Rowing is a sport in which athletes race against each other on rivers, on lakes or on the ocean, depending upon the type of race and the discipline. The boats are propelled by the reaction forces on the oar blades as they are pushed against the water. The sport can be both recreational, focusing on learning the techniques required, and competitive where overall fitness plays a large role. It is also one of the oldest Olympic sports. In the United States, high school and collegiate rowing is sometimes referred to as ''crew''.

Basic information

While rowing, the athlete sits in the boat facing backwards (towards the stern), and uses the oars which are held in place by the oarlocks to propel the boat forward (towards the bow). This may be done on a river, lake, sea, or other large body of water. It is a demanding sport requiring strong core balance as well as physical strength and cardiovascular endurance.

Whilst the action of rowing and equipment used remains fairly consistent throughout the world, there are many different types of competition. These include endurance races, time trials, stake racing, bumps racing, and the side-by-side format used in the Olympic games. The many different formats are a result of the long history of the sport, its development in different regions of the world, and specific local requirements and restrictions.

There are two forms of rowing:

In ''sweep'' or ''sweep-oar'' rowing, each rower has one oar, held with both hands. This can be done in pairs, fours and eights. Each rower in a sweep boat is referred to either as ''port'' or ''starboard'', depending on which side of the boat the rower's oar extends to. Usually the port side is referred to as stroke side, and the starboard side as bow side; this applies even if the stroke oarsman is rowing on bow side and/or the bow oarsman on stroke side.

In ''sculling'' each rower has two oars (or ''sculls''), one in each hand. Sculling is usually done without a coxswain, in quads, doubles or singles. The oar in the sculler's right hand extends to port (stroke side), and the oar in the left hand extends to starboard (bow side).

Anatomy of a stroke

The two fundamental reference points in the rowing stroke are the catch, immediately prior to the oar blade's placement in the water, and the extraction (also known as the finish or the release) where the rower removes the oar blade from the water. From the catch, the rower places the blade in the water, then applies pressure to the oar by simultaneously pushing the seat toward the bow of the boat by extending the legs. As the legs approach full extension, the rower rotates his or her torso toward the bow of the boat and then finally pulls the arms towards his or her chest. The shoulders should not hunch up at any point during the drive. At the very end of the stroke, with the blade still in the water, the hands drop slightly to unload the oar so that spring energy stored in the bend of the oar gets transferred to the boat, which eases removing the oar from the water and minimizes energy wasted on lifting water above the surface (splashing). The aforementioned stages of the stroke where pressure is applied to the blade through the water comprise the drive of the stroke.

The recovery phase follows the drive. The recovery involves removing the oar from the water, and coordinating the body movement to move the oar to the catch. The coordinated body motion that begins at the finish consists of the following: The rower pushes down on the oar handle (or oar handles if the rower is sculling) to quickly lift the blade from the water at the release. Following the release, the rower rapidly rotates the oar to cause the blade of the oar to become parallel to the water (a process referred to as "feathering the blade") at the same time as pushing the oar handle away from the chest. After feathering and extending the arms, the rower rotates his or her body forward. Once the hands are past the knees, the rower compresses the legs which moves the seat towards the stern of the boat. The leg compression occurs relatively slowly (compared with the rest of the stroke) which affords the rower a moment to "recover" (hence the recovery nomenclature), and allows the boat to glide through the water. Near the end of the recovery, the rower squares the blade (rotates the blade to perpendicular to the water), and then repeats the stroke again, beginning with the catch.

In a multi-person boat, the above motion must be executed in precise synchrony with all other rowers in the shell. Coordinated timing at the catch is imperative to avoid "checking" the boat, or slowing its forward progress. Ideally, all rowers arrive at the catch at exactly the same moment, and immediately apply pressure on the oar with the oar in the water which minimizes jerk at the catch. To accomplish this, the oar must be in the water slightly in advance of the rower's arrival at the catch where the seat reverses direction. When this action is completed correctly a bit of water, called "back splash" is splashed.

Breathing during a rowing stroke

There are two schools of thought with respect to the appropriate breathing technique during the rowing motion: Full lungs at the catch and empty lungs at the catch.

With the full lung technique, rowers exhale during the stroke and inhale during the recovery. In laboured circumstances, rowers will take a quick pant at the end of the stroke before taking a deep breath on the recovery that fills the lungs by the time the catch is reached.

In the empty-lung technique, rowers inhale during the drive, and exhale during the recovery so that they have empty lungs at the catch. Because the knees come up to the chest when the lungs are empty, this technique allows the rower to reach a little bit further than if the lungs were full of air. Additionally, this technique allows the thighs to compress the chest, collapsing the lungs further than normal, thus inducing greater air (and oxygen) volume exchange during each breath.

A scientific study of the benefits of entrained breathing technique in relatively fit, but untrained rowers did not show any physiological or psychological benefit to either technique.

Rowing propulsion

Rowing is a cyclic (or intermittent) form of propulsion such that in the quasi steady-state the motion of the system (the system comprising the rower, the oars, and the boat), is repeated regularly. In order to maintain the steady-state propulsion of the system without either accelerating or decelerating the system, the sum of all the external forces on the system, averaged over the cycle, must be zero. Thus, the average drag (retarding) force on the system must equal the average propulsion force on the system. The drag forces consist of aerodynamic drag on the superstructure of the system (components of the boat situated above the waterline), as well as the hydrodynamic drag on the submerged portion of the system. The propulsion forces are the forward reaction of the water on the oars while in the water. Note also that the oar can be used to provide a drag force (a force acting against the forward motion) when the system is brought to rest.

Although the oar can be conveniently thought of as a lever with a "fixed" pivot point in the water, the blade moves sideways and sternwards through the water, so that the magnitude of the propulsion force developed is the result of a complex interaction between unsteady fluid mechanics (the water flow around the blade) and solid mechanics and dynamics (the handle force applied to the oar, the oar's inertia and bending characteristic, the acceleration of the boat and so on).

Distinction from other watercraft

The distinction between rowing and other forms of water transport, such as canoeing or kayaking, is that in rowing the oars are held in place at a pivot point that is in a fixed position relative to the boat, this point acting as a fulcrum for the oar to act as a lever. In flatwater rowing, the boat (also called a ''shell'' or ''fine boat'') is narrow to avoid drag, and the oars are attached to oarlocks at the end of outriggers extending from the sides of the boat. Racing boats also have sliding seats to allow the use of the legs in addition to the body to apply power to the oar. Like racing kayaks or canoes, most racing shells are inherently unstable. The rowing boats require oars on either side to prevent them from rolling over.

Fitness and health

Rowing is one of the few non-weight bearing sports that exercises all the major muscle groups, including quads, biceps, triceps, lats, glutes and abdominal muscles. Rowing improves cardiovascular endurance and muscular strength. High-performance rowers tend to be tall and muscular: although extra weight does increase the drag on the boat, the larger athlete's increased power tends to be more significant. The increased power is achieved through increased length of leverage on the oar through longer limbs of the athlete. In multi-rower boats (2,4,or 8), the lightest person typically rows in the bow seat at the front of the boat.

Rowing is a low impact activity with movement only in defined ranges, so twist and sprain injuries are rare. However, the repetitive rowing action can put strain on knee joints, the spine and the tendons of the forearm, and inflammation of these are the most common rowing injuries. If one rows with poor technique, especially rowing with a curved rather than straight back, other injuries may surface, including back pains.

History

Even since the earliest recorded references to rowing, the sporting element has been present. An Egyptian funerary inscription of 1430 BC records that the warrior Amenhotep (Amenophis) II was also renowned for his feats of oarsmanship. In the Aeneid, Virgil mentions rowing forming part of the funeral games arranged by Aeneas in honour of his father. In the 13th century, Venetian festivals called ''regata'' included boat races among others.

The first known "modern" rowing races began from competition among the professional watermen that provided ferry and taxi service on the River Thames in London. Prizes for wager races were often offered by the London Guilds and Livery Companies or wealthy owners of riverside houses. During the 19th century these races were to become numerous and popular, attracting large crowds. Prize matches amongst professionals similarly became popular on other rivers throughout Great Britain in the 19th century, notably on the Tyne. In America, the earliest known race dates back to 1756 in New York, when a pettiauger defeated a Cape Cod whaleboat in a race.

Amateur competition in England began towards the end of the 18th century. Documentary evidence from this period is sparse, but it is known that the Monarch Boat Club of Eton College and the Isis Club of Westminster School were both in existence in the 1790s. The Star Club and Arrow Club in London for gentlemen amateurs were also in existence before 1800. At the University of Oxford bumping races were first organised in 1815 when Brasenose College and Jesus College boat clubs had the first annual race while at Cambridge the first recorded races were in 1827. Brasenose won Oxford University's first Head of the River and claim to be the oldest established boat club in the world. The Boat Race between Oxford University and Cambridge University first took place in 1829, and was the second intercollegiate sporting event (following the first Varsity Cricket Match by 2 years). The interest in the first Boat Race and subsequent matches led the town of Henley to begin hosting an annual regatta in 1839.

Founded in 1818, Leander Club is the world's oldest public rowing club. The second oldest club which still exists is the Der Hamburger und Germania Ruder Club which was founded 1836 and marked the beginning of rowing as an organized sport in Germany. During the 19th century, as in England, wager matches in North America between professionals became very popular attracting vast crowds. The Detroit Boat Club was established as the first rowing exclusive club in 1839 in the US. In 1843, the first American college rowing club was formed at Yale University. The Harvard-Yale Regatta is the oldest intercollegiate sporting event in the United States, having been contested every year since 1852 (excepting interruptions for wars).

FISA

FISA, the “Fédération Internationale des Sociétés d’Aviron” in French (or the English equivalent ''International Federation of Rowing Associations'') was founded by representatives from France, Switzerland, Belgium, Adriatica (now a part of Italy) and Italy in Turin on 25 June 1892. It is the oldest international sports federation in the Olympic movement.

FISA first organized a European Rowing Championships in 1893. An annual World Rowing Championships was introduced in 1962. Rowing has also been conducted at the Olympic Games since 1900 (cancelled at the first modern Games in 1896 due to bad weather).

Equipment

Racing boats (often called ''shells'') are long, narrow, and broadly semi-circular in cross-section in order to reduce drag to a minimum. There is some trade off between boat speed and stability in choice of hull shape. They usually have a fin towards the rear, to help prevent roll and yaw and to increase the effectiveness of the rudder.

Originally made from wood, shells are now almost always made from a composite material (usually a double skin of carbon-fibre reinforced plastic with a sandwich of honeycomb material) for strength and weight advantages. FISA rules specify minimum weights for each class of boat so that no individual will gain a great advantage from the use of expensive materials or technology.

There are several different types of boats. They are classified using:

Number of rowers. In all forms of modern competition the number is either 1, 2, 4, or 8.

Position of coxswain (also referred to as cox). Boats are either coxless (''straight''), bow-coxed (also called bowloaders), or stern-coxed.

Although sculling and sweep boats are generally identical to each other (except having different riggers), they are referred to using different names:

Sweep: coxless pair (or straight pair) (2-), coxed pair (2+), Coxless four (or straight four) (4-), coxed four (4+), eight (8+) (always coxed)

Sculling: single scull (1x), double scull (2x), triple scull (3x) (very rare), quad (or quadruple) scull (4x), octuple scull (8x) (always coxed, and mainly for juniors and exhibition)

Sweep/Sculling: Queep, 2 scullers and 2 sweepers (very rare) Randan 1 sculler and 2 sweepers (very rare)

With the smaller boats, specialist versions of the shells for sculling can be made lighter. The riggers in sculling apply the forces symmetrically to each side of the boat, whereas in sweep oared racing these forces are staggered alternately along the boat. The sweep oared boat has to be stiffer to handle these unmatched forces, so consequently requires more bracing and is usually heavier - a pair (2-) is usually a more robust boat than a double scull (2x) for example, and being heavier is also slower when used as a double scull. In theory this could also apply to the 4x and 8x, but most rowing clubs cannot afford to have a dedicated large hull which might be rarely used and instead generally opt for versatility in their fleet by using stronger shells which can be rigged for either sweep rowing or sculling. The symmetrical forces also make sculling more efficient than rowing: the double scull is faster than the coxless pair, and the quadruple scull is faster than the coxless four. One additional boat is the ''queep'', a coxed or non-coxed shell. The bow and stroke positions have a set of sculling riggers and two and three have a sweep set. These shells have been used in the UK and recently at a club in Victoria BC, Canada.

In addition to the queep the ''trop'' and the ''coxed trop'' are become more mainstream. They are mainly rowed in central Canada. The trop shell consists of three people where the bow has a pair of sculling oars, and 2,3 each a sweeping oar. A coxed trop is the same configuration as the trop plus a coxed seated at the stern of the boat.

Many adjustments can be made to the equipment to accommodate the physiques of the crew. Collectively these adjustments are known as the boat's rigging.

Steering

Single and double sculls are usually steered by the scullers pulling harder on one side or the other. In other boats there is a rudder, controlled by the coxswain, if present, or by one of the crew. In the latter case the rudder cable is attached to the toe of one of their shoes which can pivot about the ball of the foot, moving the cable left or right. The steersman may row at bow, who has the best vision when looking over their shoulder, or on straighter courses stroke may steer, since they can point the stern of the boat at some landmark at the start of the course. On international courses landmarks for steersmen, consisting of two aligned poles, are provided.

Oars

Oars are used to propel the boat. They are long (sculling: 250–300 cm; rowing 340–360 cm) poles with one flat end about 50 cm long and 25 cm wide, called the blade. Classic oars were made out of wood, but modern oars are made from synthetic material, the most common being carbon fiber.

An oar is often referred to as a ''blade'' in the case of sweep oar rowing and as a ''scull'' in the case of sculling. A sculling oar is shorter and has a smaller blade area than the equivalent sweep oar. The combined blade area of a pair of sculls is however greater than that of a single sweep oar, so the oarsman when sculling is working against more water than when rowing sweep-oared. He is able to do this because the body action in sculling is more anatomically efficient (due to the symmetry).

Colours

The ''spoon'' of oars is normally painted with the colours of the club to which they belong. This greatly simplifies identification of boats at a distance.

Indoor rowing

Ergometer rowing machines (colloquially ''ergs'' or ''ergo'') simulate the rowing action and provide a means of training on land when waterborne training is restricted, and of measuring rowing fitness. Ergometers do not simulate the lateral balance challenges, the exact resistance of water, or the exact motions of true rowing including the sweep of the oar handles. For that reason ergometer scores are generally not used as the sole selection criterion for crews, and technique training is limited to the basic body position and movements. However, this action can still allow a comparable workout to those experienced on the water.

Indoor rowing has become popular as a sport in its own right with numerous indoor competitions (and the annual World Championship CRASH-B Sprints in Boston) during the winter off-season.

Boat storage and boathouses

Racing boats, usually together with oars, riggers, and other equipment for rowing, are stored in specially designed storage areas — or boathouses. These usually consist of a long two-story building, in which the boats are stored on ''racks'' (horizontal, usually metal, bars) on the ground floor with a large door at one end which most probably leads out to a pontoon on the river or lakeside. Other equipment is stored around the boats. Upstairs, there is usually a gym, bar, an area for relaxation, or, rarely, more storage (due to difficulties transporting cumbersome rowing equipment upstairs). Boats are conveyed to competitions on special trailers accommodating up to 20 boats.

Competition

Rowers may take part in the sport for their leisure or they may row competitively. There are different types of competition in the sport of rowing. In the U.S. all types of races are referred to as ''regattas'' whereas this term is only used in the UK for head-to-head races which take place in the summer season. Time trials occur in the UK during the winter, and are referred to as Head races.

Rowing is unusual in the demands it places on competitors. The standard world championship race distance of 2,000 metres is long enough to have a large endurance element, but short enough (typically 5.5 to 7.5 minutes) to feel like a sprint. This means that rowers have some of the highest power outputs of athletes in any sport. At the same time the motion involved in the sport compresses the rowers' lungs, limiting the amount of oxygen available to them. This requires rowers to tailor their breathing to the stroke, typically inhaling and exhaling twice per stroke, unlike most other sports such as cycling where competitors can breathe freely.

Side by side

Most races that are held in the spring and summer feature side by side racing also called a regatta; all the boats start at the same time from a stationary position and the winner is the boat that crosses the finish line first. The number of boats in a race typically varies between two (which is sometimes referred to as a ''dual race'') to six, but any number of boats can start together if the course is wide enough.

The standard length races for the Olympics and the World Rowing Championships is 2,000 m long, 1,500 – 2,000 m for US high school races on the east coast and 1,000 m for ''masters'' rowers (rowers older than 27). However the race distance can and does vary from ''dashes'' or sprints, which may be 500 m long, to races of marathon or ultra-marathon length races such as the Tour du Léman in Switzerland which is 160 km, and the 2 day, 185 km Corvallis to Portland Regatta held in Oregon, USA. In the UK, regattas are generally between 500 m and 2,000 m long.

A feature of the end of twentieth century rowing was the development of non-olympic multicrew racing boats, typically fixed seat-gigs, pilot boats and in Finland church- or longboats. The most usual craft in races are held around the coasts of Britain during summer months is the Cornish pilot gig, most typically in the south-west, with crews of 6 from local towns and races of varying distances. The Cornish pilot gig was designed and built to ferry harbour and river pilots to and from ships in fierce coastal waters. The boat needed to be stable and fast with the large crew hence making it ideal for its modern racing useage. In Finland 14-oared churchboats race throughout the summer months, usually on lakes, and often with mixed crews. The largest gathering sees over 7000 rowers mainly rowing the 60 km course at Sulkava near the eastern border over a long weekend in mid July. The weekend features the World Masters churchboat event which also includes a 2 km dash.

Two traditional non-standard distance shell races are the annual Boat Race between Oxford and Cambridge and the Harvard-Yale Boat Race which cover courses of approximately four miles (roughly 6.5 km). The Henley Royal Regatta is also raced upon a non-standard distance at 1 mile, 550 yards (2,112 meters).

In general, multi-boat competitions are organized in a series of rounds, with the fastest boats in each heat qualifying for the next round. The losing boats from each heat may be given a second chance to qualify through a repechage. The World Rowing Championships offers multi-lane racing in heats, finals and repechages. At Henley Royal Regatta two crews compete side by side in each round, in a straightforward knock-out format, with no repechages.

Head races

Head races are time trial / processional races that take place from autumn (fall) to early spring (depending on local conditions). Boats begin with a rolling start at intervals of 10 – 20 seconds, and are timed over a set distance. Head courses usually vary in length from 2,000 m to 12,000 m, though there are longer races such as the Boston Rowing Marathon and shorter such as Pairs Head.

The oldest, and arguably most famous, head race is the Head of the River Race, founded by Steve Fairbairn in 1926 which takes place each March on the river Thames in London, United Kingdom. Head racing was exported to the United States in the 1950s, and the Head of the Charles Regatta held each October on the Charles River in Boston, Massachusetts, USA is now the largest rowing event in the world.

These processional races are known as ''Head Races'', because, as with bumps racing, the fastest crew is awarded the title ''Head of the River'' (as in "head of the class"). It was not deemed feasible to run bumps racing on the Tideway, so a timed format was adopted and soon caught on.

Time trials are sometimes used to determine who competes in an event where there is a limited number of entries, for example the qualifying races for Henley Royal Regatta, and ''rowing on'' and ''getting on'' for the Oxford and Cambridge Bumps races respectively.

Bumps races

A third type of race is the bumps race, as held in Oxford (known as Torpids and Summer Eights), Cambridge (known as the Lent Bumps and the May Bumps), between the London medical and Veterinary schools (the United Hospitals Bumps) on the Tideway and at Eton College and Shrewsbury School (which are the only schools in Britain to continue this tradition). In these races, crews start lined up along the river at set intervals, and all start at the same time. The aim is to catch up with the boat in front, and avoid being caught by the boat behind. If a crew overtakes or makes physical contact with the crew ahead, a ''bump'' is awarded. As a result damage to boats and equipment is common during bumps racing. To avoid damage the cox of the crew being bumped may concede the bump before contact is actually made. The next day, the bumping crew will start ahead of any crews that have been bumped. Bumps races take place over several days, and the positions at the end of the last race are used to set the positions on the first day of the races the next year. Oxford and Cambridge Universities hold bumps races for their respective colleges twice a year, and there are also ''Town Bumps'' races in both cities, open to non-university crews. Oxford's races are organised by City of Oxford Rowing Club and Cambridge's are organised by the Cambridgeshire Rowing Association.

Stake races

The stake format was often used in early American races. Competitors line up at the start, race to a stake, moored boat, or buoy some distance away, and return. The 180° turn requires mastery of steering. These races are popular with spectators because one may watch both the start and finish. Usually only two boats would race at once to avoid collision. The Green Mountain Head Regatta continues to use the stake format but it is run as a head race with an interval start. A similar type of racing is found in UK coastal rowing, where a number of boats race out to a given point from the coast and then return fighting rough water all the way.

World championships and Olympics

The Olympic Games are held every four years, where only select boat classes are raced (14 in total):

Men: quad scull, double scull, single scull, eight, coxless four, and coxless pair

Lightweight Men: coxless four and double scull

Women: quad scull, double scull, single scull, eight, and coxless pair

Lightweight Women: double scull

At the end of each year, the FISA holds the World Rowing Championships with events in 22 different boat classes. Athletes generally consider the Olympic classes to be premier events and are more interested in rowing in these than at the World Championships. During Olympic years only non-Olympic boats compete at the World Championships.

Rules of racing

There are many differing sets of rules governing racing and these are generally defined by the governing body of the sport in a particular country. In England and Wales this is British Rowing, Australia this is Rowing Australia and the US USRowing sets the rules. In international competition the rules are set out by the world governing body FISA. The rules may vary slightly but are generally very similar. The main notable difference between British Rowing rules and FISA rules is that coxes are not required to wear buoyancy aids in international events governed by FISA, whereas they are required to wear one at all times under the British Rowing rules.

The crew

In all boats, with the exception of single sculls, each rower is numbered in sequential order, low numbers at the bow, up to the highest at the stern. The person seated on the first seat is called the bowman, or just 'bow', whilst the rower closest to the stern is called the 'strokeman' or just 'stroke'. There are some exceptions to this - some UK coastal rowers, and in France, Spain, and Italy rowers number from stern to bow.

In addition to this, certain crew members have other titles and roles. In an 8+ the stern pair are responsible for setting the stroke rate and rhythm for the rest of the boat to follow. The middle four (sometimes called the "engine room" or "power house") are usually the less technical, but more powerful rowers in the crew, whilst the bow pair are the more technical and generally regarded as the pair to set up the balance of the boat. They also have most influence on the line the boat steers.

In most levels of rowing there are different weight classes - typically "open" or "heavyweight" and lightweight (discussed below). Competitive rowing favours tall, muscular athletes due to the additional leverage height provides in pulling the oar through the water as well as the explosive power needed to propel the boat at high speed. Open or heavyweight rowers of both sexes tend to be very tall, broad-shouldered, have long arms and legs as well as tremendous cardiovascular capacity and very low body fat ratios. Olympic or International level heavyweight male oarsmen are typically anywhere between 6'3" and 6'9" (190 cm to 206 cm) tall with most being around 6'6" (198 cm) and weighing approximately 225 lb (102 kg) with about 6 to 7% body fat. Heavyweight women are slightly shorter at around 6'1" (180 cm) and lighter than their male counterparts.

Lightweights

Unlike most other non-combat sports, rowing has a special weight category called ''lightweight'' (Lwt for short). According to FISA, this weight category was introduced "to encourage more universality in the sport especially among nations with less statuesque people". The first lightweight events were held at the World Championships in 1974 for men and 1985 for women. Lightweight rowing was added to the Olympics in 1996.

At international level the limits are:

Men: Crew average 70 kg (154 lb) - no rower over 72.5 kg (160 lb)

Women: Crew average 57 kilograms (125 lb) - no rower over 59 kg (130 lb)

Olympic lightweight boat classes are limited to:

Men's double (LM2x)

Men's four (LM4-)

Women's double (LW2x)

At the junior level (in the United States), regattas require each rower to weigh in at least two hours before their race; they are sometimes given two chances to make weight at smaller regattas, with the exception of older more prestigious regattas, which allow only one opportunity to make weight. For juniors in the United States, the lightweight cutoff for men is 160.0 lb.; for women, it is 130.0 lb. In the fall the weight limits are increased for women, with the cutoff being 135 lb.

At the collegiate level (in the United States), the lightweight weight requirements can be different depending on competitive season. For fall regattas (typically head races), the lightweight cutoff for men is 160.0 lb. and 135.0 lb. for women. In the spring season (typically sprint races), the lightweight cutoff for men is 160.0 lb., with a boat average of 155.0 lb. for the crew; for women, the lightweight cutoff is 130.0 lb.

Women

For most of its history, rowing has been a male dominated sport. Although rowing's roots as a sport in the modern Olympics can be traced back to the original 1896 games in Athens, it was not until the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal that women were allowed to participate — well after their fellow athletes in similar sports such as swimming, athletics, cycling, and canoeing.

Despite its male domination, women's rowing can be traced back to the early 19th century, and an image of a women's double scull race made the cover of Harper's Weekly in 1870. Wellesley College (located in the town of Wellesley, Massachusetts) was the first school to organize a competitive rowing team for women in the late 19th century. The 19th Century Cornish rower Ann Glanville achieved national celebrity; her all-women crew often winning against the best male teams. In 1927, the first rowing event for women between Oxford and Cambridge was held. For the first few years it was an exhibition, and it later became a race. Ernestine Bayer, called the "Mother of Women's Rowing", formed the Philadelphia Girls' Rowing Club in 1938.

In 1954, the first women's events were added to the European Rowing Championships. In 1988, the first Henley Women's Regatta was held. Henley Royal Regatta first included a women's singles event over the full course in 1993, followed in 2000 by eights (now Remenham Challenge Cup) and 2001 by quadruple sculls (now Princess Grace Challenge Cup). On April 27, 1997, one of the last bastions of rowing was breached when, at an Extraordinary General Meeting, Leander Club voted to admit women as members. This rule met a condition imposed by UK Sport and qualified Leander to receive a £1.5 million grant for refurbishment from the Lottery Sports Fund.

At the international level, women's rowing traditionally has been dominated by Eastern European countries, such as Romania, Russia, and Bulgaria, although other countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, Canada, and New Zealand often field competitive teams. The United States also has had very competitive crews, and in recent years these crews have become even more competitive given the surge in women's collegiate rowing due to Title IX. Because Title IX mandates equal money spent on men's and women's sports, rowing is particularly useful due to the extremely high costs of equipment per athlete. Therefore, many schools open a rowing program only to women to financially counteract the prevalence of men's sports. In the United States, it is important to note that Women's Rowing is an NCAA sport, while Men's Rowing chooses to remain governed by its own regulatory body, the Intercollegiate Rowing Association (IRA). The IRA, formed in 1895, preceded the NCAA by at least ten years and provided a guideline for the rules of eligibility and sportsmanship later adopted by the NCAA when it was formed.

Adaptive athletes

Adaptive rowing is a special category of races for those with physical disabilities. Under FISA rules there are 5 boat classes for adaptive rowers; mixed (2 men and 2 women plus cox) LTA (Legs, Trunk, Arms), mixed intellectual disability (2 men and 2 women plus cox) LTA (Legs, Trunk, Arms), mixed (1 man and 1 woman) TA (Trunk and Arms), and men's and women's AS (Arms and Shoulders). Events are held at the World Rowing Championships and were also held at the 2008 Summer Paralympics.

Terminology and event nomenclature

Rowing events use a systematic nomenclature for the naming of events, so that age, gender, ability and size of boat can all be expressed in a few numbers and letters. The first letter to be used is 'L' or 'Lt' for lightweight. If absent then the crew is open weight. This can be followed by either a 'J' or 'B' to signify junior (under 19 years) or under 23 years respectively. If absent the crew is open age (the letter 'O' is sometimes used). Next is either an 'M' or 'W' to signify if the crew are men or women. Then there is a number to show how many athletes are in the boat (1,2,4 or 8). An 'x' following the number indicates a sculling boat. Finally either a + or - is added to indicate whether the boat is coxed or coxswainless.

Some events will use an experience rating to separate races. In the UK boats are classed as "Elite", "Senior", "Intermediate 1/2/3" or "Novice", depending on the number of wins the athletes have accumulated. Masters events use age ranges to separate crews of older rowers.

Examples:

M8+ or 8+ ''men's eight'' (Always coxed. Sometimes written as 8o for "8-oared".)

W4- ''women's coxless four (or "straight four")''

LM2- ''lightweight men's coxless pair''

BM1x ''men's single sculls under age 23''

JW4x ''junior women's quad''

Masters WC2x ''masters women's double sculls with average crew age between 43-50''

Mixed Masters 8+ ''coxed eight with 4 women and 4 men as rowers and a coxswain of either gender''

See also

International Rowing Federation

Single Scull

The Championship Course

World Sculling Championship (Professional)

Coastal and ocean rowing

Rowing on the River Thames

;International Rowing Federation events

World Rowing Championships

Rowing World Cup

Junior World Rowing Championships

;College/university rowing

College rowing (United States)

University rowing (UK)

The Boat Race

The Great Race (rowing) New Zealand

Harvard-Yale Regatta

U.S. intercollegiate rowing champions

Sparks Consulting College Rowing Database

;Categories

:Category:Rowing governing bodies

:Category:Rowing clubs

:Category:Rowing equipment manufacturers

Notes

External links and other sources

FISA — The Official World Rowing Website (''See International Rowing Federation'')

River & Rowing Museum — Rowing Museum in Henley on Thames

How Rowing Really Works

The Physics of Rowing

WaterRower Indoor Rowing Machines

Paintings of Thomas Eakins, a group of rowing scenes, first and most famous is Max Schmitt in a Single Scull (1871)

Rowing Rowing Category:History of rowing Category:Olympic sports

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Glenn Branca (born October 6, 1948 in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania) is an avant-garde composer and guitarist known for his use of volume, alternative guitar tunings, repetition, droning, and the harmonic series. In 2008 he was awarded an unrestricted grant from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts.

Life and work

Beginnings: 1960s and early 1970s

Branca started playing the guitar at age 15. He also created a number of tape sound art collage pieces for his own amusement. After attending York College in 1966-1967 he started the short-lived cover band The Crystal Ship with Al Whiteside and Dave Speece in the summer of 1967. Branca studied theater at Emerson College in Boston in the early 1970s. In 1973 he moved from Boston to London with his then girlfriend Meg English. After moving back to Boston in 1974 he met John Rehberger. While there, he began experimenting with sound as the founder of an experimental theater group called Bastard Theater in 1975.

Working out of a loft on Massachusetts Avenue they wrote and produced the music/theater piece "Anthropophagoi" for a 2 week run. The lead actor John Keiser was chosen in The Boston Phoenix as one of the best performances of the year. In 1976 The Bastard Theater's second production was "What Actually Happened" at a new loft in Central Square, Cambridge and later at The Boston Arts Group. Considering the unconventional and sometimes confrontational nature of the productions, the shows still received interested reviews from the Phoenix and The Boston Globe. All music for Bastard Theater productions were original compositions by Branca or Rehberger and were performed live by the actor/musicians.

New York: Late 1970s and 1980s

Branca moved to New York in 1976. His first encounter with the NYC music scene was with the N. Dodo Band whom he observed many times at their rehearsal space - Phil Demise's "Gegenschein Vaudeville Placenter". This is where he first met Jeffrey Lohn who was playing electric violin with the N. Dodo Band. He then formed two bands in the late 1970s: Theoretical Girls in 1977 with composer/guitarist Jeffrey Lohn and photographer/musician Barbara Ess, and later The Static. He also recorded Ess's band Y Pants for their debut release on 99 Records and performed with Rhys Chatham's ''Guitar Trio'' in 1977, a noise music experience that was very important in the development of his compositional voice (Branca 1979). In 1982 Branca launched his own record label, Neutral Records, releasing Y Pants' LP and the first few records by New York noise rockers Sonic Youth.

In the early 1980s he released his first album under his own name, Lesson No.1. In the same year he composed several medium-length compositions for electric guitar ensembles, including The Ascension (1981) and Indeterminate Activity of Resultant Masses (1981). The Ascension appeared on his second same titled solo album in 1981, Indeterminate Activity of Resultant Masses was released not earlier then 2008 on cd. Soon after these two compositions, he began composing symphonies for orchestras of electric guitars and percussion, which blended droning industrial cacophony and microtonality with quasi-mysticism and advanced mathematics. Starting with Symphony No. 3 ("Gloria") (1983), he began to systematically compose for the harmonic series, which he considered to be the structure underlying not only all music but most human endeavors. In this project, Branca was initially influenced by the writings of Dane Rudhyar, Hermann von Helmholtz, and Harry Partch. He also built several electrically amplified instruments of his own invention, expanding his ensemble beyond the guitar. A few of these instruments were third bridge zithers he called "harmonic guitars". And he built instruments with large amounts of strings he called mallet guitars, because they were percussion instruments played with drumsticks, monotone electric cymbaloms with an additional third bridge on resonating positions. Early members of his group included Thurston Moore and Lee Ranaldo of Sonic Youth, Page Hamilton of Helmet, and several members of Swans including Michael Gira and Dan Braun.

Recent work: 1990s to present

In the early 1990s, David Baratier attempted to document Branca's teaching style in ''They Walked in Line''. In September 1996, The Glenn Branca Ensemble played at the opening ceremony for the Aarhus Festival in Denmark. The ceremony took place in the Musikhuset Opera House, and in the audience were the Queen of Denmark, the mayor of Aarhus and other dignitaries. After receiving more than 25 major commissions since 1981 Branca's music has finally begun to receive academic attention. Some scholars, most prominently Kyle Gann, consider him (and Rhys Chatham) to be a member of the totalist school of post-minimalism.

Beginning with "Symphony No. 7", Branca began composing for traditional orchestra, although he never abandoned the electric guitar. Branca also plays duets for excessively amplified guitars with his wife, and conducted his 13th symphony for 100 electric guitars at the base of the World Trade Center in New York City in June 2001. Since that time his 100 guitar piece has been performed in cities all over the U.S. and Europe. In 2008 he wrote his 14th Symphony, entitled "The Harmonic Series", which is performed by a traditional orchestra. The first movement of this symphony, named "2,000,000,000 Light Years From Home" premiered in St. Louis performed by the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra conducted by David Robertson on November 13, 2008. This was the 12th major orchestra to perform Branca's orchestral work since 1986.

In 2008, he was awarded a grant from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists Award as well as a Caps grant in 1983, an award from the National Endowment for the Arts in 1988 and a NYSCA grant in 1998, all for music composition. In 2010 Fortissimo Records re-released Brancas 1981 album The Ascension as a special edition on 180 grams vinyl and Branca wrote a piece ''The Ascension: The Sequel'', which was released in the same year on the label Systems Neutralizers. This follow up piece led to new interest in his work and notable performances at Primavera Sound Festival 2011 and Villette Sonique 2011.

Discography

#''Lesson No. 1'' (99 Records, 1980) #''The Ascension'' (99 Records, 1981, Acute Records 2001, Fortissimo Records 2010) #''Indeterminate Activity of Resultant Masses'', (Atavistic, 1981/2007) #''Bad Smells'' from Who Are You Staring At? with John Giorno (GPS, 1982) #''Chicago 82 - A Dip In The Lake'' (Crepuscule, 1983) #''Symphony No. 3 (Gloria)'' (Atavistic, 1983) #''Symphony No. 1 (Tonal Plexus)'' (ROIR, 1983) #''The Belly of an Architect'' (Crepuscule, 1987) #''Symphony No. 6 (Devil Choirs At The Gates Of Heaven)'' (Atavistic, 1989) #''Symphony No. 2 (The Peak of the Sacred)'' (Atavistic, 1992) #''The World Upside Down'' (Crepuscule, 1992) #''The Mysteries (Symphonies Nos. 8 & 10)'' (Atavistic, 1994) #''Les Honneurs Du Pied'' from Century XXI USA 2-Electric/Acoustic (various) (New Tone, 1994) #''Symphony No. 9 (l'eve future)'' (Point, 1995) #''Faspeedelaybop'' from ''Just Another Asshole'' (various) (Atavistic, 1995) #''Songs '77-'79'' (Atavistic, 1996) #''Symphony No. 5 (Describing Planes Of An Expanding Hypersphere)'' (Atavistic, 1999) #''Empty Blue'' (In Between, 2000) #''Movement Within'' from Renegade Heaven by Bang On A Can (Cantaloupe, 2000) #''The Mothman Prophecies [Soundtrack]'' (contributed 1-minute "Collage") (Lakeshore Records, 2002) #''The Ascension: The Sequel'' (Systems Neutralizers, 2010) #''Symphony No. 7 (Graz)'' (Systems Neutralizers, 2011)

Footnotes

See also

No Wave

Noise Fest

Custom-made instruments

List of custom-made instrument builders

Noise Music

Just Another Asshole

List of noise musicians

Post-punk

References

Marc Masters, (2007) "No Wave", Black Dog Publishing, London

Paul Hegarty, ''Noise/Music: A History'' (2007) Continuum International Publishing Group

RoseLee Goldberg, ''Performance: Live Art Since 1960'' (1998) Harry N. Abrams, NY NY

Further reading

Branca, Glenn (November 1979). New New York: Rhys Chatham. ''New York Rocker,'' 16.

Cole Gagne: "Glenn Branca", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed January 1, 2006), (subscription access)

John Rockwell: "All American Music" (Knopf, 1983)

John Schaeffer: "New Sounds" (Harper and Row, 1987)

Tom Johnson: "The Voice Of New Music" (Het Apollohuis, 1989)

Cole Gagne: "Sonic Transports" (De Falco, 1990)

Cole Gagne: "Soundpieces II" (Scarecrow Press, 1992)

Alec Foege: "Confusion is Next" (St. Martins, 1994)

Geoff Smith and Nicola Walker: "New Voices" (Amadeus Press, 1995)

William Duckworth: "Talking Music" (Schirmer, 1995)

Bart Hopkin: "Musical Instrument Design" (See Sharp Press, 1996)

Kyle Gann: "American Music in The 20th Century" (Schirmer, 1997)

Bill Milkowski: "Rockers, Jazzbos and Visionaries" (Billboard Books, 1998)

Roni Sarig: "The Secret History Of Rock" (Billboard Books, 1998)

Bill Martin: "Avant Rock" (Open Court, 2002)

External links

Edited monologue about Branca's career as told to Alec Hanley Bemis

GlennBranca.com

EST Interview by and (c) Brian Duguid.

Theoretical Girls by Paris Transatlantic magazine

Listening

Glenn Branca interview

Glenn Branca: "Acoustic Phenomena" (3:59) published on the Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine @ Ubuweb

Category:1948 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century classical composers Category:20th-century classical composers Category:No Wave Category:Musicians from Pennsylvania Category:People from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Category:Microtonal musicians Category:Emerson College alumni Category:Experimental luthiers Category:Reachout International Records recording artists Category:Noise musicians Category:American experimental musicians

cs:Glenn Branca da:Glenn Branca de:Glenn Branca el:Γκλεν Μπράνκα es:Glenn Branca fr:Glenn Branca gl:Glenn Branca it:Glenn Branca nl:Glenn Branca no:Glenn Branca pl:Glenn Branca pt:Glenn Branca ro:Glenn Branca ru:Бранка, Гленн sv:Glenn Branca

name	Ron Jarzombek
background	non_vocal_instrumentalist
origin	San Antonio, Texas, United States
instrument	Guitar
genre	Progressive metal, heavy metal, thrash metal, technical death metal
years active	1984–present
associated acts	Blotted Science, Terrestrial Exiled, Spastic Ink, WatchTower, S.A.Slayer, Gordian Knot, Marty Friedman, Happy Kitties
website	RonJarzombek.com }}

Ron Jarzombek is an American guitarist best known for his work with Austin, Texas progressive metal trailblazers WatchTower, '90s madcap trio, Spastic Ink, technical extreme metal band Blotted Science, featuring Cannibal Corpse bassist Alex Webster and ex-Behold... the Arctopus drummer Charlie Zeleny, and most recently Terrestrial Exiled, an all-star instrumental quartet, featuring Obscura members Christian Muenzner and Hannes Grossmann, as well as Spastic Ink bassist Pete Perez.

Jarzombek has also guested with a number of artists ranging from fellow guitarists Marty Friedman and Jeff Loomis to death metal outfits Obscura and Odious Mortem, and collaborated with Cynic off-shoot Gordian Knot as well as Lamb of God drummer Chris Adler. He also teaches guitar in San Antonio, Texas.

Influence

Ron has been hailed as one of the most influential progressive metal guitarists and has been called ''"the Godfather of Technical Metal."'' He has been cited as an influence by numerous players, particularly from the burgeoning technical death metal scene, most prominently Muhammed Suiçmez of Necrophagist. Ron is also featured in the 2009 book The 100 Greatest Metal Guitarists by British author Joel McIver who calls Jarzombek ''"the most underrated axemonger ever”.'' Decibel Magazine remarked, ''"Ron Jarzombek should be a friggin’ legend by now"'' in its review of Blotted Science's ''The Machinations of Dementia''.

Soundtrack work

Ron wrote several exclusive pieces for Atlanta, GA-based Morley Arts Productions, a small animation company. These include the intro to a proposed science fiction short film titled Magnatania and bits featured on the Morley Arts 2005 demo reel which starts off with 'See and It's Sharp' by Spastic Ink. Another unreleased piece utilized was the Vai-esque Martians Marchin', originally meant to be a 'soundtrack for' a lithograph called ''House of Stairs'' by M.C. Escher. In 2004, the animated 15-minute space mini-epic Time Ace, produced by Morley Arts and featuring two of Jarzombek's compositions, was awarded 'Best Animation' by a jury of film industry professionals in clickflick.tv's online film festival.

Family

Ron is the youngest of three musical brothers, Ralph, a keyboard player, and drummer Bobby Jarzombek, with whom he formed a short-lived project named Happy Kitties in the mid 1980's and collaborated with more extensively in Spastic Ink in the 1990s.

Equipment

Jarzombek plays custom-made guitars he builds himself, the reason being that ''"I am rather selective when it comes to guitars. For me, it's easier to build a guitar totally from scratch than to buy something off the shelf and customize it. The necks are taken off of guitars that I come across at local music stores."''

Discography

Albums:

(2009) Ron Jarzombek (solo) - ''PHHHP! Plus'' (''EclecticElectric'')

(2007) Blotted Science - ''The Machinations of Dementia'' (''EclecticElectric''; released by ''Marquee/Avalon'' in Japan in 2011)

(2007) Marty Friedman - ''Exhibit A - Live In Europe'' (''Avex Entertainment''; released by ''Mascot Records'' in 2008)

(2004) Spastic Ink - ''Ink Compatible'' (''EclecticElectric / Marquee Avalon'')

(2002) Ron Jarzombek (solo) - ''Solitarily Speaking Of Theoretical Confinement'' (''Mr. Kitty'')

(2002) WatchTower - ''Demonstrations in Chaos'' (archives release) (''Monster Records'')

(1998) Gordian Knot - ''Gordian Knot'' (''Sensory'')

(1998) Ron Jarzombek (solo) - ''PHHHP!'' (''Mr. Kitty'')

(1997) Spastic Ink - ''Ink Complete'' (''Dream Circle'', re-released by ''EclecticElectric'' in 2000'')

(1989) WatchTower - ''Control And Resistance'' (''Noise Records'')

(1988) S.A.Slayer - ''Go For The Throat'' (''Under Den Linden'')

Singles:

(2011) Terrestrial Exiled - ''Duodecimal Levorotation'' (digital release)

(2010) WatchTower - ''The Size of Matter'' (digital release)

Compilations & guest appearances:

(2010) Ray Riendeau - ''Atmospheres'' (guest guitar solo on "A Search For Lifeforms") (''Groove Theory Records'')

(2009) Obscura - ''Cosmogenesis'' (guest guitar solo on "Cosmogenesis") (''Relapse Records'')

(2008) Jeff Loomis - ''Zero Order Phase'' (guest guitar solo on "Jato Unit") (''Century Media'')

(2008) The Fractured Dimension - ''Towards the Mysterium'' (guest guitar solo on "Towards the Mysterium") (''Independent'')

(2007) Odious Mortem - ''Cryptic Implosion'' (guest guitar solo on "Collapse Of Recreation") (''Willowtip Records'')

(2006) Various Artists - ''Drum Nation Vol.3'' (''Magna Carta'') w/ Chris Adler

(2006) Loch Vostok - ''Destruction Time Again!'' (guest guitar solo on "Talk") (''Escapi Music'')

(1999) Various Artists - ''A Tribute To Accept Vol.1'' (''Nuclear Blast'') w/ WatchTower

(1998) Various Artists - ''The Music Of Raymond Scott'' (''Esotericity'')

(1996) Various Artists - ''12 Years In Noise: Metal & Beyond'' [2-CD] (''Noise Records'') w/ WatchTower

(1989) Various Artists - ''Doomsday News 2'' (''Noise Records'') w/ WatchTower

Videos & DVDs:

(2007) Marty Friedman - ''Exhibit B - Live In Japan'' (''Avex Entertainment'')

(2006) Chris Adler / Jason Bittner - ''Live At Modern Drummer Festival 2005'' (Hudson Music)+

(2005) Bobby Jarzombek - ''Performance & Technique'' (''Warner Bros. Publications'')+

(1990) Various Artists - ''Doomsday News - The Video Compilation Volume 2'' (''Noise Records'') w/ WatchTower

''+ NOTE: Ron is not seen but rather heard as the guitarist and co-writer of some of the music on these DVDs!''

External links

Official Ron Jarzombek website

Official Ron Jarzombek MySpace page

Official Ron Jarzombek Facebook page

2010 interview with Ron Jarzombek on Prog Sphere

References

Category:American people of Polish descent Category:American musicians of Polish descent Category:American heavy metal guitarists Category:Living people Category:Year of birth missing (living people)

es:Ron Jarzombek it:Ron Jarzombek pl:Ron Jarzombek

name	Brad Paisley| image Paisley, Brad (2007) 2.jpg
landscape	yes
background	solo_singer
birth name	Brad Douglas Paisley
birth date	October 28, 1972
origin	Glen Dale, West Virginia,United States
instrument	Vocals, guitar, mandolin
genre	Country
occupation	Singer-songwriter, musician
years active	1997–present
spouse	Kimberly Williams-Paisley
label	Arista Nashville
associated acts	Alison Krauss, Dolly Parton, Carrie Underwood, Keith Urban, Martina McBride, Chely Wright
website	BradPaisley.com
notable instruments	Bill Crook TelecastersFender Telecasters }}

Brad Douglas Paisley (born October 28, 1972) is an American singer-songwriter and musician. His style crosses between traditional country music and Southern rock, and his songs are frequently laced with humor and pop culture references.

Paisley was the 2008 CMA and ACM Male Vocalist of the Year winner. Starting with the release of his 1999 album ''Who Needs Pictures'', Paisley has recorded seven studio albums and a Christmas compilation on the Arista Nashville label, with all of his albums certified gold or higher by the RIAA. In addition, he has charted 25 singles on the U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot Country Songs chart, 16 of which have reached #1 with a record 10 consecutive singles reaching the top spot on the chart. On November 10, 2010, Paisley won the Entertainer of the Year award at the 44th annual CMA Awards.

Biography

Paisley was born on October 28, 1972 in Wheeling, West Virginia to Douglas Edward "Doug" Paisley, who worked for the West Virginia Department of Transportation, and Sandra Jean "Sandy" (née Jarvis) Paisley, a teacher. He was raised in Glen Dale, West Virginia. He has stated that his love of country music stems from his maternal grandfather, Warren Jarvis, who gave Paisley his first guitar, a Sears Danelectro Silvertone at 8-years-old and taught him how to play. At age 10, he performed for the first time in public by singing in his church. He later recalled that, "Pretty soon, I was performing at every Christmas party and Mother's Day event. The neat thing about a small town is that when you want to be an artist, by golly, they'll make you one".

Paisley graduated from John Marshall High School in Glen Dale, West Virginia in 1991, studied for 2 years at West Liberty University (WV) and later was awarded a full-paid ASCAP scholarship to Belmont University, in Nashville, Tennessee (from 1993 to 1995). He interned at ASCAP, Atlantic Records, and the Fitzgerald-Hartley management firm. While in college, he met Frank Rogers, a fellow student who went on to serve as his producer. Paisley also met Kelley Lovelace, who became his songwriting partner. He also met Chris DuBois in college, and he too would write songs for him.

1999–2001: ''Who Needs Pictures''

His debut as a singer was with the label Arista Nashville, with the song "Who Needs Pictures" (released February 22, 1999). In May of that same year, he made his first appearance on the Grand Ole Opry. Seven months later he had his first #1 hit with "He Didn't Have to Be," which detailed the story of Paisley's frequent co-writer Kelley Lovelace and Lovelace's stepson, McCain Merren. ''We Danced'' also was a hit for Paisley off the debut album, reaching #1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. By February 2001, the album was certified platinum.

In 2000, Paisley's mainstream notoriety received a huge boost when he was exposed to his first national non-country music oriented audience on the TLC special, "Route 66: Main Street America." Producer, Todd Baker, tapped the young musician to appear on this show when he was a relative unknown outside the world of country music. It featured Paisley and band doing rare live and acoustic versions of Route 66. The international and home video versions of this program end with a full, un-cut acoustic rendition of the piece, which was performed live on Rainbow Bridge in Riverton, KS. The show accurately predicted that Paisley would become a legendary musician, and also featured blues artist, Buddy Guy.

Later in 2000, Paisley won the Country Music Association's (CMA) Horizon Award and the Academy of Country Music's best new male vocalist trophy. He received his first Grammy Award nomination a year later for Best New Artist. On February 17, 2001, Paisley was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry He was 28 when he accepted the invitation, and was the youngest member ever to join. PBS did a 75th anniversary concert special, which saw Paisley pair up with Chely Wright and sing a song called ''Hard to Be a Husband, Hard to Be a Wife'', and would be included on the album ''Backstage at the Opry'', It would get a CMA nomination for Vocal Event of the Year.

2001–2003: ''Part II''

In 2002, he won the CMA Music Video of the Year for "I'm Gonna Miss Her (The Fishin' Song)." Several celebrities made notable guest appearances in the video, including Little Jimmy Dickens, Kimberly Williams, Dan Patrick, and Jerry Springer. His three other singles off the ''Part II'' album, "I Wish You'd Stay", "Wrapped Around", and "Two People Fell in Love", all charted in the top 10. The album stayed in the charts for more than 70 weeks and was certified platinum in August 2002. To support his album, he toured the country as the opening act for Lonestar.

2003–2005: ''Mud on the Tires''

Paisley released his third album, ''Mud on the Tires'' (2003), following ''Who Needs Pictures'' and ''Part II.'' The album features the hit song "Celebrity", the video of which parodies reality shows such as ''Fear Factor'', ''American Idol'', ''The Bachelorette'' and ''According to Jim'', and included such celebrities as Jason Alexander, James Belushi, Little Jimmy Dickens, Trista Rehn and William Shatner. (Paisley later contributed to Shatner's album ''Has Been''.) The album's title track, "Mud on the Tires", reached Billboard #1 in 2004.

In addition, the ninth track from ''Mud on the Tires'', "Whiskey Lullaby", a duet with Alison Krauss reached #3 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) charts, and #41 on the Billboard Hot 100. The music video for ''Whiskey Lullaby'' also won several awards and was rated #2 on the 100 Greatest Music Videos by CMT in 2008. The album would be certified double platinum. "Online" featured the Brentwood High School marching band playing toward the end of the song, a cameo by Jason Alexander, and again featured a cameo by William Shatner. ''Throttleneck'' would also reach number one, which would get Paisley his first Grammy.

The fifth single from ''5th Gear'' actually came from a reissued version of the album – a new recording of "Waitin' on a Woman", a track cut from ''Time Well Wasted.'' The reissued version received unsolicited airplay in late 2006, and features less prominent string guitar and violin parts and a more "muted" musical tone. For the chart week of September 20, 2008, the song became Paisley's twelfth number-one single and his eighth straight number-one hit, making him the artist with the most consecutive Number One country hits since the inception of Nielsen SoundScan in 1990.

In July 2006, producer Todd Baker tapped Brad for a television appearance as an animated character in The Wonder Pets, Daddy Armadillo. The yet-to-be-broadcast episode features Brad's wife, Kimberly Williams, as Mama Armadillo.

Paisley toured April 26, 2007 through February 24, 2008 in support of ''5th Gear'' on the Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour. The tour visited 94 cities over a 10 month period and played for over 1,000,000 fans. The tour was so successful that it was extended past its original end date to February 2008. Some of the opening acts who appeared during the tour were Taylor Swift, Kellie Pickler, Jack Ingram, Rodney Atkins and Chuck Wicks.

Paisley was nominated for three 2008 Grammy Awards related to ''5th Gear'': Best Country Album (for ''5th Gear''), Best Country Collaboration (for "Oh Love" with Carrie Underwood), and Best Country Instrumental (for "Throttleneck"). On February 10, 2008, he won his first Grammy award for Best Country Instrumental for "Throttleneck".

In March 2008, Brad Paisley announced his next tour, "The Paisley Party," a 42-date tour sponsored by Hershey's. The tour kicked off on June 11, 2008, in Albuquerque, New Mexico with Chuck Wicks, Julianne Hough and Jewel as the opening acts. Brad Paisley and Keith Urban released to country radio their first duet together on September 8, 2008, "Start a Band." It was the first and only single from ''Play,'' and it went on to become Paisley's thirteenth number one hit and his ninth in a row. The album also features collaborations with James Burton, Little Jimmy Dickens, Vince Gill, John Jorgenson, B.B. King, Albert Lee, Brent Mason, Buck Owens, Redd Volkaert and Steve Wariner. Paisley and Urban both received Entertainer of the Year nominations from the CMA on September 10, 2008. On November 12, 2008 Brad Paisley won Male Vocalist of the Year and Music Video of the Year for "Waitin' on a Woman" during the CMA's.

2009–2010: ''American Saturday Night''

Brad Paisley announced on January 26, 2009 his new tour named "American Saturday Night." Dierks Bentley and Jimmy Wayne will be opening in the majority of the shows. Brad Paisley's newest album, ''American Saturday Night'' was released on June 30, 2009. The album's lead off single, "Then" was released in March 2009 and performed for the first time on ''American Idol'' on March 18. It went on to become Paisley's 14th number one single and his tenth in a row.

On May 6, 2009, Paisley gave an exclusive performance to a small group of members from his fan club in Studio A of the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville, TN as he and his band taped an episode of CMT Invitation Only. The show gives fans a chance to see their favorite artists in a more intimate setting up close and personal. There was a Q & A session and interaction between Paisley and his fans. The show aired on Monday, August 3 at 9:00 p.m. on CMT.

On July 21, 2009, Paisley performed at the White House in celebration of country music. "Country Music at the White House " was streamed live on the White House web-site as well as a special on Great American Country.

On November 11, 2009, Paisley co-hosted the CMA Awards for the second straight year. He also performed "Welcome to the Future", and won both Male Vocalist of the Year and Musical Event of the Year for Start a Band with Keith Urban.

On March 1, 2010, Paisley was the first musical performance with "American Saturday Night" for the second tenure of the Tonight Show with Jay Leno.

On Friday March 5, 2010, Paisley slipped and fell performing his last song of the set, "Alcohol," at a concert at the North Charleston Coliseum in Charleston, South Carolina, on the final date of the American Saturday Night Tour. Fearing a broken rib, he was held overnight at an area hospital, but was released when a CT scan was negative.

On July 31, 2010 Brad performed alongside Carrie Underwood at the inaugural Greenbrier Classic PGA Tour Event in Lewisburg, W.Va. An estimated 60,000 people attended the out door event to watch Carrie and Brad perform in the pouring rain.

On August 4, 2010, it was announced on his official website that Paisley would release his first official greatest hits package, entitled ''Hits Alive''. Released on November 2, 2010, ''Hits Alive'' is a double-disc collection, with one disc containing studio versions of Paisley's hit singles, while the companion disc features previously unreleased live versions of his songs.

Brad Paisley cohosted the 44th Annual CMA Awards on November 10, 2010, where he was also awarded the CMA's top award, Entertainer of the Year. During his acceptance speech, Paisley emotionally honored his grandfather, who inspired him to play the guitar.

2011-Present: ''This Is Country Music''

In December 2010, Paisley released "This Is Country Music" as the title track to his eighth studio album, released May 23, 2011. The album's second single, "Old Alabama" (with Alabama), released to country radio on March 14, 2011 and became Paisley's nineteenth number one hit. "Remind Me," with Carrie Underwood, was released May 23, 2011 to radio.

On March 22, 2011, Paisley's website announced a new beta game titled "Brad Paisley World." The game is modeled after other Facebook games such as Farmville or Mafia Wars and features original animation. The game provides a new way for fans to interact with each other and view exclusive material that would otherwise be unavailable.

On May 12, 2011, Paisley's website announced that he would release two songs on the soundtrack for the film ''Cars 2''. One of them would be a collaboration with British pop singer Robbie Williams.

Tours

''Brooks & Dunn's Neon Circus & Wild West Show 2003

''Mud & Suds Tour 2004'' (w/ Sara Evans, Andy Griggs)

''Two Hats & A Redhead Tour 2005'' (w/ Reba McEntire, Terri Clark)

''Time Well Wasted Tour 2006'' (w/ Sara Evans, Sugarland, Carrie Underwood, Jake Owen, Josh Turner, Billy Currington)

''Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour 2007–2008'' (w/ Taylor Swift, Jack Ingram, Kellie Pickler, Rodney Atkins, Chuck Wicks)

''The Paisley Party Tour 2008'' (w/ Chuck Wicks, Julianne Hough, Jewel)

''The Paisley Party Tour 2009'' (w/ Dierks Bentley, Darius Rucker, Crystal Shawanda)

''American Saturday Night Tour 2009'' (w/ Dierks Bentley, Jimmy Wayne)

''American Saturday Night Tour 2010'' (w/ Miranda Lambert, Justin Moore)

''The H2O Tour 2010'' (w/ Darius Rucker, Justin Moore, Easton Corbin, Steel Magnolia, Josh Thompson)

''The H2O Frozen Over Tour 2011'' (w/ Darius Rucker, Jerrod Niemann)

''H2O II: Wetter and Wilder World Tour'' (w/ Darius Rucker, Blake Shelton, Jerrod Niemann, Sunny Sweeney, The JaneDear Girls, Brent Anderson, Edens Edge)

Band

Paisley records his studio albums, in most part, with the backing of his live band, The Drama Kings. Their first gig together was May 7, 1999. The only changes have been Randel Currie's addition on the steel guitar in 2000 and Jimmy Heffernan's departure in 2001. Also, Jody Harris worked as Paisley's guitar tech until officially becoming a bandmember for the American Saturday Night Tour. As of 2010, the lineup is:

Brad Paisley – lead vocals, lead guitar

Gary Hooker – rhythm guitar

Randle Currie – steel guitar

Kendal Marcy – keyboards, banjo, mandolin

Justin Williamson – fiddle, mandolin

Kenny Lewis – bass guitar

Ben Sesar – drums

Personal life

Paisley had seen ''Father of the Bride'' with a former girlfriend. They broke up, but when ''Father of the Bride Part II'' was released, he went to see the sequel alone. He said that he watched Kimberly Williams' performance and "thought, She seems like a great girl — smart and funny and all those things that are so hard to find." Paisley wrote several songs on ''Part II'' about his former girlfriend, including one about going to see ''Father of the Bride'', and when it was time to cast the video, Paisley thought of the girl in the movie.

In 2001, Paisley began dating Kimberly Williams. Williams appeared in a video for the song, "I'm Gonna Miss Her (The Fishin' Song)," in 2002, the last release from his ''Part II'' album. The two married on March 15, 2003, at Stauffer Chapel on the campus of Pepperdine University after a nine month engagement.

They live in Franklin, Tennessee, and have another home in Malibu.

Their first son, William Huckleberry, or "Huck", was born on February 22, 2007, in Nashville, Tennessee. Their second son, Jasper Warren (named after his grandfather who bought Brad his first guitar), was born on April 17, 2009.

Paisley is a member of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, and a Noble of the AAONMS, also known as Shriners. He was accompanied by his father, Doug Paisley (32º), for the ceremony on October 28, 2006.

He is also a lifelong fan of the Cleveland Browns. Paisley sang the national anthem before a game during the 1999 season, and stated in an interview, with ESPN his dream job would be to play football for them. He also invited former Browns Quarterback Brady Quinn to a concert at the Blossom Music Center, in 2008.

Paisley is also a fan of West Virginia University athletics and the Boston Red Sox.

In fall of 2009, it was announced in ''Variety'' that Paisley would enter the world of scripted television as an executive producer of a new hour-long drama series for The CW network called, appropriately, ''Nashville''. The plot was written and created by Neal Dodson and Matt Bomer (an actor on the USA Network series, ''White Collar''). The creator of the series ''One Tree Hill'', Mark Schwahn will direct the pilot and oversee the series. ''Star Trek'' and ''Heroes'' actor Zachary Quinto is also an executive producer on the series, along with Dodson, Bomer, and Corey Moosa.

As of July 2010, the series is not on the CW's fall schedule or mid-season schedule for 2010–2011 and the status of the project is unknown.

In 2010, Paisley was named a "Citizen of the Next Century" by Future-ish for his song "Welcome to the Future".

Gear

Paisley's first guitar was a Sears Danelectro Silvertone, and has since then been replaced with multiple Fender Telecasters. He uses amps by Tony Bruno and Dr. Z, along with Bill Crook model Telecaster style guitars. For pedals, he uses the Wampler Paisley signature overdrive and pedals by BOSS and Hermida Audio.

Discography

Albums

;Studio Albums

1999: ''Who Needs Pictures''

2001: ''Part II''

2003: ''Mud on the Tires''

2005: ''Time Well Wasted''

2006: ''Brad Paisley Christmas''

2007: ''5th Gear''

2008: ''Play''

2009: ''American Saturday Night''

2011: ''This Is Country Music''

;Compilations

2010: ''Hits Alive''

Awards

Brad Paisley has won the following awards:

Academy of Country Music

* 1999 – Top New Male Vocalist of the Year

* 2004 – Vocal Event of the Year ("Whiskey Lullaby")

* 2004 – Video of the Year ("Whiskey Lullaby")

* 2005 – Album of the Year ("Time Well Wasted")

* 2005 – Vocal Event of the Year ("When I Get Where I'm Going")

* 2005 – Video of the Year ("When I Get Where I'm Going")

* 2007 – Top Male Vocalist of the Year

* 2008 – Top Male Vocalist of the Year

* 2008 – Video of the Year ("Online")

* 2009 – Video of the Year ("Waitin' on a Woman")

* 2009 – Vocal Event of the Year ("Start a Band")

* 2009 – Top Male Vocalist of the Year

* 2010 – Top Male Vocalist of the Year

* 2011 – Top Male Vocalist of the Year

Country Music Association Awards

* 2000 – Horizon Award

* 2001 – Vocal Event of the Year ("Too Country")

* 2002 – Music Video of the Year ("I'm Gonna Miss Her")

* 2004 – Musical Event of the Year ("Whiskey Lullaby")

* 2004 – Music Video of the Year ("Whiskey Lullaby")

* 2006 – Album of the Year (''Time Well Wasted'')

* 2006 – Musical Event of the Year ("When I Get Where I'm Going")

* 2007 – Music Video of the Year ("Online" – director Jason Alexander)

* 2007 – Male Vocalist of the Year

* 2008 – Music Video of the Year ("Waitin' on a Woman")

* 2008 – Male Vocalist of the Year

* 2009 – Male Vocalist of the Year

* 2009 – Musical Event of the Year ("Start A Band" with Keith Urban)

* 2010 – Entertainer of the Year

Grammy Awards

* 2008 – Best Country Instrumental Performance ("Throttleneck")

* 2009 – Best Country Instrumental Performance ("Cluster Pluck")

* 2009 – Best Male Country Vocal Performance ("Letter to Me")

Country Weekly Presents the TNN Music Awards

* 2000 – The Discovery Award

* 2000 – Song of the Year ("He Didn't Have to Be")

* 2000 – CMT Music Video of the Year ("He Didn't Have to Be")

Flameworthy Awards/CMT Music Awards

* 2002 – Concept Video of the Year ("I'm Gonna Miss Her")

* 2005 – Collaborative Video of the Year ("Whiskey Lullaby")

* 2006 – Most Inspiring Video of the Year ("When I Get Where I'm Going")

* 2008 – Comedy Video of the Year ("Online")

* 2009 – CMT Performance of the Year ("Country Boy")

* 2009 – Collaborative Video of the Year ("Start a Band")

* 2009 – Male Video of the Year ("Waitin' On a Woman")

American Music Awards

* 2008 – Favorite Country Male Artist

* 2010 – Favorite Country Male Artist

American Country Awards

* 2010 – Artist of the Year - Male

''Orville H. Gibson Guitar Award''

* 2002 – Best Country Guitarist (Male)

''Nashville Songwriters Association International Award''

* 2002 – Songwriter/Artist of the Year

* 2005 – Songwriter/Artist of the Year

''ASCAP Country Music Award''

* 2004 – Songwriter/Artist of the Year

References

External links

Official Website

Category:1972 births Category:American guitarists Category:American songwriters Category:American country guitarists Category:American country singers Category:American singer-songwriters Category:American country songwriters Category:American male singer-songwriters Category:American country singer-songwriters Category:American male singers Category:American people of Scottish descent Category:Arista Records artists Category:Belmont University alumni Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Grand Ole Opry members Category:Living people Category:Lead guitarists Category:People from Marshall County, West Virginia Category:Musicians from West Virginia

de:Brad Paisley fr:Brad Paisley it:Brad Paisley nl:Brad Paisley ja:ブラッド・ペイズリー pl:Brad Paisley pt:Brad Paisley ru:Пейсли, Брэд simple:Brad Paisley sv:Brad Paisley tr:Brad Paisley vi:Brad Paisley

Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal refers to an individual's ability to attract the sexual or erotic interest of another person, and is a factor in sexual selection or mate choice. The attraction can be to the physical or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the context in which they appear. The attraction may be to a person's looks or movements or to their voice or smell, besides other factors. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's adornments, clothing, perfume, hair style, and anything else which can attract the sexual interest of another person. It can also be influenced by individual genetic, psychological, or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities of the person. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and also on the criteria of the person who is attracted.

Though attempts have been made to devise objective criteria of sexual attractiveness, and even measure it as one of several bodily forms of capital asset (''see erotic capital''), a person's sexual attractiveness is to a large extent a subjective measure dependent on another person's interest, perception, and sexual orientation. For example, a gay or lesbian person would typically find a person of the same sex to be more attractive than one of the other gender. A bisexual person would find either sex to be attractive. Asexuality refers to those who do not experience sexual attraction for either sex, though they may have romantic attraction (homoromantic, biromantic or heteroromantic). Interpersonal attraction includes factors such as physical or psychological similarity, familiarity, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement.

The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to create a sexual interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.

Social and biological factors

Human sexuality has many aspects. In biology, sexuality describes the reproductive mechanism as well as the basic biological drive that exists in all sexually reproducing species and can encompass sexual intercourse and sexual contact in all its forms. There are also emotional and physical aspects of sexuality. These relate to the bond that exists between individuals, which may be expressed through profound feelings or emotions. Sociologically, it can cover the cultural, political, and legal aspects; philosophically, it can span the moral, ethical, theological, spiritual, and religious aspects.

Which aspects of a person's sexuality attract another is influenced by cultural factors, and has varied over time, as well as personal factors. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.

A person's physical appearance has a critical impact on their sexual attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship:

Visual perception (how the other looks and acts or moves, for example while dancing);

Audition (how the other's voice and movements sound);

Olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repellent).

As with other animals, pheromones may also have an impact, though less significantly in the case of humans. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently a pleasant smelling perfume is used to encourage the member of the opposite sex to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer, increasing the probability that the pheromones from the individual will also be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and is widely disputed, although it appears to have some scientific basis.

Many people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism, and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial.

Enhancement

People consciously or subconsciously enhance their sexual attractiveness or sex appeal for a number of reasons. It may be to attract someone with whom they can form a deeper relationship, for companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship, besides other possible purposes. It can be part of a courtship process. This can involve physical aspects or interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting a partner and maintaining sexual interest, can include flirting, which can be used to attract the sexual attention of another in order to encourage romance or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking, or brief physical contact.

See also

Erotic capital

Erogenous zone

Human height

Human physical appearance

Interpersonal attraction

Lookism

Mating system

Physical attractiveness

Sexual arousal

Sexual dimorphism

Sexual field

Sex in advertising

Sexual selection

Sex symbol

References

On pecularities of Russian sex appeal, see

External links

Sexual Attraction Among Humans

FaceResearch – Scientific research and online studies on the role of faces in sexual attraction

Reunions Set Off Sex Urges, Article on sexual attraction among birth relatives sparked by reunion.

www.lookism.info deconstruction of attraction and beauty standards

Category:Physical attractiveness Category:Aesthetics Category:Human behavior

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