressing in heavily padded clothes to emulate—and flatter—their increasingly stout monarch. Towards the end of his reign his health rapidly declined due to unhealthy eating.

Henry was an intellectual. The first English king with a modern humanist education, who read and wrote English, French, Latin and was thoroughly at home in his well-stocked library; he personally annotated many books and wrote and published his own book. He is also said to have written Helas madam. He founded Christ Church Cathedral School, Oxford, in 1546. To promote the public support for the reformation of the church, Henry had numerous pamphlets and lectures prepared. For example, Richard Sampson's ''Oratio'' (1534) was a legalistic argument for absolute obedience to the temporal power as vested in divine law and Christian love ("obey my commandments"). Sampson cited historical precedents (now known to be spurious) to support his claim that the English church had always been independent from Rome. At the popular level theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the crown travelled around the land to promote the new religious practices and ridicule the old. In the polemical plays they presented, the pope and Catholic priests and monks were mocked as foreign devils, while the glorious king was hailed as a brave and heroic defender of the true faith.

Henry VIII was an avid gambler and dice player. He was an accomplished musician, author, and poet; his best known piece of music is "Pastime with Good Company" ("The Kynges Ballade"). He is often reputed to have written "Greensleeves" but probably did not. The King was involved in the original construction and improvement of several significant buildings, including Nonsuch Palace, King's College Chapel, Cambridge and Westminster Abbey in London. Many of the existing buildings Henry improved were properties confiscated from Wolsey, such as Christ Church, Oxford, Hampton Court Palace, the Palace of Whitehall, and Trinity College, Cambridge.

The only surviving piece of clothing worn by Henry VIII is a cap of maintenance awarded to the Mayor of Waterford, along with a bearing sword, in 1536. It currently resides in the Waterford Museum of Treasures. A suit of Henry's armour is on display in the Tower of London. In the centuries since his death, Henry has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works.

Royal finances

Henry inherited a vast fortune from his father Henry VII who had, in contrast to his son, been frugal and careful with money. This fortune was estimated to £1,250,000 (£375 million by today's standards). Much of this wealth was spent by Henry on maintaining his court and household, including many of the building works he undertook on royal palaces. Tudor monarchs had to fund all the expenses of government out of their own income. This income came from the Crown lands that Henry owned as well as from customs duties like tonnage and poundage, granted by parliament to the king for life. During Henry's reign the revenues of the Crown remained constant (around £100,000), but were eroded by inflation and rising prices brought about by war. Indeed it was war and Henry's dynastic ambitions in Europe that meant that the surplus he had inherited from his father was exhausted by the mid-1520s. Whereas Henry VII had not involved Parliament in his affairs very much, Henry VIII had to turn to Parliament during his reign for money, in particular for grants of subsidies to fund his wars. The Dissolution of the Monasteries provided a means to replenish the treasury and as a result the Crown took possession of monastic lands worth £120,000 (£36 million) a year. But Henry had to debase the coinage in 1526 and 1539 in order to solve his financial problems, and despite his ministers efforts to reduce costs and waste at court, Henry died in debt.

Legacy

Though mainly motivated by dynastic and personal concerns, and despite never really abandoning the fundamentals of the Catholic Church, Henry ensured that the greatest act of his reign would be one of the most radical and decisive of any English monarch. His break with Rome in 1533–34 was an act with enormous consequences for the subsequent course of English history beyond the Tudor dynasty. Not only in making possible the transformation of England into a powerful (albeit very distinctive) nation; but in the seizing of economic and political power from the Church by the aristocracy, chiefly through the acquisition of monastic lands and assets – a short-term strategy with long-term social consequences. Henry's decision to entrust the regency of his son Edward's minor years to a decidedly reform-oriented regency council, dominated by Edward Seymour, most likely for the simple tactical reason that Seymour seemed likely to provide the strongest leadership for the kingdom, ensured that the English Reformation would be consolidated and even furthered during his son's reign. Such ironies marked other aspects of his legacy.

He fostered humanist learning and yet was responsible for the deaths of several outstanding English humanists. Obsessed with securing the succession to the throne, he left as his only heirs a young son (who died before his 16th birthday) and two daughters adhering to different religions. The power of the state was magnified. Henry worked with some success to make England once again a major player on the European scene but depleted his treasury in the course of doing so, a legacy that has remained an issue for English monarchs ever since.

Scarisbrick (1968) concludes that Henry was a formidable, captivating man who "wore regality with a splendid conviction." But unpredictably his overpowering charm could turn into anger and shouting, for he was high-strung and unstable; hypochondriac and possessed of a strong streak of cruelty. Smith (1971) considered him an egotistical border-line neurotic given to great fits of temper and deep and dangerous suspicions, with a mechanical and conventional, but deeply held piety, having at best "a mediocre intellect" to hold these contradictory forces in harness.

English navy

Together with Alfred the Great and Charles II, Henry is traditionally cited as one of the founders of the Royal Navy. His reign featured some naval warfare and, more significantly, large royal investment in shipbuilding (including a few spectacular great ships such as ''Mary Rose''), dockyards (such as HMNB Portsmouth) and naval innovations (such as the use of cannon on board ship – although archers were still deployed on medieval-style forecastles and bowcastles as the ship's primary armament on large ships, or co-armament where cannon were used). However, in some ways this is a misconception since Henry did not bequeath to his immediate successors a navy in the sense of a formalised organisation with structures, ranks, and formalised munitioning structures but only in the sense of a set of ships. Elizabeth I still had to cobble together a set of privately owned ships to fight off the Spanish Armada (which consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships) and in the former, formal sense the modern British navy, the Royal Navy, is largely a product of the Anglo-Dutch naval rivalry of the 17th century. Still, Henry's reign marked the birth of English naval power and was a key factor in England's later victory over the Spanish Armada.

Henry's break with Rome incurred the threat of a large-scale French or Spanish invasion. To guard against this he strengthened existing coastal defence fortresses such as Dover Castle and, at Dover, Moat Bulwark and Archcliffe Fort, which he personally visited for a few months to supervise. He built a chain of new 'castles' (in fact, large bastioned and garrisoned gun batteries) along Britain's southern and eastern coasts from East Anglia to Cornwall, largely built of material gained from the demolition of the monasteries. These were known as Henry VIII's Device Forts.

Style and arms

Many changes were made to the royal style during his reign. Henry originally used the style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Lord of Ireland". In 1521, pursuant to a grant from Pope Leo X rewarding a book by Henry, the ''Defence of the Seven Sacraments'', attacking Martin Luther, the royal style became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith and Lord of Ireland". Following Henry's excommunication, Pope Paul III rescinded the grant of the title "Defender of the Faith", but an Act of Parliament declared that it remained valid; and it continues in royal usage to the present day.

In 1535, Henry added the "supremacy phrase" to the royal style, which became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head". In 1536, the phrase "of the Church of England" changed to "of the Church of England and also of Ireland".

In 1541, Henry had the Irish Parliament change the title "Lord of Ireland" to "King of Ireland" with the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, after being advised that many Irish people regarded the Pope as the true head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative. The reason the Irish regarded the Pope as their overlord was that Ireland had originally been given to the King Henry II of England by Pope Adrian IV in the 12th century as a feudal territory under papal overlordship. The meeting of Irish Parliament that proclaimed Henry VIII as King of Ireland was the first meeting attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Anglo-Irish aristocrats. The style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head" remained in use until the end of Henry's reign.

Henry's motto was "Coeur Loyal" ("true heart") and he had this embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word "loyal". His emblem was the Tudor rose and the Beaufort portcullis.

As Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father (i.e. those of the kingdom), differenced by a ''label of three points ermine''. As king, Henry's arms were the same as those used by his predecessors since Henry IV: ''Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England)''.

{{Image gallery|width=200|height=200 |Coat of Arms of the Tudor Princes of Wales (1489-1574).svg|See adjacent text|Coat of Arms as Prince of Wales |Coat of Arms of Henry VIII of England (1509-1547).svg|See adjacent text|Coat of arms of King Henry VIII (early reign) |Coat of Arms of England (1509-1554).svg|See adjacent text|Coat of arms of King Henry VIII (later reign) }}

500th anniversary of coronation — celebrations

An exhibition called ''Henry VIII: Man and Monarch'', curated by David Starkey, was held at the British Library in 2009. In 2009, Henry's 500th year anniversary of his coronation was celebrated in his favourite palaces along the River Thames.

Ancestry

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Marriages and issue

!Name!!Birth!!Death! 1 January 1511 18 February 1516 November 1518 4 March 1526

style="width:40%;"	Notes
''By Catherine of Aragon'' (married Greenwich Palace 11 June 1509; annulled 23 May 1533)
Unnamed Daughter	31 January 1510	2 February 1510
Henry, Duke of Cornwall	|	22 February 1511
''Henry, Duke of Cornwall''	December 1514
Mary I of England	Queen Mary I	|	17 November 1558	married 1554, Philip II of Spain; no issue
Unnamed Daughter	|	died within one week of birth
colspan="4" style="background:#d5d5d5;"	''By Anne Boleyn'' (married Westminster Abbey 25 January 1533; annulled 17 May 1536) beheaded on 19 May 1536
Elizabeth I of England	Queen Elizabeth I	7 September 1533	24 March 1603
colspan="4" style="background:#d5d5d5;"	''By Jane Seymour'' (married York Place 30 May 1536; Jane Seymour died 24 October 1537)
Edward VI of England	King Edward VI	12 October 1537	6 July 1553
colspan="4" style="background:#d5d5d5;"	''By Anne of Cleves'' (married Greenwich Palace 6 January 1540; annulled 9 July 1540)
colspan=4	no issue
''By Catherine Howard'' (married Oatlands Palace 28 July 1540; annulled 23 November 1541) beheaded on 13 February 1542
''By Catherine Parr'' (married Hampton Court Palace 12 July 1543; Henry VIII died 28 January 1547)
''By Elizabeth Blount''
Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset	15 June 1519	23 July 1536
colspan="4" style="background:#d5d5d5;"	''By Mary Boleyn'' Paternity is debated by historians.
Catherine Carey	Catherine Carey, Lady Knollys	c. 1524
Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon	|	23 July 1596	married 1545, Ann Morgan; had issue

List of Popes during the reign of Henry VIII

Pontificate	Portrait	Involvement with Henry VIII
		Granted the dispensation for Henry to marry the widow of his brother. Julius was the ''warrior pope''. In 1511 the Holy League was formed for the purpose of delivering Italy from French rule. England joined the League on 17 November 1511.
		Granted Henry VIII the title of ''Defender of the Faith'' in the last week of his life. Excommunicated Martin Luther.
		Only Dutch pope. Pontificate lasted only 613 days.
		Denied Henry VIII his request for divorce in 1527.
		Catherine of Aragon died 15 months after his election. On 17 December 1538, four years into his pontificate, Paul III excommunicated Henry VIII.

Depictions in literature and popular culture

See also

Cestui que

Inventory of Henry VIII of England

Sebastian Giustinian

The Rough Wooing

References

Sources

''The New World'' by Winston Churchill (1966).

''The Reformation Parliament, 1529–1536'' by Stanford E. Lehmberg (1970).

''Henry VIII and his Court'' by Neville Williams (1971).

''The Life and Times of Henry VIII'' by Robert Lacey (1972).

''The Six Wives of Henry VIII'' by Alison Weir (1991) ISBN 0802136834.

''English Reformations'' by Christopher Haigh (1993).

''Europe: A history'' by Norman Davies (1998) ISBN 978-0060974688.

''Europe and England in the Sixteenth Century'' by T. A. Morris (1998).

''New Worlds, Lost Worlds'' by Susan Brigden (2000).

''Henry VIII: The King and His Court'' by Alison Weir (2001).

''British Kings & Queens'' by Mike Ashley (2002) ISBN 0-7867-1104-3.

''Henry VIII: The King and His Court'' by Alison Weir (2002) ISBN 034543708X.

''Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII'' by David Starkey (2003) ISBN 0060005505.

''The Kings and Queens of England'' by Ian Crofton (2006).

Bibliography

Biographical

Bowle, John. ''Henry VIII: a Study of Power in Action.'' Little, Brown, 1964.

Erickson, Carolly. ''Mistress Anne: the Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn.'' (1984) 464 pp. popular biography

Cressy, David. "Spectacle and Power: Apollo and Solomon at the Court of Henry VIII." ''History Today'' 1982 32(oct): 16–22. ISSN: 0018-2753 Fulltext: Ebsco Traces the transition of Henry from Renaissance monarch (the youthful Apollo) to Reformation patriarch (the aging Solomon) using the graphics and visual images displayed in his court, festivals, and kingdom.

Gardner, James. "Henry VIII" in ''Cambridge Modern History'' vol 2 (1903), a brief political history online edition

Graves, Michael. ''Henry VIII'' (2003) 217 pp, topical coverage

Ives, E. W. "Henry VIII (1491–1547)", in ''The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004), online at OUP, a good starting point

Pollard, A. F. ''Henry VIII'' (1905) 470 pp; the first modern biography, accurate and still valuable online edition

Rex, Richard. ''Henry VIII and the English Reformation.'' (1993). 205 pp.

Ridley, Jasper. ''Henry VIII.'' (1985). 473 pp. popular biography

Scarisbrick, J. J. ''Henry VIII'' (1968) 592 pp, a favourable scholarly biography

Smith, Lacey Baldwin. ''Henry VIII: the Mask of Royalty'' (1971), a leading scholar writes a psycho-biography online edition

Starkey, David. ''Six Wives: the Queens of Henry VIII'' (2003) excerpt and text search

Starkey, David. ''The Reign of Henry VIII: Personalities and Politics'' (1986). 174 pp

Starkey, David, and Susan Doran. ''Henry VIII: Man and Monarch'' (2009) 288 pp

Weir, Alison. ''Henry VIII, King and Court'' (2001). 640 pp, a flattering portrait excerpt and text search

Weir, Alison. ''The Children of Henry VIII.'' (1996). 400 pp.

Scholarly studies

Bernard, G. W. ''The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church.'' (2005). 712 pp. excerpts and text search

Bernard, G. W. "The Making of Religious Policy, 1533–1546: Henry VIII and the Search for the Middle Way." ''Historical Journal'' 1998 41(2): 321–349. Issn: 0018-246x Fulltext: in Jstor

Bernard, G. W. ''War, Taxation, and Rebellion in Early Tudor England: Henry VIII, Wolsey, and the Amicable Grant of 1525.'' (1986). 164 pp

Elton, G. R. ''The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII'' (1953; revised 1962), major interpretation online edition

* Coleman, Christoper, and David Starkey, eds. ''Revolution Reassessed: Revision in the History of Tudor Government and Administration'' (1986), evaluates Elton thesis

Elton, G. R. ''Reform and Reformation: England, 1509–1558'' (1977), hostile to Henry

Fielder, Martha Anne. "Iconographic Themes in Portraits of Henry VIII." PhD dissertation Texas Christian U. 1985. 232 pp. DAI 1985 46(6): 1424-A. DA8517256 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses

Fox, Alistair, and John Guy, eds. ''Reassessing the Henrician Age: Humanism, Politics and Reform 1500–1550'' (1986), 242pp; advanced essays by scholars

Head, David M. "Henry VIII's Scottish Policy: a Reassessment." ''Scottish Historical Review'' 1982 61(1): 1–24. Issn: 0036-9241 Argues that if Henry intended to take over Scotland then his 1542 victory at Solway Moss was the opportune moment, for the French were unable to intervene, the Scottish nobility was in disarray, and the infant Mary was in line for Scotland's throne. Instead, Henry adopted a policy similar to that in Ireland, since he could not afford outright conquest or the luxury of diplomacy.

Lindsey, Karen. ''Divorced, Beheaded, Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII'' (1995) online edition

Loades, David. ''Henry VIII: Court, Church and Conflict'' (2007) 248pp; by a leading scholar excerpt and text search

MacCulloch, Diarmaid, ed. ''The Reign of Henry VIII: Politics, Policy, and Piety.'' (1995). 313 pp. essays by scholars

Marshall, Peter. "(Re)defining the English Reformation," ''Journal of British Studies'' July 2009, Vol. 48 Issue 3, pp 564–85,

Mackie, J. D. ''The Earlier Tudors, 1485–1558'' (1952), a political survey of the era online edition

Moorhouse, Geoffrey. ''Great Harry's Navy: How Henry VIII Gave England Seapower'' (2007)

Moorhouse, Geoffrey. ''The Last Divine Office: Henry VIII and the Dissolution of the Monasteries'' (2009)

Slavin, Arthur J., ed. ''Henry VIII and the English Reformation'' (1968), readings by historians. online edition

Smith, H. Maynard. ''Henry VIII and the Reformation'' (1948) online edition

Wagner, John A. ''Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors (2003). ISBN 1-57356-540-7.

Walker, Greg. ''Writing under Tyranny: English Literature and the Henrician Reformation.'' (2005). 556 pp.

Historiography and memory

Head, David M. "'If a Lion Knew His Own Strength': the Image of Henry VIII and His Historians." ''International Social Science Review'' 1997 72(3–4): 94–109. Issn: 0278-2308 Fulltext: Ebsco

Hoak, Dale. "Politics, Religion and the English Reformation, 1533–1547: Some Problems and Issues." ''History Compass'' 2005 3 (Britain and Ireland): 7 pp Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: Blackwell Synergy

Ives, Eric. "Will the Real Henry VIII Please Stand Up?" ''History Today'' 2006 56(2): 28–36. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: Ebsco

Rankin, Mark. 'Imagining Henry VIII: Cultural Memory and the Tudor King, 1535–1625'. PhD Dissrertation, Ohio State. U. ''Dissertation Abstracts International'' 2007 68(5): 1987-A. DA3264565, 403p.

Primary sources

Williams, C. M. A. H. ''English Historical Documents, 1485–1558'' (1996) online sources

External links

Tudor bio

Jokinen, A. (2004). Henry VIII (1491–1547).

Eakins, L. E. (2004). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII".

Public Broadcasting Service. (2003). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII".

Vallieres, S. (1999). "Tudor Succession Problems"

Ask About Ireland: Waterford Museum of Treasures Collection: Cap of Maintenance

''Luminarium: King Henry VIII'' Life, works, essays, study resources

Henry VIII Podcast Show

Henry VIII and his wives

Buehler, Edward. (2004). "Tudor Portraits: Henry VIII".

Castelli, Jorge H. (2004). "Henry VIII".

Stevens, Garry. (2003). "Henry VIII: Intrigue in the Tudor Court"

Perrott, Terry. (2004). "Sir John Perrott".

Illustrated history of Henry VIII.

Martin Luther to Henry VIII, 1 September 1525

Henry VIII to Martin Luther. August, 1526

Henry VIII to Frederic, John, and George, Dukes of Saxony. January. 20, 1523 re: Luther.

"Henry VIII Revealed", Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, 2003. – A discussion of the Holbein's 1536 portrait of Henry VIII and related portraits

Henry VIII.: The Family Tree of the Tudors and the Stuarts in Pictures

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Category:1491 births Category:1547 deaths Category:Annulment 301 009 Category:Earls Marshal Category:English Anglicans Category:English composers *402 Category:Converts to Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism Category:English people of Welsh descent Category:Former Roman Catholics Category:Founders of English schools and colleges Category:House of Tudor Category:Knights of the Garter Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Category:Male Shakespearean characters Category:Military leaders of the Italian Wars Category:People excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church Category:People from Greenwich Category:Pretenders to the throne of the kingdom of France (Plantagenet) Category:Princes of Wales Category:Recipients of the Golden Rose Category:Renaissance composers Category:Portrait by Hans Holbein the younger

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Name	Thierry Henry
Fullname	Thierry Daniel Henry
Dateofbirth	August 17, 1977
Cityofbirth	Les Ulis, Essonne
Countryofbirth	France
Height
Position	Striker
Currentclub	Arsenal(on loan from New York Red Bulls)
Clubnumber	12
Youthyears1	1983–1989
Youthclubs1	CO Les Ulis
Youthyears2	1989–1990
Youthclubs2	US Palaiseau
Youthyears3	1990–1992
Youthclubs3	Viry-Châtillon
Youthyears4	1992
Youthclubs4	Clairefontaine
Youthyears5	1992–1994
Youthclubs5	Monaco
Years1	1994–1999
Clubs1	Monaco
Caps1	105
Goals1	20
Years2	1999
Clubs2	Juventus
Caps2	16
Goals2	3
Years3	1999–2007
Clubs3	Arsenal
Caps3	254
Goals3	174
Years4	2007–2010
Clubs4	Barcelona
Caps4	80
Goals4	35
Years5	2010–
Clubs5	New York Red Bulls
Caps5	37
Goals5	16
Years6	2012–
Clubs6	→ Arsenal (loan)
Caps6	1
Goals6	0
Nationalyears1	1997
Nationalteam1	France U20
Nationalyears2	1997–2010
Nationalcaps1	5
Nationalgoals1	3
Nationalteam2	France
Nationalcaps2	123
Nationalgoals2	51
Pcupdate	02:10, 16 January 2012 (UTC)
Ntupdate	02:10, 16 January 2012 (UTC) }}

Thierry Daniel Henry (; born 17 August 1977) is a French footballer who plays for Arsenal as a striker, on loan from New York Red Bulls.

Henry was born in Les Ulis, Essonne (a suburb of Paris) where he played for an array of local sides as a youngster and showed great promise as a goal-scorer. He was spotted by AS Monaco in 1990 and signed instantly, making his professional debut in 1994. Good form led to an international call-up in 1998, after which he signed for the Serie A defending champions Juventus. He had a disappointing season playing on the wing, before joining Arsenal for £11 million in 1999.

It was at Arsenal that Henry made his name as a world-class footballer. Despite initially struggling in the Premier League, he emerged as Arsenal's top goal-scorer for almost every season of his tenure there. Under long-time mentor and coach Arsène Wenger, Henry became a prolific striker and Arsenal's all-time leading scorer with 227 goals in all competitions. The Frenchman won two league titles and three FA Cups with the Gunners; he was nominated for the FIFA World Player of the Year twice, was named the PFA Players' Player of the Year twice, and the FWA Footballer of the Year three times. Henry spent his final two seasons with Arsenal as club captain, leading them to the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final.

In June 2007, after eight years with Arsenal, he transferred to Barcelona for a fee of €24 million. His first honours with the Catalan club came in 2009 when they won the La Liga, Copa del Rey and Champions League treble. He went on to achieve an unprecedented sextuple by also winning the Supercopa de España, the UEFA Super Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup. In total, Henry has been named in the UEFA Team of the Year five times. In 2010, he joined the New York Red Bulls of the Major League Soccer, and won the Eastern Conference title with them in 2010.

Henry enjoyed similar success with the French national team, having won the 1998 FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro 2000 and 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. In October 2007, he surpassed Michel Platini's record to become France's top goal-scorer of all time. Henry retired from international football after the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Off the pitch, Henry is an active spokesperson against racism in football, partially due to his own experiences. He married English model Nicole Merry in 2003 and had a daughter with her, but they divorced in 2007. Henry was also one of the top commercially marketed footballers; he was ranked ninth in the world in 2006.

Early years

Henry is of Antillean heritage: his father, Antoine, is from Guadeloupe (La Désirade island), and his mother, Maryse, is from Martinique. He was born and raised in Les Ulis suburb of Paris which, despite sometimes being seen as a tough neighbourhood, provided good footballing facilities. As a seven-year-old, Henry showed great potential, prompting Claude Chezelle to recruit him to the local club CO Les Ulis. His father pressured him to attend training, although the youngster was not particularly drawn to football. He joined US Palaiseau in 1989, but after a year his father fell out with the club, so Henry moved to ES Viry-Châtillon and played there for two years. US Palaiseau coach Jean-Marie Panza, Henry's future mentor, followed him there.

Club career

Monaco (1992–1999) and Juventus (1999)

In 1990, Monaco sent scout Arnold Catalano to watch Henry, then at the age of 13 in a match. Henry scored all six goals as his side won 6–0. Catalano asked him to join Monaco without even attending a trial first. Catalano requested that Henry complete a course at the elite Clairefontaine academy, and despite the director's reluctance to admit Henry due to his poor school results, he was allowed to complete the course and joined Arsène Wenger's Monaco as a youth player. Subsequently, Henry signed professional forms with Monaco, and made his professional debut on 31 August 1994, in a 2–0 loss against Nice. Wenger put Henry on the left wing because he believed that his pace, natural ball control and skill would be more effective against full-backs than centre-backs. In his first season with Monaco, Henry scored three goals in 18 appearances.

Wenger continued to search for the perfect playing position for Henry, and suspected that he should be deployed as a striker instead, but he was unsure. Under the tutelage of his manager, Henry was named the French Young Footballer of the Year in 1996, and in the 1996–97 season, his solid performances helped the club win the Ligue 1 title. During the 1997–98 season, he was instrumental in leading his club to the UEFA Champions League semi-final, setting a French record by scoring seven goals in the competition. By his third season, he had received his first cap for the national team, and was part of the winning team in the 1998 FIFA World Cup. He continued to impress at his tenure with Monaco, and in his five seasons with the French club, the young winger scored 20 league goals in 105 appearances.

Henry left Monaco in January 1999, one year before his friend and teammate David Trezeguet, and moved to Italian Serie A club Juventus for £10.5 million. He played on the wing, but he was ineffective against the Serie A defensive discipline in a position uncharacteristic for him, and scored just three goals in 16 appearances.

Arsenal (1999–2007)

Unsettled in Italy, Henry transferred from Juventus on 3 August 1999 to Arsenal for an estimated fee of £11 million, reuniting with his former manager Arsène Wenger. It was at Arsenal that Henry made his name as a world-class footballer, and although his transfer was not without controversy, Wenger was convinced he was worth the transfer fee. Brought in as a replacement for fellow French forward Nicolas Anelka, Henry was immediately moulded into a striker by Wenger, a move that would pay rich dividends in years to come. However, doubts were raised about his ability to adapt to the quick and physical English game when he failed to score in his first eight games. After several difficult months in England, Henry even conceded that he had to "be re-taught everything about the art of striking." These doubts were dispelled when he ended his first season at Arsenal with an impressive goal tally of 26. Arsenal finished second in the league behind Manchester United, and lost in the UEFA Cup Final against Turkish side Galatasaray.

Coming off the back of a victorious UEFA Euro 2000 campaign with the national team, Henry was ready to make an impact in the 2000–01 season. Despite recording fewer goals and assists than his first season, Henry's second season with Arsenal proved to be a breakthrough, as he became the club's top goalscorer. Armed with one of the league's best attacks, Arsenal closed in quickly on perennial rivals Manchester United for the league title. Henry remained frustrated, however, by the fact that he had yet to help the club win honours, and frequently expressed his desire to establish Arsenal as a powerhouse.

Success finally arrived during the 2001–02 season. Arsenal finished seven points above Liverpool to win the league title, and defeated Chelsea 2–0 in the FA Cup Final. Henry became the league's top goal-scorer and netted 32 goals in all competitions as he led Arsenal to a double and his first silverware with the club. There was much expectation that Henry would replicate his club form for France during the 2002 FIFA World Cup, but the defending champions suffered a shock exit at the group stage.

2002–03 proved to be another productive season for Henry, as he scored 32 goals in all competitions while contributing 23 assists—remarkable returns for a striker. In doing so, he led Arsenal to another FA Cup triumph (where he was man-of-the-match in the Final), although Arsenal failed to retain their Premier League crown. Throughout the season, he competed with Manchester United's Ruud van Nistelrooy for the league scoring title, but the latter edged Henry to the title by a goal. Nonetheless, Henry was named both the PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year. His rising status as one of the world's best footballers was affirmed when he emerged runner-up for the 2003 FIFA World Player of the Year award.

Entering the 2003–04 season, Arsenal were determined to reclaim the Premier League crown. Henry was again instrumental in Arsenal's exceptionally successful campaign; together with the likes of Dennis Bergkamp, Patrick Vieira and Robert Pirès, Henry ensured that ''the Gunners'' became the first team in more than a century to go through the entire domestic league season unbeaten, claiming the league title in the process. Apart from being named for the second year running as the PFA Players' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year, Henry emerged once again as the runner-up for 2004 FIFA World Player of the Year award. With 39 goals scored in all competitions, the Frenchman led the league in goals scored and won the European Golden Boot. However, as was the case in 2002, Henry was unable to lead the national side to honours during UEFA Euro 2004.

This dip in success was compounded when Arsenal failed again to secure back-to-back league titles when they lost out to Chelsea in the 2004–05 season, although Arsenal did win the FA Cup (the Final of which Henry missed through injury). Henry maintained his reputation as one of Europe's most feared strikers as he led the league in scoring, and with 31 goals in all competitions, he was the co-recipient (with Diego Forlán) of the European Golden Boot, and is currently the only player to have officially won the award twice in a row (Ally McCoist also had two Golden Boots in a row, but both were deemed unofficial). The unexpected departure of compatriot Vieira in mid-2005 led to Henry being awarded club captaincy, a role which many felt was not naturally suited for him; the captaincy is more commonly given to defenders or midfielders, who are better-placed on the pitch to read the game. Along with being chief goal-scorer, he was responsible for leading a very young team which had yet to jell fully. The 2005–06 season proved to be one of remarkable personal achievements for Henry. On 17 October 2005, Henry became the club's top goal-scorer of all time; two goals against Sparta Prague in the Champions League meant he broke Ian Wright's record of 185 goals. On 1 February 2006, he scored a goal against West Ham United, bringing his league goal tally up to 151, breaking Arsenal legend Cliff Bastin's league goals record. Henry scored his 100th league goal at Highbury, a feat unparalleled in the history of the club, and a unique achievement in the Premier League. He completed the season as the league's top goal-scorer, and for the third time in his career, he was voted the FWA Footballer of the Year.

Nevertheless, Arsenal failed to win the league title again, but hopes of a trophy were revived when Arsenal reached the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final. The Gunners eventually lost 2–1 to Barcelona, and Arsenal's inability to win the Premier League for two consecutive seasons combined with the relative inexperience of the Arsenal squad caused much speculation that Henry would leave for another club. However, he declared his love for the club and accepted a four-year contract, and said he would stay at Arsenal for life. Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein later claimed the club had turned down two bids of £50 million from Spanish clubs for Henry before the signing of the new contract. Had the transfer materialized, it would have surpassed the then world record £47 million paid for Zinédine Zidane.

Henry's 2006–07 season was marred by injuries. Although he scored 10 goals in 17 domestic appearances for Arsenal, Henry's season was cut short in February. Having missed games due to hamstring, foot, and back problems, he was deemed fit enough to come on as a late substitute against PSV in a Champions League match, but began limping shortly after coming on. Scans the next day revealed that he would need at least three months to heal from new groin and stomach injuries, missing the rest of the 2006–07 season. Wenger attributed Henry's injuries to a protracted 2005–06 campaign, and reiterated that Henry was keen on staying with the Gunners to rebuild for the 2007–08 season.

Barcelona (2007–2010)

On 25 June 2007, in an unexpected turn of events, Henry was transferred to Barcelona for €24 million. He signed a four-year deal for a reported €6.8 (£4.6) million per season. It was revealed that the contract included a release clause of €125 (£84.9) million. Henry cited the departure of Dein and continued uncertainty over Wenger's future as reasons for leaving, and maintained that "I always said that if I ever left Arsenal it would be to play for Barcelona." Despite their captain's departure, Arsenal got off to an impressive start for the 2007–08 campaign, and Henry admitted that his presence in the team might have been more of a hindrance than a help. He stated: "Because of my seniority, the fact that I was captain and my habit of screaming for the ball, they would sometimes give it to me even when I was not in the best position. So in that sense it was good for the team that I moved on." Henry left Arsenal as the club's leading all-time league goal-scorer with 174 goals and leading all-time goal-scorer in Europe with 42 goals; in July 2008, Arsenal fans voted him as Arsenal's greatest player ever in Arsenal.com's Gunners' Greatest 50 Players poll. At Barcelona, Henry was given the number 14 jersey, the same as he had worn at Arsenal. He scored his first goal for his new club on 19 September 2007 in a 3–0 Champions League group stage win over Lyon, and he recorded his first hat-trick for Barça in a league match against Levante ten days later. But with Henry mostly deployed on the wing throughout the season, he was unable to reproduce the goal-scoring form he achieved with Arsenal. He expressed dissatisfaction with the move to Barcelona in the initial year, amidst widespread speculation of a return to the Premier League. In an interview with Garth Crooks on BBC Football Focus, Henry described missing life "back home" and even "the English press". However, Henry concluded his debut season as the club's top scorer with 19 goals in addition to nine league assists, second behind Lionel Messi's 10.

Henry went on to surpass this tally in a more integrated 2008–09 campaign, winning the first trophy of his Barcelona career on 13 May 2009 when Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao in the Copa del Rey final. Barcelona won the league and Champions League soon after, completing a treble for the Frenchman, who had combined with Lionel Messi and Samuel Eto'o to score 100 goals between them that season. The trio was also the most prolific trio in Spanish league history, scoring 72 goals and surpassing the 66 goals of Real Madrid's Ferenc Puskás, Alfredo Di Stéfano and Luis del Sol of the 1960–61 season. Later in 2009, Henry helped Barcelona win an unprecedented sextuple, consisting of the aforementioned treble, the Supercopa de España, the UEFA Super Cup, and the FIFA Club World Cup.

The following season, the emergence of Pedro Rodríguez meant that Henry only started 15 league games. Before the La Liga season ended, and with a year still left on his contract, club president Joan Laporta stated on 5 May 2010 that Henry "may go away in the summer transfer window if that's what he wants". After Henry returned from the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Barcelona confirmed that they had agreed to the sale of Henry to an unnamed club, with the player still to agree terms with the new club.

New York Red Bulls (2010–present)

In July 2010, Henry signed a multi-year contract with Major League Soccer (MLS) club New York Red Bulls for the 2010 season as its second designated player. He made his full MLS debut on 31 July in a 2–2 draw against Houston Dynamo, assisting both goals to Juan Pablo Angel. His first MLS goal came on 28 August in a 2–0 victory against San Jose Earthquakes. The Red Bulls eventually topped the MLS Eastern Conference by one point over Columbus Crew before losing 3–2 on aggregate against San Jose Earthquakes in the quarterfinals of the 2010 MLS Cup Playoffs. The next season, the Red Bulls were 10th overall in the league, and bowed out in the Conference Semi-finals of the 2011 MLS Cup Playoffs.

Loan to Arsenal

After training with Arsenal during the MLS off-season, Henry re-signed for the club on a two-month loan deal on 6 January 2012. This was to provide cover for Gervinho and Marouane Chamakh, who were unavailable due to their participation in the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations. Henry made his second Arsenal debut as a substitute against Leeds United in the FA Cup third round and scored the only goal.

International career

Henry enjoyed a successful career with the France national team, winning the first of his 123 caps in June 1997, when his good form for Monaco was rewarded with a call-up to the Under-20 French national team, where he played in the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship alongside future teammates William Gallas and David Trézéguet. Within four months, France head coach Aimé Jacquet called Henry up to the senior team. The 20-year-old made his senior international debut on 11 October 1997 in a 2–1 win against South Africa. Jacquet was so impressed with Henry that he took him to the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Although Henry was a largely unknown quantity at international level, he ended the tournament as France's top scorer with three goals. He was scheduled to appear as a substitute in the final, where France beat Brazil 3–0, but Marcel Desailly's sending off forced a defensive change instead. In 1998, he was made ''Chevalier'' (Knight) of the Légion d'honneur, France's highest decoration.

Henry was a member of France's UEFA Euro 2000 squad, again scoring three goals in the tournament, including the equaliser against Portugal in the semi-final, and finishing as the country's top scorer. France later won the game in extra time following a converted penalty kick by Zinédine Zidane. France went on to defeat Italy in extra-time in the Final, earning Henry his second major international medal. During the tournament, Henry was voted man-of-the-match in three games, including the final against Italy.

The 2002 FIFA World Cup featured a stunning early exit for both Henry and France as the defending champions were eliminated in the group stage after failing to score a goal in all three games. France lost their first match in group play and Henry was red carded for a dangerous sliding challenge in their next match against Uruguay. In that game, France played to a 0–0 draw, but Henry was forced to miss the final match due to suspension; France lost 2–0 to Denmark.

Henry returned to form for his country at the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup. Despite playing without team stalwarts Zidane and Patrick Vieira, France won, in large part owing to Henry's outstanding play, for which he was named Man of the Match by FIFA's Technical Study Group in three of France's five matches. In the final, he scored the golden goal in extra time to lift the title for the host country after a 1–0 victory over Cameroon. Henry was awarded both the adidas Golden Ball as the outstanding player of the competition and the adidas Golden Shoe as the tournament's top goal-scorer with four goals.

In UEFA Euro 2004, Henry played in all of France's matches and scored two goals. France beat England in the group stages but lost to the eventual winners Greece 1–0 in the quarter-finals. During the 2006 FIFA World Cup Henry remained as one of the automatic starters in the squad. He played as a lone striker, but despite an indifferent start to the tournament, became one of the top players of the World Cup. He scored three goals, including the winning goal from Zidane's free kick against defending champions Brazil. However, France subsequently lost to Italy on penalties (5–3) in the final. Henry did not take part in the penalty shoot-out, having been substituted in extra time after his legs had cramped. Henry was one of 10 nominees for the Golden Ball award for Player of the Tournament, an award which was ultimately presented to his teammate, Zidane and was named a starting striker on the 2006 FIFPro World XI team.

On 13 October 2007, Henry scored his 41st goal against the Faroe Islands, joining Michel Platini as the country's top goal-scorer of all time. Four days later at the Stade de la Beaujoire, he scored a late double against Lithuania, thereby setting a new record as France's top goal-scorer. On 3 June 2008, Henry made his 100th appearance for national team in match against Colombia, becoming the sixth French player ever to reach that milestone.

Henry missed the opening game of France's short-lived UEFA Euro 2008 campaign, where they were eliminated in the group stages after being grouped together with Italy, the Netherlands and Romania. He scored France's only goal in the competition in a 4–1 loss to the Netherlands.

The French team struggled during the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers and finished second in their group behind Serbia. During the play-offs against the Republic of Ireland, Henry was involved in a controversy in the second leg of the game at the Stade de France on 18 November 2009. With the aggregate score tied at 1–1 and the game in extra time, he used his hand twice to control the ball before delivering a cross to William Gallas who scored the winner. This sparked a barrage of criticism against the Frenchman, while national team coach Raymond Domenech and Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger defended him. The Football Association of Ireland lodged a formal complaint with FIFA, seeking a replay of the game, which FIFA declined. Henry said that he contemplated retiring from international football after the reactions to the incident, but maintained that he was not a "cheat"; hours after FIFA had ruled out a replay, he stated that "the fairest solution would be to replay the game". FIFA President Sepp Blatter described the incident as "blatant unfair play" and announced an inquiry into how such incidents could be avoided in future, and added that the incident would be investigated by the Disciplinary Committee. Blatter also said Henry told him that his family had been threatened in the aftermath of the incident. In January 2010, FIFA announced that there was no legal basis to sanction Henry.

Henry did not feature in the starting line-up for France at the 2010 FIFA World Cup. France drew in their first game against Uruguay, and lost 2–0 in their second against Mexico. The team was thrown into disarray when Nicolas Anelka was expelled from the team, and captain Patrice Evra led a team protest by refusing to train. In the final group game against host-nation South Africa in which Henry came on as a second-half substitute, France lost 2–1 and were eliminated from the tournament. He then announced his retirement from international football, having won 123 caps and scored 51 goals for ''Les Bleus''.

Style of play

Although Henry played up front as a striker during his youth, he spent his time at Monaco and Juventus playing on the wing. When Henry joined Arsenal in 1999, Wenger immediately changed this, switching Henry to his childhood position, often pairing him with Dutch veteran Dennis Bergkamp. During the 2004–05 season, Wenger switched Arsenal's formation to 4–5–1. This change forced Henry to adapt again to fit into the Arsenal team, and he played many games as a lone striker. Still, Henry remained Arsenal's main offensive threat, on many occasions conjuring spectacular goals. Wenger once said of his fellow Frenchman: "Thierry Henry could take ball in the middle of park and score a goal that no one else in the world could score".

One of the reasons cited for Henry's impressive play up front is his ability to calmly score from one-on-ones. This, combined with his exceptional pace, means that he can get in behind defenders regularly enough to score. When up front, Henry is occasionally known to move out wide to the left wing position, something which enables him to contribute heavily in assists: between 2002–03 and 2004–05, the striker managed almost 50 assists in total and this was attributed to his unselfish play and creativity. Henry would also drift offside to fool the defence then run back onside before the ball is played and beat the offside trap, although he never provided Arsenal a distinct aerial threat. Given his versatility in being able to operate as both a winger and a striker, the Frenchman is not a prototypical "out-and-out striker", but he has emerged consistently as one of Europe's most prolific strikers. In set pieces, Henry was the first-choice penalty and free kick taker for Arsenal, having scored regularly from those positions.

Awards and honours

Club

;Monaco

Ligue 1 (1): 1996–97

Trophée des champions (1): 1997

;Arsenal

Premier League (2): 2001–02, 2003–04

FA Cup (3): 2002, 2003, 2005

FA Community Shield (2): 2002, 2004

;Barcelona

La Liga (2): 2008–09, 2009–10

Copa del Rey (1): 2008-09

Supercopa de España (1): 2009

UEFA Champions League (1): 2008-09

UEFA Super Cup (1): 2009

FIFA Club World Cup (1): 2009

;New York Red Bulls

MLS Eastern Conference (1): 2010

Atlantic Cup (1): 2011

Walt Disney World Pro Soccer Classic (1): 2010

Emirates Cup (1): 2011

National

;France

FIFA World Cup

::Winner: France 1998 ::''Runners-up'': Germany 2006

UEFA European Football Championship

::Winner: Belgium & Netherlands 2000

FIFA Confederations Cup

::Winner: France 2003

King Hassan II International Cup Tournament

::Winner: Morocco 2000

Individual

Henry has received many plaudits and awards in his football career. He was runner-up for the 2003 and 2004 FIFA World Player of the Year awards; in those two seasons, he also won back-to-back PFA Players' Player of the Year titles. Henry is the only player ever to have won the FWA Footballer of the Year three times (2003, 2004, 2006), and the French Player of the Year on a record four occasions. Henry was voted into the Premier League Overseas Team of the Decade in the 10 Seasons Awards poll in 2003, and in 2004 he was named by football legend Pelé as one of the top 125 greatest living footballers.

In terms of goal-scoring awards, Henry was the European Golden Boot winner in 2004 and 2005 (sharing it with Villarreal's Diego Forlán in 2005) and is the first ever player to retain the award. Henry was also the top goal-scorer in the Premier League for a record four seasons (2002, 2004, 2005, 2006). In 2006, he became the first player to score more than 20 goals in the league for five consecutive seasons (2002 to 2006). Henry is currently third in the list of all-time Premier League goal-scorers, behind Alan Shearer and Andy Cole. Given his accomplishments, France's all-time goal-scorer was in his prime regarded by many coaches, footballers and pundits as one of the best footballers in the world. In November 2007, he was ranked 33rd on the Association of Football Statisticians' compendium for "Greatest Ever Footballers". Arsenal fans honoured their former player in 2008, declaring Henry the greatest Arsenal player. In two other 2008 surveys, Henry emerged as the favourite Premier League player of all time among 32,000 people surveyed in the Barclays 2008 Global Fan Report. In 2009, Henry was voted the best Premier League player of the 2000s. On 10 December 2011, Arsenal unveiled a bronze statue of Henry at the Emirates Stadium as part of its 125th anniversary celebrations.

A summary of Henry's individual awards is as follows:

UNFP Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year (1): 1996–97

PFA Players' Player of the Year (2): 2002–03, 2003–04

PFA Team of the Year (6): 2000-01, 2001-02, 2002-03, 2003-04, 2004-05, 2005-06

FWA Footballer of the Year (3): 2002–03, 2003–04, 2005–06

Premier League Golden Boot (4): 2001–02, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2005–06.

Golden Boot Landmark Award 10 (1): 2004–05

Golden Boot Landmark Award 20 (1): 2004–05

Premier League Player of the Month (4): April 2000, September 2002, January 2004, April 2004

Goal of the Season (1): 2002–03

UEFA Team of the Year (5): 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006

MLS Best XI (1): 2011

Onze d'Or (2): 2003, 2006

European Golden Boot (2): 2003-04, 2004-05

French Player of the Year (5): 2000, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006

IFFHS World's Top Goal Scorer of the Year (1): 2003

FIFA FIFPro World XI (1): 2006

FIFA World Cup All-Star Team (1): Germany 2006

FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Ball (1): France 2003

FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Shoe (1): France 2003

UEFA European Football Championship Team of the Tournament (1): 2000

FIFA 100 : 2004

Time 100 Heroes & Pioneers no.16 : 2007

English Football Hall of Fame : 2008

Premier League 10 Seasons Awards (1992–93 – 2001–02)

* Overseas Team of the Decade

Légion d'Honneur : 1998

Career statistics

Club

3 3 9 4 1 3 17 17 24 24 30 25 27 10 9 19 4 2 14 0

Club	Season	League	Cup	Continental	Total
!Apps!!Goals!!Assists!!Apps!!Goals!!Assists!!Apps!!Goals!!Assists!!Apps!!Goals!!Assists
rowspan=6 valign="center"	Monaco		8	|	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	8	3	1
Division 1 season 1995–96	1995–96	18	|	5	3	0	1	1	0	0	22	3	6
Division 1 season 1996–97	1996–97	36	|	8	3	0	1	9	1	4	48	10	13
Division 1 season 1997–98	1997–98	30	|	9	5	0	2	9	7	1	44	11	12
Division 1 season 1998–99	1998–99	13	|	3	1	0	0	5	0	2	19	1	5
!Total	!105!!20!!26!!12!!0!!4!!24!!8!!7!!141!!28!!37
rowspan=2 valign="center"	Juventus		16	|	2	3	0	0	0	0	0	19	3	2
!Total	!16!!3!!2!!3!!0!!0!!0!!0!!0!!19!!3!!2
rowspan=9 valign="center"	Arsenal		31	|	9	5	1	0	11	8	2	47	26	11
2000–01 Arsenal F.C. season	2000–01	35	|	3	4	1	0	14	4	0	53	22	3
2001–02 Arsenal F.C. season	2001–02	33	|	5	5	1	2	11	7	0	49	32	7
2002–03 Arsenal F.C. season	2002–03	37	|	23	6	1	0	12	7	1	55	32	24
2003–04 Arsenal F.C. season	2003–04	37	|	9	4	4	2	10	5	3	51	39	14
2004–05 Arsenal F.C. season	2004–05	32	|	15	2	0	1	8	5	1	42	30	17
2005–06 Arsenal F.C. season	2005–06	32	|	7	2	1	0	11	5	2	45	33	9
2006–07 Arsenal F.C. season	2006–07	17	|	6	3	1	1	7	1	0	27	12	7
	Total	! 254!!174!!77!!31!!10!!6!!84!!42!!9!!369!!226!!92
rowspan=4 valign="center"	Barcelona		30	12	|	7	4	0	10	3	2	47	19	11
2008–09 FC Barcelona season	2008–09	29	|	8	1	1	0	12	6	4	42	26	12
2009–10 FC Barcelona season	2009–10	21	|	2	3	0	0	8	0	1	32	4	3
!Total	!80!!35!!19!!11!!5!!0!!30!!9!!7!!121!!49!!26
rowspan=3 valign="center"	New York Red Bulls		11	|	3	1	0	0	0	0	0	12	2	3
2011 New York Red Bulls season	2011	26	|	4	3	1	1	0	0	0	29	15	5
!Total	!37!!16!!7!!4!!1!!1!!0!!0!!0!!41!!17!!8
rowspan=2 valign="center"	Arsenal (loan)		1	|	0	2	1	0	0	0	0	3	1	0
!Total	!1!!0!!0!!2!!1!!0!!0!!0!!0!!3!!1!!0
Career total	!493!!248!!130!!63!!17!!11!!138!!59!!23!!694!!321!!166

International

National team!!Season!!Apps!!Goals
rowspan=1 valign="center"	France U20	1996–97	5	3
colspan=2	Total!!5!!3
rowspan=14 valign="center"	France	1997	1	0
1998	10
1999	0
2000	14
2001	7
2002	10
2003	14
2004	13
2005	6
2006	16
2007	6
2008	11
2009	9
2010	6
Total!!123!!51

;Note Includes one appearance from the match against FIFA XI on 16 August 2000 which FIFA and the French Football Federation count as an official friendly match.

International goals

Under–20

:''Scores and results list France U–20's goal tally first.

rowspan=2> 22 June 1997

#
1.		Sarawak Stadium, Kuching	|	1–0	4–2	rowspan=2
2.	3–0
3.	|	Sarawak Stadium, Kuching		3–1	4–2	1997 World Youth Championship

Senior team

:''Scores and results list France's goal tally first.

Stade Vélodrome, Marseille rowspan=2>Stade de France, Saint-Denis 29 March 2000 6 June 2000 11 June 2000 16 June 2000 28 June 2000 24 March 2001 25 April 2001 6 October 2001 27 March 2002 rowspan=2>Ta' Qali National Stadium, Valletta rowspan=2 rowspan=2>Stade de France, Saint-Denis 18 June 2003 22 June 2003 26 June 2003 29 June 2003 6 September 2003 11 October 2003 15 November 2003 rowspan=2>Estádio Cidade de Coimbra, Coimbra 13 October 2004 17 August 2005 7 September 2005 9 November 2005 31 May 2006 7 June 2006 18 June 2006 23 June 2006 1 July 2006 6 September 2006 11 October 2006 15 November 2006 22 August 2007 13 October 2007 rowspan=2>Stade de la Beaujoire, Nantes 21 November 2007 13 June 2008 10 September 2008 rowspan=2>Stade de France, Saint-Denis 5 September 2009 9 September 2009 14 October 2009

#
1.	12 June 1998	|		3–0	3–0	1998 FIFA World Cup Group C#France vs South Africa>1998 FIFA World Cup
2.		|		1–0	4–0	1998 FIFA World Cup
3.	3–0
4.	|	Hampden Park, Glasgow	<		1–0	2–0	Exhibition game>Friendly
5.	|	Stade Mohamed V, Casablanca		1–0	5–1	Friendly
6.	|	Jan Breydel Stadium, Bruges		2–0	3–0	UEFA Euro 2000 Group D>UEFA Euro 2000
7.	|	Jan Breydel Stadium, Bruges		1–0	2–1	UEFA Euro 2000
8.	|	King Baudouin Stadium, Brussels		1–1	2–1	UEFA Euro 2000
9.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		2–0	5–0	Friendly
10.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		3–0	4–0	Friendly
11.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		3–0	4–1	Friendly
12.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		3–0	5–0	Friendly
13.		|		1–0	4–0	rowspan=2
14.	2–0
15.		Stade Félix-Bollaert, Lens ||	<		2–0	6–0	Friendly
16.	3–0
17.		|		1–0	5–0	Friendly
18.	2–0
19.	|	Stade de Gerland, Lyon	<		1–0	1–0	2003 FIFA Confederations Cup#Group A>2003 FIFA Confederations Cup
20.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		2–0	5–0	2003 FIFA Confederations Cup
21.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		1–0	3–2	2003 FIFA Confederations Cup
22.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		1–0	1–0	2003 FIFA Confederations Cup
23.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		4–0	5–0	UEFA Euro 2004 qualifier
24.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		1–0	3–0	UEFA Euro 2004 qualifier
25.	|	Veltins-Arena, Gelsenkirchen		1–0	3–0	Friendly
26.		|		2–1	3–1	rowspan=2
27.	3–1
28.	|	GSP Stadium, Nicosia	<		2–0	2–0	2006 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 4>2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier
29.	|	Stade de la Mosson, Montpellier		3–0	3–0	Friendly
30.	|	Lansdowne Road, Dublin		1–0	1–0	2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier
31.	|	Stade d'Honneur de Dillon, Fort-de-France		3–2	3–2	Friendly
32.	|	Stade Félix-Bollaert, Lens		1–0	2–0	Friendly
33.	|	Stade Geoffroy-Guichard, Saint-Étienne		3–1	3–1	Friendly
34.	|	Red Bull Arena (Leipzig)>Zentralstadion, Leipzig		1–0	1–1	2006 FIFA World Cup Group G#France vs Korea Republic>2006 FIFA World Cup
35.	|	RheinEnergieStadion>FIFA WM Stadion Köln, Cologne		2–0	2–0	2006 FIFA World Cup
36.	|	Commerzbank-Arena>FIFA WM-Stadion Frankfurt, Frankfurt		1–0	1–0	2006 FIFA World Cup knockout stage#Brazil vs France>2006 FIFA World Cup
37.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		2–0	3–1	UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group B>UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier
38.	|	Stade Auguste Bonal, Montbéliard		2–0	5–0	UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier
39.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		1–0	1–0	Friendly
40.	|	Štadión Antona Malatinského, Trnava		1–0	1–0	Friendly
41.	|	Tórsvøllur, Tórshavn		2–0	6–0	UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier
42.		|		1–0	2–0	UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier
43.	2–0
44.	|	Olimpiysky National Sports Complex, Kiev	<		1–1	2–2	UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier
45.	|	Stade de Suisse, Wankdorf>Stade de Suisse, Bern		1–2	1–4	UEFA Euro 2008 Group C#Netherlands vs France>UEFA Euro 2008
46.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		1–0	2–1	2010 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 7>2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier
47.		|		1–1	3–1	Friendly
48.	2–1
49.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		1–0	1–1	2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier
50.	|	Stadion FK Crvena Zvezda, Belgrade		1–1	1–1	2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier
51.	|	Stade de France, Saint-Denis		2–0	3–1	2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier

Career totals

Professional career totals
! Teams	! Appearances	! Goals	!Assists	! Goals per game
Clubs	691	321	166
	123	51	29
Total	814	372	195

Outside football

Personal and family life

Henry married English model Nicole Merry, real name Claire, on 5 July 2003. The ceremony was held at Highclere Castle, and on 27 May 2005 the couple celebrated the birth of their first child, Téa. Henry dedicated his first goal since Téa's birth to her by holding his fingers in a "T" shape and kissing them after scoring in a match against Newcastle United. When Henry was still at Arsenal, he also purchased a home in Hampstead, North London. However, shortly after his transfer to Barcelona, it was announced that Henry and his wife would divorce; the decree nisi was granted in September 2007. Their separation concluded in December 2008 when Henry paid Merry a divorce settlement close to her requested sum of £10 million. Henry is now dating Bosnian model Andrea Rajačić.

As a fan of the National Basketball Association (NBA), Henry is often seen with his friend Tony Parker at games when not playing football. Henry stated in an interview that he admires basketball, as it is similar to football in pace and excitement. Having made regular trips to the NBA Finals in the past, he went to watch Parker and the San Antonio Spurs in the 2007 NBA Finals; and in the 2001 NBA Finals, he went to Philadelphia to help with French television coverage of the Finals as well as to watch Allen Iverson, whom he named as one of his favourite players.

Social causes

UNICEF

Henry is a member of the UNICEF-FIFA squad, where together with other professional footballers he appeared in a series of TV spots seen by hundreds of millions of fans around the world during the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups. In these spots, the players promote football as a game that must be played on behalf of children.

Stand Up Speak Up

Having been subjected to racism in the past, Henry is an active spokesperson against racism in football. The most prominent incident of racism against Henry was during a training session with the Spanish national team in 2004, when a Spanish TV crew caught coach Luis Aragonés referring to Henry as "black shit". The incident caused an uproar in the British media, and there were calls for Aragonés to be sacked. Henry and Nike started the Stand Up Speak Up campaign against racism in football as a result of the incident. Subsequently, in 2007, ''Time'' featured him as one of the "Heroes & Pioneers" on "The Time 100" list.

Other work

Along with 45 other football players, Henry took part in FIFA's "Live for Love United" in 2002. The single was released in tandem with the 2002 FIFA World Cup and its proceeds went towards AIDS research. Henry also supports the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation and Cystic Fibrosis Trust.

Endorsements

In 2006, Henry was valued as the ninth most commercially marketable footballer in the world, as well as being the eighth richest Premier League player, with £21 million.

Renault

Henry featured in the Renault Clio advertisements in which he popularised the term ''va-va-voom'', meaning "life" or "passion". His romantic interest in the commercial was his then-girlfriend, later his wife (now divorced), Claire Merry. ''"Va-va-voom"'' was subsequently added to the Concise Oxford English Dictionary.

Nike

In 2004, Henry signed with sportswear giant Nike. In one of the advertisements, Henry pits his wits against football stars such as Claude Makélélé, Edgar Davids and Freddie Ljungberg in locations such as his bedroom and living room. The advertisement was partly inspired by Henry himself, who revealed that he always has a football nearby, even at home. Henry was also featured in Nike's "Secret Tournament" advertisement along with 24 superstar football players including Ljungberg, Ronaldinho, and Francesco Totti. In tandem with the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Henry also featured in Nike's Joga Bonito campaign, Portuguese for "beautiful game".

Reebok

Henry's deal with Nike ended after the 2006 FIFA World Cup, when he signed a deal with Reebok to appear in their "I Am What I Am" campaign. As part of Reebok Entertainment's "Framed" series, Henry was the star of a half-hour episode that detailed the making of a commercial about Henry directed by Spanish actress Paz Vega.

Puma

In 2011 Henry switched to Puma boots, first wearing the brand in the 2011 MLS All Star game against Manchester United, before announcing a multi-year partnership for Puma to be his performance and lifestyle footwear and apparel sponsor. His first official game with Puma was in the Emirates Cup against former club Arsenal.

Gillette

In February 2007, Henry was named as one of the three ambassadors of Gillette's "Champions Program," which purported to feature three of the "best-known, most widely respected and successful athletes competing today" and also showcased Roger Federer and Tiger Woods in a series of television commercials. For reasons of recognition, Derek Jeter appears in Henry's place in the advertisements broadcast in North America. In reaction to the handball controversy following the France-Ireland 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier, Gillette faced a boycott and accusations of doctoring French versions of their Champions poster, but subsequently released a statement backing Henry.

Pepsi

Henry was part of Pepsi's "Dare For More" campaign in 2005, alongside the likes of David Beckham and Ronaldinho.

Notes and references

External links

MLS player profile

Thierry Henry profile at fcbarcelona.cat

Thiery Henry biography at jockbio.com

Thierry Henry at Internet Movie Database

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Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:People from Les Ulis Category:1998 FIFA World Cup players Category:2002 FIFA World Cup players Category:2003 FIFA Confederations Cup players Category:2006 FIFA World Cup players Category:2010 FIFA World Cup players Category:Arsenal F.C. players Category:AS Monaco FC players Category:Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Category:FC Barcelona footballers Category:FIFA 100 Category:FIFA Century Club Category:FIFA World Cup-winning players Category:FIFA Confederations Cup-winning players Category:Association football forwards Category:France international footballers Category:France under-21 international footballers Category:Expatriate footballers in England Category:Expatriate footballers in Italy Category:INF Clairefontaine players Category:Expatriate footballers in Spain Category:French footballers Category:Juventus F.C. players Category:La Liga footballers Category:Ligue 1 players Category:Premier League players Category:First Division/Premier League topscorers Category:English Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:Serie A footballers Category:UEFA Euro 2000 players Category:New York Red Bulls players Category:UEFA Euro 2004 players Category:UEFA Euro 2008 players Category:UEFA European Football Championship-winning players Category:UNICEF people Category:French people of Guadeloupean descent Category:Expatriate soccer players in the United States Category:French expatriates in the United States Category:People of Martiniquais descent Category:Major League Soccer players Category:France youth international footballers

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