The polar bear (''Ursus maritimus'') is a bear native largely within the Arctic Circle encompassing the Arctic Ocean, its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses. It is the world's largest land carnivore and also the largest bear, together with the omnivorous Kodiak Bear, which is approximately the same size. An adult male weighs around , while an adult female is about half that size. Although it is closely related to the brown bear, it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche, with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures, for moving across snow, ice, and open water, and for hunting the seals which make up most of its diet. Although most polar bears are born on land, they spend most of their time at sea. Their scientific name means "maritime bear", and derives from this fact. Polar bears can hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice, often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present.

The polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species, with eight of the 19 polar bear subpopulations in decline. For decades, large scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect. For thousands of years, the polar bear has been a key figure in the material, spiritual, and cultural life of Arctic indigenous peoples, and polar bears remains important in their cultures.

Naming and etymology

Constantine John Phipps was the first to describe the polar bear as a distinct species in 1774. He chose the scientific name ''Ursus maritimus'', the Latin for 'maritime bear', due to the animal's native habitat. The Inuit refer to the animal as ''nanook'' (transliterated as ''nanuq'' in the Inupiat language). The Yupik also refer to the bear as ''nanuuk'' in Siberian Yupik. The bear is ''umka'' in the Chukchi language. In Russian, it is usually called бе́лый медве́дь (''bélyj medvédj'', the white bear), though an older word still in use is ошку́й (''Oshkúj'', which comes from the Komi ''oski'', "bear"). In French, the polar bear is referred to as ''ours blanc'' ("white bear") or ''ours polaire'' ("polar bear"). In the Norwegian-administered Svalbard archipelago, the polar bear is referred to as ''Isbjørn'' ("ice bear").

The polar bear was previously considered to be in its own genus, ''Thalarctos''. However, evidence of hybrids between polar bears and brown bears, and of the recent evolutionary divergence of the two species, does not support the establishment of this separate genus, and the accepted scientific name is now therefore ''Ursus maritimus'', as Phipps originally proposed.

Taxonomy and evolution

The bear family, Ursidae, is believed to have split off from other carnivorans about 38 million years ago. The Ursinae subfamily originated approximately 4.2 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear, ''Ursus arctos'', roughly 150,000 years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000-year-old jaw bone, found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004. Fossils show that between ten to twenty thousand years ago, the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear. Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of brown bears that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene.

More recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of brown bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Irish brown bears are particularly close to polar bears. In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzly–polar bear hybrids, indicating that they have only recently diverged and are genetically similar. However, because neither species can survive long in the other's ecological niche, and because they have different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characteristics, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.

When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: ''Ursus maritimus maritimus'' by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and ''Ursus maritimus marinus'' by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776. This distinction has since been invalidated.

One fossil subspecies has been identified. ''Ursus maritimus tyrannus''—descended from ''Ursus arctos''—became extinct during the Pleistocene. ''U.m. tyrannus'' was significantly larger than the living subspecies.

Population and distribution

The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland Island. Due to the absence of human development in its remote habitat, it retains more of its original range than any other extant carnivore. While they are rare north of 88°, there is evidence that they range all the way across the Arctic, and as far south as James Bay in Canada. They can occasionally drift widely with the sea ice, and there have been anecdotal sightings as far south as Berlevåg on the Norwegian mainland and the Kuril Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk. It is difficult to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied, however biologists use a working estimate of about 20,000–25,000 polar bears worldwide.

There are 19 generally recognized discrete subpopulations. The subpopulations display seasonal fidelity to particular areas, but DNA studies show that they are not reproductively isolated. The thirteen North American subpopulations range from the Beaufort Sea south to Hudson Bay and east to Baffin Bay in western Greenland and account for about 70% of the global population. The Eurasian population is broken up into the eastern Greenland, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, and Chukchi Sea subpopulations, though there is considerable uncertainty about the structure of these populations due to limited mark and recapture data.

The range includes the territory of five nations: Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), Russia, the United States (Alaska) and Canada. These five nations are the signatories of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, which mandates cooperation on research and conservations efforts throughout the polar bear's range.

Modern methods of tracking polar bear populations have been implemented only since the mid-1980s, and are expensive to perform consistently over a large area. The most accurate counts require flying a helicopter in the Arctic climate to find polar bears, shooting a tranquilizer dart at the bear to sedate it, and then tagging the bear. In Nunavut, some Inuit have reported increases in bear sightings around human settlements in recent years, leading to a belief that populations are increasing. Scientists have responded by noting that hungry bears may be congregating around human settlements, leading to the illusion that populations are higher than they actually are. The Polar Bear Specialist Group of the IUCN takes the position that "estimates of subpopulation size or sustainable harvest levels should not be made solely on the basis of traditional ecological knowledge without supporting scientific studies."

Of the 19 recognized polar bear subpopulations, eight are declining, three are stable, one is increasing, and seven have insufficient data.

Habitat

The polar bear is often regarded as a marine mammal because it spends many months of the year at sea. Its preferred habitat is the annual sea ice covering the waters over the continental shelf and the Arctic inter-island archipelagos. These areas, known as the "Arctic ring of life", have high biological productivity in comparison to the deep waters of the high Arctic. The polar bear tends to frequent areas where sea ice meets water, such as polynyas and leads (temporary stretches of open water in Arctic ice), to hunt the seals that make up most of its diet. Polar bears are therefore found primarily along the perimeter of the polar ice pack, rather than in the Polar Basin close to the North Pole where the density of seals is low.

Annual ice contains areas of water that appear and disappear throughout the year as the weather changes. Seals migrate in response to these changes, and polar bears must follow their prey. In Hudson Bay, James Bay, and some other areas, the ice melts completely each summer (an event often referred to as "ice-floe breakup"), forcing polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze-up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year-round.

Biology and behavior

Physical characteristics

The polar bear is the largest terrestrial carnivore, being more than twice as big as the Siberian tiger. It shares this title with the Kodiak Bear. Adult males weigh 350–680 kg (770–1500 lbs) and measure in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh , measuring in length. When pregnant, however, they can weigh as much as . The polar bear is among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the pinnipeds. The largest polar bear on record, reportedly weighing , was a male shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960. The shoulder height of the polar bear is 130–160 cm (51–63 in).

Compared with its closest relative, the brown bear, the polar bear has a more elongated body build and a longer skull and nose. As predicted by Allen's rule for a northerly animal, the legs are stocky and the ears and tail are small. However, the feet are very large to distribute load when walking on snow or thin ice and to provide propulsion when swimming; they may measure 30 cm (12 in) across in an adult. The pads of the paws are covered with small, soft papillae (dermal bumps) which provide traction on the ice. The polar bear's claws are short and stocky compared to those of the brown bear, perhaps to serve the former's need to grip heavy prey and ice. The claws are deeply scooped on the underside to assist in digging in the ice of the natural habitat. Despite a recurring Internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, there is no scientific evidence to support this claim. Unlike the brown bear, polar bears in captivity are rarely overweight or particularly large, possibly as a reaction to the warm conditions of most zoos.

The 42 teeth of a polar bear reflect its highly carnivorous diet. The cheek teeth are smaller and more jagged than in the brown bear, and the canines are larger and sharper. The dental formula is

Polar bears are superbly insulated by up to of blubber, their hide and their fur; they overheat at temperatures above , and are nearly invisible under infrared photography. Polar bear fur consists of a layer of dense underfur and an outer layer of guard hairs, which appear white to tan but are actually transparent. The guard hair is over most of the body. Polar bears gradually moult from May to August, but, unlike other Arctic mammals, they do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the summer conditions. The hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat were once thought to act as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed; however, this theory was disproved by recent studies.

The white coat usually yellows with age. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, the fur may turn a pale shade of green due to algae growing inside the guard hairs. Males have significantly longer hairs on their forelegs, that increase in length until the bear reaches 14 years of age. The male's ornamental foreleg hair is thought to attract females, serving a similar function to the lion's mane.

The polar bear has an extremely well developed sense of smell, being able to detect seals nearly away and buried under of snow. Its hearing is about as acute as that of a human, and its vision is also good at long distances.

The polar bear is an excellent swimmer and individuals have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. With its body fat providing buoyancy, it swims in a dog paddle fashion using its large forepaws for propulsion. Polar bears can swim . When walking, the polar bear tends to have a lumbering gait and maintains an average speed of around . When sprinting, they can reach up to .

Hunting and diet

The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family, and most of its diet consists of ringed and bearded seals. The Arctic is home to millions of seals, which become prey when they surface in holes in the ice in order to breathe, or when they haul out on the ice to rest. Polar bears hunt primarily at the interface between ice, water, and air; they only rarely catch seals on land or in open water.

The polar bear's most common hunting method is called ''still-hunting'': The bear uses its excellent sense of smell to locate a seal breathing hole, and crouches nearby in silence for a seal to appear. When the seal exhales, the bear smells its breath, reaches into the hole with a forepaw, and drags it out onto the ice. The polar bear kills the seal by biting its head to crush its skull. The polar bear also hunts by stalking seals resting on the ice: Upon spotting a seal, it walks to within , and then crouches. If the seal does not notice, the bear creeps to within of the seal and then suddenly rushes forth to attack. A third hunting method is to raid the birth lairs that female seals create in the snow.

A widespread legend tells that polar bears cover their black noses with their paws when hunting. This behavior, if it happens, is rare — although the story exists in native oral history and in accounts by early Arctic explorers, there is no record of an eyewitness account of the behavior in recent decades.

Mature bears tend to eat only the calorie-rich skin and blubber of the seal, whereas younger bears consume the protein-rich red meat. Studies have also photographed polar bears scaling near-vertical cliffs, to eat birds' chicks and eggs. For subadult bears which are independent of their mother but have not yet gained enough experience and body size to successfully hunt seals, scavenging the carcasses from other bears' kills is an important source of nutrition. Subadults may also be forced to accept a half-eaten carcass if they kill a seal but cannot defend it from larger polar bears. After feeding, polar bears wash themselves with water or snow.

The polar bear is an enormously powerful predator. It can kill an adult walrus, although this is rarely attempted. A walrus can be more than twice the bear's weight, and has up to three feet long ivory tusks that can be used as formidable weapons. Polar bears also have been seen to prey on beluga whales, by swiping at them at breathing holes. The whales are of similar size to the walrus and nearly as difficult for the bear to subdue. Polar bears very seldom attack full-grown adult whales. Most terrestrial animals in the Arctic can outrun the polar bear on land as polar bears overheat quickly, and most marine animals the bear encounters can outswim it. In some areas, the polar bear's diet is supplemented by walrus calves and by the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales, whose blubber is readily devoured even when rotten.

With the exception of pregnant females, polar bears are active year-round, although they have a vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood. Unlike brown and black bears, polar bears are capable of fasting for up to several months during late summer and early fall, when they cannot hunt for seals because the sea is unfrozen. When sea ice is unavailable during summer and early autumn, some populations live off fat reserves for months at a time. Polar bears have also been observed to eat a wide variety of other wild foods, including muskox, reindeer, birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, and other polar bears. They may also eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however none of these are a significant part of their diet. The polar bear's biology is specialized to require large amounts of fat from marine mammals, and it cannot derive sufficient caloric intake from terrestrial food.

Being both curious animals and scavengers, polar bears investigate and consume garbage where they come into contact with humans. Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. The dump in Churchill, Manitoba was closed in 2006 to protect bears, and waste is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba.

Behavior

Unlike grizzly bears, polar bears are not territorial. Although stereotyped as being voraciously aggressive, they are normally cautious in confrontations, and often choose to escape rather than fight. Satiated polar bears rarely attack humans unless severely provoked, whereas hungry polar bears are extremely unpredictable and are known to kill and sometimes eat humans. Polar bears are stealth hunters, and the victim is often unaware of the bear's presence until the attack is underway. Whereas brown bears often maul a person and then leave, polar bear attacks are more likely to be predatory and are almost always fatal. However, due to the very small human population around the Arctic, such attacks are rare.

In general, adult polar bears live solitary lives. Yet, they have often been seen playing together for hours at a time and even sleeping in an embrace, and polar bear zoologist Nikita Ovsianikov has described adult males as having "well-developed friendships." Cubs are especially playful as well. Among young males in particular, play-fighting may be a means of practicing for serious competition during mating seasons later in life. Polar bears have a wide range of vocalisations, including bellows, roars, growls, chuffs and purrs.

In 1992, a photographer near Churchill took a now widely circulated set of photographs of a polar bear playing with a Canadian Eskimo Dog a tenth of its size. The pair wrestled harmlessly together each afternoon for ten days in a row for no apparent reason, although the bear may have been trying to demonstrate its friendliness in the hope of sharing the kennel's food. This kind of social interaction is uncommon; it is far more typical for polar bears to behave aggressively towards dogs.

Reproduction and lifecycle

Courtship and mating take place on the sea ice in April and May, when polar bears congregate in the best seal hunting areas. A male may follow the tracks of a breeding female for or more, and after finding her engage in intense fighting with other males over mating rights, fights which often result in scars and broken teeth. Polar bears have a generally polygynous mating system; recent genetic testing of mothers and cubs, however, has uncovered cases of litters in which cubs have different fathers. Partners stay together and mate repeatedly for an entire week; the mating ritual induces ovulation in the female.

After mating, the fertilized egg remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these four months, the pregnant female eats prodigious amounts of food, gaining at least and often more than doubling her body weight.

Maternity denning and early life

When the ice floes break up in the fall, ending the possibility of hunting, each pregnant female digs a ''maternity den'' consisting of a narrow entrance tunnel leading to one to three chambers. Most maternity dens are in snowdrifts, but may also be made underground in permafrost if it is not sufficiently cold yet for snow. In most subpopulations, maternity dens are situated on land a few kilometers from the coast, and the individuals in a subpopulation tend to reuse the same denning areas each year. The polar bears that do not den on land make their dens on the sea ice. In the den, she enters a dormant state similar to hibernation. This hibernation-like state does not consist of continuous sleeping; however, the bear's heart rate slows from 46 to 27 beats per minute. Her body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation.

Between November and February, cubs are born blind, covered with a light down fur, and weighing less than . On average, each litter has two cubs. The family remains in the den until mid-February to mid-April, with the mother maintaining her fast while nursing her cubs on a fat-rich milk. By the time the mother breaks open the entrance to the den, her cubs weigh about . For about 12 to 15 days, the family spends time outside the den while remaining in its vicinity, the mother grazing on vegetation while the cubs become used to walking and playing. Then they begin the long walk from the denning area to the sea ice, where the mother can once again catch seals. Depending on the timing of ice-floe breakup in the fall, she may have fasted for up to eight months.

Cubs may fall prey to wolves or to starvation. Female polar bears are noted for both their affection towards their offspring, and their valiance in protecting them. One case of adoption of a wild cub has been confirmed by genetic testing. Adult male bears occasionally kill and eat polar bear cubs, for reasons that are unclear. In Alaska, 42% of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65% 15 years ago. In most areas, cubs are weaned at two and a half years of age, when the mother chases them away or abandons them. The western coast of Hudson Bay is unusual in that its female polar bears sometimes wean their cubs at only one and a half years. This was the case for 40% of cubs there in the early 1980s; however by the 1990s, fewer than 20% of cubs were weaned this young. After the mother leaves, sibling cubs sometimes travel and share food together for weeks or months.

Later life

Females begin to breed at the age of four years in most areas, and five years in the Beaufort Sea area. Males usually reach sexual maturity at six years, however as competition for females is fierce, many do not breed until the age of eight or ten. A study in Hudson Bay indicated that both the reproductive success and the maternal weight of females peaked in their mid-teens.

Polar bears appear to be less affected by infectious diseases and parasites than most terrestrial mammals. Polar bears are especially susceptible to ''Trichinella'', a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism, although infections are usually not fatal. Only one case of a polar bear with rabies has been documented, even though polar bears frequently interact with Arctic foxes, which often carry rabies. Bacterial Leptospirosis and Morbillivirus have been recorded. Polar bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases which may be caused by mites or other parasites.

Life expectancy

Polar bears rarely live beyond 25 years. The oldest wild bears on record died at the age of 32, whereas the oldest captive was a female who died in 1991 at the age of 43. The oldest living polar bear was Debby of the Assiniboine Park Zoo, who was probably born in December 1966 and died on November 17, 2008. The causes of death in wild adult polar bears are poorly understood, as carcasses are rarely found in the species's frigid habitat. In the wild, old polar bears eventually become too weak to catch food, and gradually starve to death. Polar bears injured in fights or accidents may either die from their injuries or become unable to hunt effectively, leading to starvation.

Ecological role

The polar bear is the apex predator within its range. Several animal species, particularly Arctic Foxes and Glaucous Gulls, routinely scavenge polar bear kills.

The relationship between ringed seals and polar bears is so close that the abundance of ringed seals in some areas appears to regulate the density of polar bears, while polar bear predation in turn, regulates density and reproductive success of ringed seals. The evolutionary pressure of polar bear predation on seals probably accounts for some significant differences between Arctic and Antarctic seals. Compared to the Antarctic, where there is no major surface predator, Arctic seals use more breathing holes per individual, appear more restless when hauled out on the ice, and rarely defecate on the ice. The baby fur of most Arctic seal species is white, presumably to provide camouflage from predators, whereas Antarctic seals all have dark fur at birth.

Polar bears rarely enter conflict with other predators, though recent brown bear encroachments into polar bear territories have led to antagonistic encounters. Brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses, and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens. Wolves are rarely encountered by polar bears, though there are two records of wolf packs killing polar bear cubs. Polar bears are sometimes the host of arctic mites such as ''Alaskozetes antarcticus''.

Hunting

Indigenous people

Polar bears have long provided important raw materials for Arctic peoples, including the Inuit, Yupik, Chukchi, Nenets, Russian Pomors and others. Hunters commonly used teams of dogs to distract the bear, allowing the hunter to spear the bear or shoot it with arrows at closer range. Almost all parts of captured animals had a use. The fur was used in particular to sew trousers and, by the Nenets, to make galoshes-like outer footwear called ''tobok''; the meat is edible, despite some risk of trichinosis; the fat was used in food and as a fuel for lighting homes, alongside seal and whale blubber; sinews were used as thread for sewing clothes; the gallbladder and sometimes heart were dried and powdered for medicinal purposes; the large canine teeth were highly valued as talismans. Only the liver was not used, as its high concentration of vitamin A is poisonous. Hunters make sure to either toss the liver into the sea or bury it in order to spare their dogs from potential poisoning. Traditional subsistence hunting was on a small enough scale to not significantly affect polar bear populations, mostly because of the sparseness of the human population in polar bear habitat.

History of commercial harvest

In Russia, polar bear furs were already being commercially traded in the 14th century, though it was of low value compared to Arctic Fox or even reindeer fur. The growth of the human population in the Eurasian Arctic in the 16th and 17th century, together with the advent of firearms and increasing trade, dramatically increased the harvest of polar bears. However, since polar bear fur has always played a marginal commercial role, data on the historical harvest is fragmentary. It is known, for example, that already in the winter of 1784/1785 Russian Pomors on Spitsbergen harvested 150 polar bears in Magdalenefjorden. In the early 20th century, Norwegian hunters were harvesting 300 bears a year at the same location. Estimates of total historical harvest suggest that from the beginning of the 18th century, roughly 400–500 animals were being harvested annually in northern Eurasia, reaching a peak of 1,300 to 1,500 animals in the early 20th century, and falling off as the numbers began dwindling.

In the first half of the 20th century, mechanized and overpoweringly efficient methods of hunting and trapping came into use in North America as well. Polar bears were chased from snowmobiles, icebreakers, and airplanes, the latter practice described in a 1965 ''New York Times'' editorial as being "about as sporting as machine gunning a cow." The numbers taken grew rapidly in the 1960s, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1,250 bears that year.

Contemporary regulations

Concerns over the future survival of the species led to the development of national regulations on polar bear hunting, beginning in the mid-1950s. The Soviet Union banned all hunting in 1956. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973, and has completely banned hunting since then. The United States began regulating hunting in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973, the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears was signed by all five nations whose territory is inhabited by polar bears Canada, Denmark, Norway, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers, and conduct further research. The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods". Norway is the only country of the five in which all harvest of polar bears is banned. The agreement was a rare case of international cooperation during the Cold War. Biologist Ian Stirling commented, "For many years, the conservation of polar bears was the only subject in the entire Arctic that nations from both sides of the Iron Curtain could agree upon sufficiently to sign an agreement. Such was the intensity of human fascination with this magnificent predator, the only marine bear."

Agreements have been made between countries to co-manage their shared polar bear subpopulations. After several years of negotiations, Russia and the United States signed an agreement in October 2000 to jointly set quotas for indigenous subsistence hunting in Alaska and Chukotka. The treaty was ratified in October 2007.

Russia

The Soviet Union banned the harvest of polar bears in 1956, however poaching continued and is believed to pose a serious threat to the polar bear population. In recent years, polar bears have approached coastal villages in Chukotka more frequently due to the shrinking of the sea ice, endangering humans and raising concerns that illegal hunting would become even more prevalent. In 2007, the Russian government made subsistence hunting legal for Chukotka natives only, a move supported by Russia’s most prominent bear researchers and the World Wide Fund for Nature as a means to curb poaching.

Greenland

In Greenland, hunting restrictions were first introduced in 1994 and expanded by executive order in 2005. Until 2005 Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. However, in 2006 it imposed a limit of 150, while also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. Other provisions included year-round protection of cubs and mothers, restrictions on weapons used, and various administrative requirements to catalogue kills.

Canada and the United States

About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable for some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed sport hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. The guiding of sport hunters provides meaningful employment and an important source of income for native communities in which economic opportunities are few. Sport hunting can bring CDN$20,000 to $35,000 per bear into northern communities, which until recently has been mostly from American hunters.

On 15 May 2008, the United States listed the polar bear as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act and banned all importing of polar bear trophies. Importing products made from polar bears had been prohibited from 1972 to 1994 under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and restricted between 1994 and 2008. Under those restrictions, permits from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service were required to import sport-hunted polar bear trophies taken in hunting expeditions in Canada. The permit process required that the bear be taken from an area with quotas based on sound management principles. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S.

The territory of Nunavut accounts for the location 80% of annual kills in Canada. In 2005, the government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, despite protests from some scientific groups. In two areas where harvest levels have been increased based on increased sightings, science-based studies have indicated declining populations, and a third area is considered data-deficient. While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) Nunavut polar bear biologist, Mitchell Taylor, who was formerly responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits. In 2010, the 2005 increase was partially reversed. Government of Nunavut officials announced that the polar bear quota for the Baffin Bay region would be gradually reduced from 105 per year to 65 by the year 2013. The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72–103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters. Environment Canada also banned the export from Canada of fur, claws, skulls and other products from polar bears harvested in Baffin Bay as of January 1, 2010.

Because of the way polar bear hunting quotas are managed in Canada, attempts to discourage sport hunting would actually increase the number of bears killed in the short term. Canada allocates a certain number of permits each year to sport and subsistence hunting, and those that are not used for sport hunting are re-allocated to Native subsistence hunting. Whereas Native communities kill all the polar bears they are permitted to take each year, only half of sport hunters with permits actually manage to kill a polar bear. If a sport hunter does not kill a polar bear before his or her permit expires, the permit cannot be transferred to another hunter.

Conservation status, efforts and controversies

As of 2008, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) reports that the global population of polar bears is 20,000 to 25,000, and is declining. In 2006, the IUCN upgraded the polar bear from a species of least concern to a vulnerable species. It cited a "suspected population reduction of >30% within three generations (45 years)", due primarily to climate change. Other risks to the polar bear include pollution in the form of toxic contaminants, conflicts with shipping, stresses from recreational polar-bear watching, and oil and gas exploration and development. The IUCN also cited a "potential risk of over-harvest" through legal and illegal hunting.

According to the World Wildlife Fund, the polar bear is important as an indicator of arctic ecosystem health. Polar bears are studied to gain understanding of what is happening throughout the Arctic, because at-risk polar bears are often a sign of something wrong with the arctic marine ecosystem.

Climate change

The IUCN, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, United States Geological Survey and many leading polar bear biologists have expressed grave concerns about the impact of climate change, including the belief that the current warming trend imperils the survival of the species.

The key danger posed by climate change is malnutrition or starvation due to habitat loss. Polar bears hunt seals from a platform of sea ice. Rising temperatures cause the sea ice to melt earlier in the year, driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall. Reduction in sea-ice cover also forces bears to swim longer distances, which further depletes their energy stores and occasionally leads to drowning. Thinner sea ice tends to deform more easily, which appears to make it more difficult for polar bears to access seals. Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears, in addition to poorer body condition in bears of all ages.

In addition to creating nutritional stress, a warming climate is expected to affect various other aspects of polar bear life: Changes in sea ice affect the ability of pregnant females to build suitable maternity dens. As the distance increases between the pack ice and the coast, females must swim longer distances to reach favored denning areas on land. Thawing of permafrost would affect the bears who traditionally den underground, and warm winters could result in den roofs collapsing or having reduced insulative value. For the polar bears that currently den on multi-year ice, increased ice mobility may result in longer distances for mothers and young cubs to walk when they return to seal-hunting areas in the spring. Disease-causing bacteria and parasites would flourish more readily in a warmer climate.

Problematic interactions between polar bears and humans, such as foraging by bears in garbage dumps, have historically been more prevalent in years when ice-floe breakup occurred early and local polar bears were relatively thin. Increased human-bear interactions, including fatal attacks on humans, are likely to increase as the sea ice shrinks and hungry bears try to find food on land.

The effects of climate change are most profound in the southern part of the polar bear's range, and this is indeed where significant degradation of local populations has been observed. The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation, in a southern part of the range, also happens to be one of the best-studied polar bear subpopulations. This subpopulation feeds heavily on ringed seals in late spring, when newly weaned and easily hunted seal pups are abundant. The late spring hunting season ends for polar bears when the ice begins to melt and break up, and they fast or eat little during the summer until the sea freezes again.

Due to warming air temperatures, ice-floe breakup in western Hudson Bay is currently occurring three weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago, reducing the duration of the polar bear feeding season. The body condition of polar bears has declined during this period; the average weight of lone (and likely pregnant) female polar bears was approximately in 1980 and in 2004. Between 1987 and 2004, the Western Hudson Bay population declined by 22%.

In Alaska, the effects of sea ice shrinkage have contributed to higher mortality rates in polar bear cubs, and have led to changes in the denning locations of pregnant females. In recent years, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005.

Pollution

Polar bears accumulate high levels of persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) and chlorinated pesticides. Due to their position at the top of the food pyramid, with a diet heavy in blubber in which halocarbons concentrate, their bodies are among the most contaminated of Arctic mammals. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency.

The most notorious of these chemicals, such as PCBs and DDT, have been internationally banned. Their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades after the ban as these chemicals spread through the food chain. But the trend seems to have abated, with tissue concentrations of PCBs declining between studies performed in 1989–1993 and studies performed in 1996–2002.

Oil and gas development

Oil and gas development in polar bear habitat can affect the bears in a variety of ways. An oil spill in the Arctic would most likely concentrate in the areas where polar bears and their prey are also concentrated, such as sea ice leads. Because polar bears rely partly on their fur for insulation and soiling of the fur by oil reduces its insulative value, oil spills put bears at risk of dying from hypothermia. Polar bears exposed to oil spill conditions have been observed to lick the oil from their fur, leading to fatal kidney failure. Maternity dens, used by pregnant females and by females with infants, can also be disturbed by nearby oil exploration and development. Disturbance of these sensitive sites may trigger the mother to abandon her den prematurely, or abandon her litter altogether.

Predictions

The U.S. Geological Survey predicts two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080, they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.

Predictions vary on the extent to which polar bears could adapt to climate change by switching to terrestrial food sources. Mitchell Taylor, who was director of Wildlife Research for the Government of Nunavut, wrote to the US Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. The letter stated, "At present, the polar bear is one of the best managed of the large Arctic mammals. If all Arctic nations continue to abide by the terms and intent of the Polar Bear Agreement, the future of polar bears is secure.... Clearly polar bears can adapt to climate change. They have evolved and perisisted for thousands of years in a period characterized by fluctuating climate." Ken Taylor, deputy commissioner for the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, has said, "I wouldn't be surprised if polar bears learned to feed on spawning salmon like grizzly bears."

However, many scientists consider these theories to be naive; it is noted that black and brown bears at high latitudes are smaller than elsewhere, because of the scarcity of terrestrial food resources. An additional risk to the species is that if individuals spend more time on land, they will hybridize with brown or grizzly bears. The IUCN wrote:

Controversy over species protection

Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today. Some estimates of the global population are around 5,000–10,000 in the early 1970s; other estimates were 20,000–40,000 during the 1980s. Current estimates put the global population at between 20,000 and 25,000.

There are several reasons for the apparent discordance between past and projected population trends: Estimates from the 1950s and 1960s were based on stories from explorers and hunters rather than on scientific surveys. Second, controls of harvesting were introduced that allowed this previously overhunted species to recover. Third, the recent effects of climate change have affected sea ice abundance in different areas to varying degrees.

Debate over the listing of the polar bear under endangered species legislation has put conservation groups and Canada's Inuit at opposing positions; the Nunavut government and many northern residents have condemned the U.S. initiative to list the polar bear under the Endangered Species Act. Many Inuit believe the polar bear population is increasing, and restrictions on sport-hunting are likely to lead to a loss of income to their communities.

U.S. endangered species legislation

On 14 May 2008 the U.S. Department of the Interior listed the polar bear as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act, citing the melting of Arctic sea ice as the primary threat to the polar bear. While listing the polar bear as a threatened species, the Interior Department added a seldom-used stipulation to allow oil and gas exploration and development to proceed in areas inhabited by polar bears, provided companies continue to comply with the existing restrictions of the Marine Mammal Protection Act. The main new protection for polar bears under the terms of the listing is that hunters will no longer be able to import trophies from the hunting of polar bears in Canada.

The ruling followed several years of controversy. On 17 February 2005 the Center for Biological Diversity filed a petition asking that the polar bear be listed under the Endangered Species Act. An agreement was reached and filed in Federal district court on 5 June 2006. On 9 January 2007, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to list the polar bear as a threatened species. A final decision was required by law by 9 January 2008, at which time the agency said it needed another month. On 7 March 2008, the inspector general of the U.S. Interior Department began a preliminary investigation into why the decision had been delayed for nearly two months. The investigation is in response to a letter signed by six environmental groups that U.S. Fish and Wildlife Director Dale Hall violated the agency's scientific code of conduct by delaying the decision unnecessarily, allowing the government to proceed with an auction for oil and gas leases in the Alaska's Chukchi Sea, an area of key habitat for polar bears. The auction took place in early February 2008. An editorial in ''The New York Times'' said that "these two moves are almost certainly, and cynically, related." Hall denied any political interference in the decision and said that the delay was needed to make sure the decision was in a form easily understood. On 28 April 2008, a Federal court ruled that a decision on the listing must be made by 15 May 2008; the decision came on 14 May to make the polar bear a protected species.

On 18 July 2011, Charles Monnett, whose work was cited by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in its decision to list the polar bear as threatened under the Endangered Species Act, was suspended from his work at the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement. Investigators are reviewing Monnett's research methods as well as the significance he attached to his discovery in 2004 of polar bear carcasses in the Arctic, but supporters argue that the investigation is essentially "a smear campaign" against Monnett.

Upon listing the polar bear under the Endangered species act, the Department of the Interior immediately issued a statement that the listing could not be used to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, although some policy analysts believe that the Endangered Species Act can be used to restrict the issuing of federal permits for projects that would threaten the polar bear by increasing greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental groups have pledged to go to court to have the Endangered Species Act interpreted in such a way. On 8 May 2009, the new administration of Barack Obama announced that it would continue the policy. The polar bear is only the third species, after the elkhorn coral and the staghorn coral protected under the Endangered Species Act due to climate change. On 4 August 2008, the state of Alaska sued U.S. Interior Secretary Dirk Kempthorne, seeking to reverse the listing of the polar bear as a threatened species out of concern that the listing would adversely affect oil and gas development in the state. Alaska Governor Sarah Palin said that the listing was not based on the best scientific and commercial data available, a view rejected by polar bear experts.

Canadian endangered species legislation

In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada recommended in April 2008 that the polar bear be assessed as a species of special concern under the federal Species at Risk Act (SARA). A listing would mandate that a management plan be written within five years, a timeline criticized by the World Wide Fund for Nature as being too long to prevent significant habitat loss from climate change.

In culture

Indigenous folklore

For the indigenous peoples of the Arctic, polar bears have long played an important cultural and material role. Polar bear remains have been found at hunting sites dating to 2,500 to 3,000 years ago and 1,500 year old cave paintings of polar bears have been found in the Chukchi Peninsula. Indeed, it has been suggested that Arctic peoples' skills in seal hunting and igloo construction has been in part acquired from the polar bears themselves.

The Inuit and Eskimos have many folk tales featuring the bears including legends in which bears are humans when inside their own houses and put on bear hides when going outside, and stories of how the constellation which is said to resemble a great bear surrounded by dogs came into being. These legends reveal a deep respect for the polar bear, which is portrayed as both spiritually powerful and closely akin to humans. The human-like posture of bears when standing and sitting, and the resemblance of a skinned bear carcass to the human body, have probably contributed to the belief that the spirits of humans and bears were interchangeable. Eskimo legends tell of humans learning to hunt from the polar bear. For the Inuit of Labrador, the polar bear is a form of the Great Spirit, Tuurngasuk. The Inuit and Eskimo have a great amount of respect for bears.

Among the Chukchi and Yupik of eastern Siberia, there was a longstanding shamanistic ritual of "thanksgiving" to the hunted polar bear. After killing the animal, its head and skin were removed and cleaned and brought into the home, a feast was held in the hunting camp in its honor. In order to appease the spirit of the bear, there were traditional song and drum music and the skull would be ceremonially fed and offered a pipe. Only once the spirit was appeased would the skull be separated from the skin, taken beyond the bounds of the homestead, and placed in the ground, facing north. Many of these traditions have faded somewhat in time, especially in light of the total hunting ban in the Soviet Union (and now Russia) since 1955.

The Nenets of north-central Siberia placed particular value on the talismanic power of the prominent canine teeth. They were traded in the villages of the lower Yenisei and Khatanga rivers to the forest-dwelling peoples further south, who would sew them into their hats as protection against brown bears. It was believed that the "little nephew" (the brown bear) would not dare to attack a man wearing the tooth of its powerful "big uncle" (the polar bear). The skulls of killed polar bears were buried at specific sacred sites and altars, called ''sedyangi'', were constructed out of the skulls. Several such sites have been preserved on the Yamal Peninsula.

Symbols and mascots

Their distinctive appearance and their association with the Arctic have made polar bears popular icons, especially in those areas where they are native. The Canadian Toonie (two-dollar coin) features the image of a polar bear and both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut license plates in Canada are in the shape of a polar bear. The polar bear is the mascot of Bowdoin College in Maine and the University of Alaska Fairbanks (see also Alaska Nanooks) and was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary.

Companies such Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of the polar bear in advertising, while Fox's Glacier Mints have featured a polar bear named Peppy as the brand mascot since 1922.

Literature

Polar bears are also popular in fiction, particularly in books aimed at children or young adults. For example, ''The Polar Bear Son'' is adapted from a traditional Inuit tale. Polar bears feature prominently in ''East'' (also released as ''North Child'') by Edith Pattou, ''The Bear'' by Raymond Briggs, and Chris d'Lacey's ''The Fire Within'' series. The ''panserbjørne'' of Philip Pullman's fantasy trilogy ''His Dark Materials'' are sapient, dignified polar bears who exhibit anthropomorphic qualities, and feature prominently in the 2007 film adaptation of ''The Golden Compass''.

See also

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

List of solitary animals

Notes

References

External links

Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography for ''Ursus maritimus''

National Wildlife Federation's Polar Bear Page

ARKive – images and movies of the polar bear (''Ursus maritimus'')

Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear

USGS Polar Bear Studies

Map of polar bear ranges and denning areas in Nunavut from Nunavut Planning Commission

BBC Nature: Polar bear news, and video clips from BBC programmes past and present.

Photos, facts, videos from Polar Bears International which funds population, preservation and DNA studies of the polar bear

Category:Animals described in 1774 Category:Bears Category:Fauna of Greenland Category:Fauna of the Arctic Category:Inuit culture Category:Mammals of Asia Category:Mammals of Canada Category:Mammals of Europe Category:Mammals of the Arctic Category:Mammals of the United States Category:Megafauna of Eurasia Category:Megafauna of North America Category:Vulnerable fauna of the United States Category:Vulnerable animals Category:Wildlife of Siberia

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This is a list of people whose names in English are commonly appended with the phrase "''the Great''", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as ''e Bozorg'' and ''e azam'' in Persian and Urdu respectively.

In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.

The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus) assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "''the Great''".

The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).

Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.

As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of later generations in using the designation greatly varies. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "The Great" in his lifetime but is rarely called such nowadays, while Frederick II of Prussia is still called "The Great". A later Hohenzollern - Wilhelm I - was often called "The Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely later.

Rulers

Abbas I of Persia (1571–1629), Shah of Iran

Akbar (1542–1605), ruler of the Mughal Empire of South Asia, mainly India

Alain I of Albret (1440–1522), French aristocrat

Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), King of Macedonia, Persia, Greece, Egypt, and all of Mesopotamia

Alexander I of Georgia (1386–1446), King of Georgia

Alfonso III of León (c. 848-910), King of León, Galicia and Asturias

Alfred the Great (848/849-899), King of Wessex

Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire

Ashoka the Great (c. 304–232 BC), Indian emperor of the Maurya dynasty

Ashot I of Iberia “the Great”(died 826/830), presiding prince of Iberia (modern Georgia),

Askia Mohammad I (c. 1442–1538), ruler of the Songhai Empire

Bhumibol Adulyadej (born 1927), King of Thailand

Bolesław I Chrobry (967-1025), sometimes called "the Great", first King of Poland

Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the following section)

Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (1736–1809), founder and ruler of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (in what is now Thailand)

Cnut the Great (c. 985 or 995-1035), King of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden

Casimir III the Great (1310–1370), King of Poland

Catherine the Great (1729–1796), Empress of Russia

Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413/415), also known as Vikramaditya, ruler of the Gupta empire in India

Charlemagne (died 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans

Chulalongkorn (1853–1910), King of Siam (now Thailand)

Chlothar II (584-629), King of Neustria and King of the Franks

Conrad, Margrave of Meissen (c. 1097-1157), Margrave of Meissen

Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman emperor

Cyaxares the Great (c. 625-585 BC), third king of Media

Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire

Darius the Great (550 – 486 BC), third ruler of the Persian Empire

Devapala (died 850), ruler of the Pala Empire in the Indian subcontinent

Dionysius I, Greek tyrant of Syracuse

Ferdinand I of León and Castile (c. 1015–1065), King of León and Count of Castile

Frederick the Great (1712–1786), King of Prussia

Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire

Gero (c. 900–965), ruler of Marca Geronis, a very large march in Europe

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594–1632), King of Sweden, founder of the Swedish Empire, and noted military leader

Gwanggaeto the Great, King of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea

Hanno the Great, the name of three leaders of Carthage, in the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries BC

Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (946–1002)

Henry IV of France (1553–1610), King of France and King of Navarre

Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea

Hugh the Great (898-956), Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris

Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France

Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057–1101)

Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat

Ivan III of Russia (1440–1505), Tsar of Russia

John I of Portugal (1358–1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve

John II of Aragon (1398–1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre

Justinian I (483-565), Byzantine Emperor

Kamehameha I (c. 1758-1819), first King of Hawai'i

Kanishka (died c. 127), ruler of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia and parts of India

Kvirike III of Kakheti (1010–1029), King of Kakheti in eastern Georgia

Kublai Khan (1215–1294), Mongol ruler in the 13th century and Emperor of China; founder of the Yuan Dynasty

Llywelyn the Great (c. 1172–1240), Prince of Gwynedd and de facto ruler of most of Wales

Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382), King of Hungary, Croatia and Poland

Mangrai the Great (1238–1317), Lanna, northern Thailand

Emperor Meiji (1852–1912), Emperor of Japan

Mircea I of Wallachia (1355–1418)

Mithridates II of Parthia (died 88 BC), ruler of the Parthian Empire (in present day Iran)

Mithridates VI of Pontus (134 BC–63 BC), ruler of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom

Mstislav I of Kiev (1076–1132), Grand Prince of Kievan Rus

Narai (1633–1688), King of Ayutthaya (in what is now modern Thailand)

Naresuan (1555–1605), King of Ayutthaya

Odo the Great (died c. 735), Duke of Aquitaine

Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973)

K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683), ruler of the Mayan city-state of Palenque

Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa (1123–1186), King of Sri Lanka

Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia (died 1075), King of Croatia

Peter the Great (1672–1725), Tsar of Russia

Peter III of Aragon (1239–1285), King of Aragon and King of Sicily

Pompey (106 BC-48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, rival of Julius Caesar

Radama I (1793–1828), first king of greater Madagascar

Raja Raja Chola I (c. 947-1014), Indian emperor of the Cholas.

Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–1044), Tamil King of India

Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC), considered the greatest pharaoh of Ancient Egypt

Ram Khamhaeng (around 1237 to 1247-1298), King of Sukhothai (in present day Thailand)

Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (1082–1131), also Count of Provence and various other counties

Rhodri the Great (c. 820–878), King of Gwynedd (in present day Wales)

Roman the Great (after 1160-1205), Grand Prince of Kiev

Saladin (c. 1138-1193), Kurdish Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, and victor over the Crusaders

Samudragupta (c. 335–375), ruler of the Gupta empire in the Indian subcontinent

Sancho III of Navarre (c. 992-1035), King of Kingdom of Navarre

Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2215 BC), ruler of the Akkadian Empire

Sejong the Great (1397–1450), Korean king

Shapur II (309-379), king of the Sassanid Empire, Persia

Simeon I of Bulgaria (864/865-927), ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire

Stephen III of Moldavia (1433–1504), Prince of Moldavia (Romania)

Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia (c. 1308-1355), King of Serbia and Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks

Taksin (1734–1782), King of the Thonburi Kingdom (Thailand)

Timur (1336–1405), better known as Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Dynasty

Theobald II, Count of Champagne (1090–1151), Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and of Brie

Theodoric the Great (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths, regent of the Visigoths and a viceroy of the Byzantine Empire

Theodosius I (347-395), Roman emperor

Tigranes the Great (140-55 BC), Emperor of Armenia

Tiridates III of Armenia (285-339), King of Armenia

Umar (c. 586 to 590–644), second caliph of the Muslim Empire

Valdemar I of Denmark (1131–1182), King of Denmark

Valentinian I (364-375), Roman Emperor

Vladimir I of Kiev (c. 958-1015), ruler of Kievan Rus

Vytautas (c. 1350-1430), archduke of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy

William I, Count of Burgundy (1020–1087), Count of Burgandy and Mâcon

William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969-1030), also Count of Poitou

Xerxes I (519-465 BC), King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia)

Yu the Great (c. 2200-2100 BC), legendary ruler in ancient China

Religious figures

Abraham the Great of Kashkar (ca. 492-586), monk and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East

Abraham Kidunaia (died c. 366, hermit, priest, and Christian saint of Mesopotamia

Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–1280), medieval German philosopher and theologian

Anthony the Great (c. 251–356), early Christian saint of Egypt

Babai the Great (c. 551–628), Assyrian church leader

Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Greek bishop and theologian

Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the previous section)

Euthymius the Great (377-473), abbot and Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint

Gertrude the Great (1256-c. 1302), German Benedictine, mystic, theologian and Roman Catholic saint

Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)

Hiyya the Great, 3rd-century rabbi, Palestine

Pope John Paul II (1920–2005)

Pope Leo I (c. 391 or 400-461)

Macarius of Egypt (c. 300-391), Egyptian hermit

Pope Nicholas I (c. 800-867)

Photius I of Constantinople (c. 810–c. 893), Eastern Orthodox saint and Patriarch of Constantinople

William of Maleval (died 1157), founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites

Other

Beli Mawr, a figure in medieval Welsh literature and genealogies

Emmy the Great, folk singer

Matteo Rosso the Great, Roman politician and father of Pope Nicholas III

Prokop the Great, Hussite general in Bohemia

See also

Epithet

List of monarchs by nickname

List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility: G-I

James, son of Zebedee, also known as James the Greater, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus

Ajax (mythology), called Ajax the Greater

Notes

Category:Monarchs Great, List of people known as The Category:Greatest Nationals Category:Epithets

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Coordinates	52°14′0″N6°6′8 }}″N
Name	David Tennant
Birthname	David John McDonald
Birth date	April 18, 1971
Birth place	Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland
Occupation	Actor, presenter
Yearsactive	1987–present
Spouse	Georgia Moffett (2011–present)
Children	1 daughter
Parents	Alexander McDonaldHelen McDonald (deceased)
Website	}}

David Tennant (born David John McDonald; 18 April 1971) is a Scottish actor. In addition to his work in theatre, including a widely praised ''Hamlet'', Tennant is best known for his role as the tenth incarnation of the Doctor in ''Doctor Who'', along with the title role in the 2005 TV serial ''Casanova'' and as Barty Crouch, Jr. in the 2005 film adaptation, ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire''.

Early life

Tennant was born in Bathgate, West Lothian, Scotland, the son of Essdale Helen (née McLeod) and The Rev. Alexander McDonald (known to family and friends as Sandy McDonald). He grew up with his brother Blair and sister Karen in Ralston, Renfrewshire, where his father was the local Church of Scotland minister. Tennant's maternal great-grandparents, William and Agnes Blair, were staunch Protestants from Derry in Ulster, the northern province in Ireland, and were among the signatories of the Ulster Covenant in 1912; William was a member of the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland. Tennant's maternal grandfather, footballer Archie McLeod, met William and Agnes's daughter Nellie while playing for Derry City.

At the age of three, Tennant told his parents that he wanted to become an actor because he was a fan of ''Doctor Who''; at this stage they tried to encourage him to aim for more conventional work. He watched almost every ''Doctor Who'' episode for years, and he met Tom Baker at a book signing event in Glasgow and spoke to him. Tennant says he was "absurdly single-minded" in pursuing his goal of an acting career.

Tennant was educated at Ralston Primary and Paisley Grammar School where he enjoyed a fruitful relationship with English language teacher Moira Robertson, who was among the first to recognise his potential. He acted in school productions throughout primary and secondary school (his talent at this young age was spotted by actress Edith MacArthur, who after seeing his first role aged 11, told his parents she predicted he would become a successful stage actor). He also attended Saturday classes at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama; at 16, he passed an audition for the Academy, one of their youngest students, and studied there between the ages of 17–20, taking his stage name from the Pet Shop Boys frontman Neil Tennant at this time after reading a copy of ''Smash Hits'' magazine – because there was another David McDonald already on the books of the Equity union. He was flatmates with friend Louise Delamere while at the Academy and gained a bachelor's degree.

Career

Early work

Tennant made his professional acting debut while still in secondary school. When he was 16 he acted in an anti-smoking film made by the Glasgow Health Board which aired on television and was also screened in schools. The following year, he played a role in an episode of ''Dramarama''.

Tennant's first professional role upon graduating from drama school was in a staging of ''The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui'' co-starring Ashley Jensen, one of a few plays in which he performed as part of the agitprop 7:84 Theatre Company. Tennant also made an early television appearance in the Scottish TV sitcom ''Rab C Nesbitt'' as a transsexual barmaid called Davina. In the 1990s, Tennant appeared in several plays at the Dundee Repertory Theatre.

Tennant's first major TV role was as the manic depressive Campbell in the Scottish drama series ''Takin' Over the Asylum'' (1994). During filming, Tennant met comic actress and writer Arabella Weir. When he moved to London shortly afterwards he lodged with Weir for five years and became godfather to her youngest child. He has subsequently appeared alongside Weir in many productions; as a guest in her spoof television series, ''Posh Nosh''; in the ''Doctor Who'' audio drama ''Exile''—during which Weir played an alternate version of the Doctor—and as panellists on the ''West Wing Ultimate Quiz'' on More4.

One of his earliest big screen roles was in ''Jude'' (1996), in which he shared a scene with Christopher Eccleston, playing a drunken undergraduate who challenges Eccleston's Jude to prove his intellect. Coincidentally, Eccleston later portrayed the incarnation of The Doctor immediately preceding Tennant's.

Tennant developed his career in the British theatre, frequently performing with the Royal Shakespeare Company. His first Shakespearean role for the RSC was in ''As You Like It'' (1996); having auditioned for the role of Orlando, the romantic lead, he was instead cast as the jester Touchstone, which he played in his natural Scottish accent. He subsequently specialised in comic roles, playing Antipholus of Syracuse in ''The Comedy of Errors'' and Captain Jack Absolute in ''The Rivals'', although he also played the tragic role of Romeo in ''Romeo and Juliet''.

Tennant also contributed to several audio dramatisations of Shakespeare for the Arkangel Shakespeare series (1998). His roles include a reprisal of his Antipholus of Syracuse in ''The Comedy of Errors'', as well as Launcelot Gobbo in ''The Merchant of Venice'', Edgar/Poor Tom in ''King Lear'', and Mercutio in ''Romeo and Juliet'', all of which he performs in his natural accent.

In 1995, Tennant appeared at the Royal National Theatre, London, playing the role of Nicholas Beckett in Joe Orton's ''What the Butler Saw''. The plot required Tennant to appear naked on stage.

In television, Tennant appeared in the first episode of Reeves and Mortimer's re-vamped ''Randall & Hopkirk (Deceased)'' in 2000, playing an eccentric artist. This is one of his few TV roles in his native Scottish accent. During the Christmas season of 2002, he starred in a series of television commercials for Boots the Chemists.

Tennant began to appear on television more prominently in 2004 and 2005, when he appeared in a dramatisation of ''He Knew He Was Right'' (2004), ''Blackpool'' (2004), ''Casanova'' (2005) and ''The Quatermass Experiment'' (2005).

In film, he appeared in Stephen Fry's ''Bright Young Things'' (2003) and played Barty Crouch Jr. in ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire'' (2005).

''Doctor Who'' (2005–2010)

''Doctor Who'' returned to British screens in 2005, with Christopher Eccleston playing the role of the Ninth Doctor. After Eccleston's announcement on 31 March 2005 that he would not be returning for a second series, the BBC confirmed Tennant as his replacement in a press release on 16 April 2005. He made his first, brief appearance as the Tenth Doctor in the episode "The Parting of the Ways" (2005) at the end of the regeneration scene, and also appeared in a special 7-minute mini-episode shown as part of the 2005 Children in Need appeal, broadcast on 18 November 2005. He began filming the new series of ''Doctor Who'' in late July 2005. His first full-length outing as the Doctor was a 60-minute special, "The Christmas Invasion", first broadcast on Christmas Day 2005.

Tennant has expressed enthusiasm about fulfilling his childhood dream. He remarked to an interviewer for GWR FM, "Who wouldn't want to be the Doctor? I've even got my own TARDIS!" In 2006, readers of ''Doctor Who Magazine'' voted Tennant 'Best Doctor!', over perennial favourite Tom Baker. In 2007, Tennant's Doctor was voted the "coolest character" on UK television in a ''Radio Times'' survey. When Tennant was cast as Eccleston's successor, he had wanted to use his native Scottish accent and become 'the first kilted Doctor' according to an interview in the ''Daily Star'', but writer Russell T Davies did not want the Doctor's accent 'touring the regions', so he used "estuary" English instead.

Tennant had previously had a small role in the BBC's animated ''Doctor Who'' webcast ''Scream of the Shalka''. Not originally cast in the production, Tennant happened to be recording a radio play in a neighbouring studio, and when he discovered what was being recorded next door managed to convince the director to give him a small role. This personal enthusiasm for the series had also been expressed by his participation in several audio plays based on the ''Doctor Who'' television series which had been produced by Big Finish Productions, although he did not play the Doctor in any of these productions. His first such role was in the Seventh Doctor audio ''Colditz'', where he played a Nazi lieutenant guard at Colditz Castle. In 2004 Tennant played a lead role in the Big Finish audio play series ''Dalek Empire III''. He played the part of Galanar, a young man who is given an assignment to discover the secrets of the Daleks. In 2005, he starred in ''UNIT: The Wasting'' for Big Finish, recreating his role of Brimmicombe-Wood from a Doctor Who Unbound play, ''Sympathy for the Devil''. In both of these audio productions Tennant worked alongside Doctor Who-alumnus Nicholas Courtney, who reprised the character of Sir Alastair Gordon Lethbridge-Stewart. He also played an unnamed Time Lord in another Doctor Who Unbound play ''Exile''. ''UNIT: The Wasting'', was recorded between Tennant getting the role of the Doctor and it being announced. He also played the title role in Big Finish's adaptation of Bryan Talbot's ''The Adventures of Luther Arkwright'' (2005). In 2006, he recorded abridged audio books of ''The Stone Rose'' by Jacqueline Rayner, ''The Feast of the Drowned'' by Stephen Cole and ''The Resurrection Casket'' by Justin Richards, for BBC Worldwide.

He made his directorial debut directing the ''Doctor Who Confidential'' episode that accompanies Steven Moffat's episode "Blink", entitled "Do You Remember The First Time?", which aired on 9 June 2007. In 2007, Tennant's Tenth Doctor appeared with Peter Davison's Fifth Doctor in a ''Doctor Who'' special for Children in Need, written by Steven Moffat and entitled "Time Crash". This was the first "multi-Doctor" story in the series since ''The Two Doctors'' in 1985 (not counting the 1993 special ''Dimensions in Time''). Tennant also later performed alongside Davison's daughter, Georgia Moffett, in the 2008 episode "The Doctor's Daughter" with her taking the titular role as Jenny.

Tennant also featured as the Doctor in an animated version of ''Doctor Who'' for ''Totally Doctor Who'', ''The Infinite Quest'', which aired on CBBC. He also starred as the Doctor in another animated six-part ''Doctor Who'' series, ''Dreamland''. Tennant guest-starred as the Doctor in a two-part story in ''Doctor Who'' spin-off ''The Sarah Jane Adventures'', broadcast in October 2009. Tennant continued to play the Tenth Doctor into the revived programme's fourth series in 2008. However, on 29 October 2008, Tennant announced that he would be stepping down from the role after three full series. He played the Doctor in four special episodes in 2009, before his final episode aired on 1 January 2010. The ''Daily Mirror'' reported that Tennant was forbidden from attending ''Doctor Who'' fan conventions while playing the role. This was done to avoid the chance that Tennant could accidentally let slip any plot points during filming of the series. He said at the Children in Need concert that his favourite ''Doctor Who'' story is ''Genesis of the Daleks'' from the Tom Baker era, while another interview included him mentioning that his favourite classic monsters were the Zygons; although he never appeared in a television story with the Zygons, his Doctor confronted them in the novel ''Sting of the Zygons''.

Other television roles (2005–present)

While playing the Doctor, Tennant was also in the early December 2005 ITV drama ''Secret Smile''. His performance as Jimmy Porter in ''Look Back in Anger'' at the Theatre Royal, Bath and Lyceum Theatre, Edinburgh was recorded by the National Video Archive of Performance for the Victoria and Albert Museum Theatre Collection. He revived this performance for the anniversary of the Royal Court Theatre in a rehearsed reading. In January 2006, he took a one-day break from shooting ''Doctor Who'' to play Richard Hoggart in a dramatisation of the 1960 ''Lady Chatterley's Lover'' obscenity trial, ''The Chatterley Affair''. The play was written by Andrew Davies and directed by ''Doctor Who'''s James Hawes for the digital television channel BBC Four. Hoggart's son Simon Hoggart praised Tennant's performance in ''The Guardian'' newspaper.

On 25 February 2007, Tennant starred in ''Recovery'', a 90-minute BBC1 drama written by Tony Marchant. Tennant played Alan, a self-made building site manager who attempted to rebuild his life after suffering a debilitating brain injury. His co-star in the drama was friend Sarah Parish, with whom he had previously appeared in ''Blackpool'' and an episode of ''Doctor Who''. She joked that "we're like George and Mildred – in 20 years' time we'll probably be doing a ropey old sitcom in a terraced house in Preston." Later in 2007 he starred in ''Learners'', a BBC comedy drama written by and starring Jessica Hynes (another ''Doctor Who'' co-star, in the episodes "Human Nature", "The Family of Blood" and "The End of Time"), in which he played a Christian driving instructor who became the object of a student's affection. ''Learners'' was broadcast on BBC One on 11 November 2007. Tennant had a cameo appearance as the Doctor in the 2007 finale episode of the BBC/HBO comedy series ''Extras'' alongside Ricky Gervais. In November 2008 Tennant played Sir Arthur Eddington in the BBC and HBO biopic ''Einstein and Eddington'', which was filmed in Cambridge and Hungary.

In 2009 he worked on a film version of the RSC's 2008 ''Hamlet'' for BBC2. From October 2009, he hosted the ''Masterpiece Contemporary'' programming strand on the American Public Broadcasting Service. In December 2009, he filmed the lead in an NBC pilot, ''Rex Is Not Your Lawyer,'' playing Rex, a Chicago lawyer who starts to coach clients to represent themselves when he starts suffering panic attacks. The pilot was not picked up and the project was shelved. In October 2010 he starred as Dave, a man struggling to raise five children after the death of his partner, in the British drama ''Single Father''. For this role he was nominated as Best Actor at the Royal Television Society Programme Awards 2010.

In 2011 he starred in the BBC Two British TV film ''United'', which tells the story of the Manchester United "Busby Babes" team and the 1958 Munich air disaster, playing coach and assistant manager Jimmy Murphy. In September 2011, he appeared in a guest role in one episode of the comedy series ''This is Jinsy'', and also started filming True Love, a semi-improvised BBC1 drama series, on location in Margate, Kent. The series is due to air in May 2012. Also in spring 2012, Tennant will play the lead in a one-off drama ''The Minor Character'' for Sky Arts.

Other work (2007–present)

Tennant was the "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car" on ''Top Gear'' in December 2007, where he claimed to have unsuccessfully auditioned for a role on ''Taggart'' 26 times. Tennant is the voice behind the 2007 advertising campaign for catalogue retailer Argos, and appeared in adverts for The Proclaimers' 2008 album and learndirect in June 2008 (using his natural Scottish accent in both). Tennant also lent his voice to adverts for Tesco Mobile, Nintendo Wii, and American Express.

Tennant appeared in Derren Brown's ''Trick or Treat''. In the 26 April–2 May issue of ''TV & Satellite Week'', Brown is quoted as saying: "One of the appeals of ''Doctor Who'' for David is time travel, so I wanted to give him that experience. He was open and up for it, and I got a good reaction. He's a real screamer!" The episode aired on Channel 4 on 16 May 2008, and showed Tennant apparently predicting future events correctly by using automatic writing. Tennant also returned for the final episode of the series with the rest of the participants from the other episodes in the series to take part in one final experiment.

Tennant appeared in the 2008 episode "Holofile 703: Us and Phlegm" of the radio series ''Nebulous'' (a parody of ''Doctor Who'') in the role of Doctor Beep, using his Lothian accent. Also in 2008, Tennant voiced the character of Hamish the Hunter in the 2008 English language DVD re-release of the 2006 animated Norwegian film, ''Free Jimmy'', alongside Woody Harrelson. The English language version of the film has dialogue written by Simon Pegg, who also starred in it as a main voice actor.

In early 2009, Tennant narrated the digital planetarium space dome film "We are Astronomers" commissioned by the UK's National Space Centre. On 13 March 2009, Tennant presented Comic Relief with Davina McCall. He played guitar with band Franz Ferdinand on a special Comic Relief edition of ''Top of the Pops''. In summer 2009, he filmed ''St. Trinian's II: The Legend of Fritton's Gold'' in which he plays the antagonist, Pomfrey. The film was released in December 2009.

At the October 2009 Spooky Empire convention, John Landis announced Tennant's casting in his movie ''Burke and Hare'', starring alongside Simon Pegg. In January 2010 it was announced Tennant had dropped out of the film (replaced by Andy Serkis) due to scheduling problems. In November 2009, Tennant co-hosted the Absolute Radio Breakfast Show with Christian O'Connell for three consecutive days. He returned to co-host the show for one day in October 2010 and again in September 2011.

Tennant also provides the narration and all the character voices for the audio book versions of the ''Hiccup Horrendous Haddock III'' stories by Cressida Cowell such as ''How to Train Your Dragon''. In these audio books, Tennant employs his vocal skills to create a vast cast of recognisably distinct voices. Some of his most memorable characterisations include the Norfolk yokel of Norbert the Nutjob, the broad Glaswegian of Gobber the Belch, the hissing and whining of Toothless the Dragon and the sly insinuations of Alvin the Treacherous. He also played the role of Spitelout in the recent animated film adaption of said books. On 7 March 2010 he also appeared as George in a one-part BBC Radio 4 adaptation of ''Of Mice and Men'' in the ''Classic Serial'' strand.

Tennant appeared alongside former co-star Catherine Tate in the Shakespeare comedy ''Much Ado About Nothing'' at London's Wyndham's Theatre from 16 May 2011 to 3 September 2011. For his performance - as Benedick - he won the BroadwayWorld UK Award for Best Leading Actor in a Play.

In September 2011, it was announced that Tennant will voice a character in the movie adaptation of ''Postman Pat'' named ''You Know You’re the One'' next to Rupert Grint, Stephen Mangan and Jim Broadbent with a planned 3D theatrical release for spring 2013.

In October 2011, Tennant started shooting the semi-improvised comedy film ''Nativity 2: The Second Coming'' (the sequel to ''Nativity!'') in Coventry. Tennant doubles two roles, playing the main character, put-upon teacher Mr Peterson, as well as his "golden boy" twin brother and rival.

Royal Shakespeare Company (2008–2009)

Despite his recent focus on television work, Tennant has described theatre work as his "default way of being". It was announced on 30 August 2007 that he would join the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), to play Hamlet (alongside Patrick Stewart) and Berowne (in ''Love's Labours Lost'') during 2008. From August to November 2008 he appeared at the Courtyard Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon as Hamlet, playing that role in repertory with Berowne that October and November. ''Hamlet'' transferred to the Novello Theatre in London's West End in December 2008, but Tennant suffered a prolapsed disc during previews and was unable to perform from 8 December 2008 until 2 January 2009, during which time the role was played by his understudy Edward Bennett. He returned to his role in the production on 3 January 2009, and appeared until the run ended on 10 January.

On 12 April 2011, a photograph of Tennant as Hamlet featured on a stamp issued by the Royal Mail to mark the RSC's fiftieth anniversary.

In January 2012, Tennant was appointed to the Royal Shakespeare Company board, to be on the selection committee interviewing and choosing the new artistic director.

Popularity

In December 2005, ''The Stage'' newspaper listed Tennant at No. 6 in its "Top Ten" listing of the most influential UK television artists of the year, citing his roles in ''Blackpool'', ''Casanova'', ''Secret Smile'' and ''Doctor Who''. In January 2006, readers of the British gay and lesbian newspaper ''The Pink Paper'' voted Tennant the "Sexiest Man in the Universe" over David Beckham and Brad Pitt. A poll of over 10,000 women for the March 2006 issue of ''New Woman'' magazine ranked him 20th in their list of the "Top 100 Men". In October 2006, Tennant was named as "Scotland's most stylish male" in the Scottish Style Awards. He was named "Coolest Man on TV" of 2007 in a Radio Times survey. He also won the National Television Awards award for Most Popular Actor in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2010. He was voted 16th Sexiest Man In The World by a 2008 Cosmopolitan survey.

He was ranked the 24th most influential person in the British media, in the 9 July 2007 ''MediaGuardian'' supplement of ''The Guardian''. Tennant appeared in the paper's annual media rankings in 2006.

In December 2008 Tennant was named as one of the most influential people in show business by British theatre and entertainment magazine ''The Stage'', making him the fifth actor to achieve a ranking in the top 20 (in a list typically dominated by producers and directors). One of the editors for ''The Stage'' said that Tennant placed highly on the list because he was "the biggest box office draw in recent memory".

The popularity of Tennant has led to impersonations of him on various social networking sites, leading the BBC to issue a statement making it clear that Tennant does not use any of these sites and any account or message purporting to be or from him is fake.

Personal life

Tennant has a brother, Blair, and a sister, Karen. His father, The Very Rev. Dr. Sandy McDonald, appeared in a cameo non-speaking role as a footman in the ''Doctor Who'' episode "The Unicorn and the Wasp". Tennant traced his family tree in an episode of BBC One's popular genealogy series ''Who Do You Think You Are?'', broadcast on 27 September 2006. His episode explored both his Scottish ancestry and his Ulster-Scots ancestry from Ulster, against the backdrop of The Troubles in Northern Ireland. Tennant's maternal great-great-grandfather, James Blair, was a prominent Ulster Unionist member of Londonderry Corporation after the partition of Ireland. Tennant displayed discomfort after learning of his great-great-grandfather's membership of the sectarian Orange Order. The programme revealed that Archie McLeod, the husband of Nellie Blair, who once played with Derry City, was Tennant's grandfather. Tennant is now a member of the club's Exiles Supporters Club.

In 2008 Tennant was voted "Greenest Star on the Planet" in an online vote held by Playhouse Disney as part of the Playing for the Planet Awards. Later that year he underwent surgery for a prolapsed disc. Tennant is a supporter of the Labour Party and appeared in a party political broadcast for them in 2005. In 2010 he declared his support for then-UK Prime Minister, The Rt. Hon. Dr. Gordon Brown, M.P., and in April 2010 he lent his voice to a Labour Party election broadcast. He is a celebrity patron of the Association for International Cancer Research.

He believes that religion "must have" shaped his character, and he is an occasional churchgoer. Tennant does not discuss his personal life, especially his relationships, in interviews. "Relationships are hard enough with the people you're having them with, let alone talking about them in public," he said in December 2009. He dated Sophia Myles in 2006. In January 2011, several newspapers in Britain reported that Tennant was engaged to actress Georgia Moffett. They have a daughter, Olive, born in March 2011. Tennant and Moffett married on 30 December 2011.

Filmography

Television

''Dramarama (TV series) ''Strathblair'' ''Rab C Nesbitt'' ''Takin' Over the Asylum'' ''The Bill'' ''A Mug's Game'' ''Holding the Baby'' ''Duck Patrol'' ''The Mrs Bradley Mysteries'' ''Randall & Hopkirk (Deceased)'' ''People Like Us'' ''Boot's Christmas Advert'' ''Terri McIntyre '' ''The Deputy'' ''The Quatermass Experiment (2005) ''Doctor Who'' ''Secret Smile'' ''The Romantics'' ''Recovery (TV drama) ''Einstein and Eddington'' ''The Sarah Jane Adventures'' ''Single Father (TV drama) ''United (TV drama) ''The Minor Character''

style="background:#b0c4de; width:10%;"	Year	Title	Role	Notes
1987	''Anti-Smoking film''	Jim
1988	Dramarama'' ||	Neil McDonald	Dramarama (TV series)#Episodes>The Secret of Croftmore"
rowspan="2"	1992	|	Hiker 2	Series 1
''Bunch of Five''	Policeman
1993	|	Davina	Rab C Nesbitt#Episodes>Touch"
1994	|	Campbell Bain
rowspan="2"	1995	|	Steve Clemens	List of The Bill episodes/11#Series 11 (1995)>Deadline"
''The Tales of Para Handy''	John MacBryde
1996	|	Gavin	Series 1, Episode 4
rowspan="2"	1997	|	Nurse	Series 1, Episode 2
''Conjuring Shakespeare''	Angelo
1998	|	Simon "Darwin" Brown
1999	|	Max Valentine	The Mrs Bradley Mysteries#1999 (4 episodes, approximately 60 minutes)>Death at the Opera". Appeared alongside Peter Davison, one of his predecessors in ''Doctor Who''. Both would feature in a ''Children in Need'' special episode, "Time Crash"
2000	|	Gordon Stylus	Randall & Hopkirk (Deceased)#Series 1>Drop Dead"
rowspan="3"	2001	|	Rob Harker	People Like Us#TV series>The Actor"
''High Stakes (sitcom)	High Stakes''	Gaz Whitney
''Only Human''	Tyler
rowspan="2"	2002	|	Husband
''Foyle's War''
rowspan="4"	2003	|	Greig Millar	Series 2
''Trust (TV series)	Trust''	Gavin MacEwan
''Posh Nosh''	Jose-Luis
''Spine Chillers''	Dr. Krull
rowspan="3"	2004	|	Christopher Williams
''He Knew He Was Right (TV serial)	He Knew He Was Right''	Rev Gibson
''Blackpool (TV serial)	Blackpool''	DI Carlisle
rowspan="2"	2005	The Quatermass Experiment'' ||	Dr Gordon Briscoe
''Casanova (2005 TV serial)	Casanova''	Giacomo Casanova
2005–2010	|	Tenth Doctor>The Doctor	Series 2–4 and several special episodes
2005	|	Brendan Block
rowspan="2"	2006	|	Jean-Jacques Rousseau
''The Chatterley Affair''	Richard Hoggart
rowspan="5"	2007	Recovery'' ||	Alan Hamilton
''Comic Relief (charity)#2007 event	Comic Relief Sketch''	Mr Logan/The Doctor
''Dead Ringers (comedy)	Dead Ringers''	Regeneration (Doctor Who)>Regenerated Tony Blair
''Learners''	Chris
''Extras''
2008	|	Arthur Stanley Eddington>Sir Arthur Eddington
rowspan="4"	2009	|	The Doctor	Series 3, Episodes 5 and 6: "The Wedding of Sarah Jane Smith"
''Rex Is Not Your Lawyer''	Rex Alexander
''The Catherine Tate Show''	Ghost of Christmas Present
''Hamlet (2009 television film)	Hamlet''	Prince Hamlet
2010	Single Father'' ||	Dave Tiler
rowspan="2"	2011	United'' ||	Jimmy Murphy (footballer)>Jimmy Murphy
''This is Jinsy''	Mr Slightlyman
rowspan="2"	2012	|	Will
''True Love (TV series)	True Love''	Nick

Narration and personal appearances

''Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series) ''The Friday Night Project'' ''The Human Footprint'' ''Everest ER'' ''Swarm: Nature's Incredible Invasions'' ''Masterpiece (TV series) ''Newsround#Newsround Specials ''The Father of Australia'' ''Wild About Pandas''

style="background:#b0c4de; width:10%;"	Year	Title	Role	Notes
2005	''Doctor Who: A New Dimension''	Narrator
rowspan="2"	2006	Who Do You Think You Are?'' ||	Himself	Series 3, Episode 4
''What Makes Me Happy''
2007, 2008	|	Guest host	[[The Sunday Night Project#Series 4
rowspan="2"	2007	|	Narrator
''Top Gear (2002 TV series)	Top Gear''	Himself
rowspan="2"	2008	|	Narrator
''Trick or Treat (TV series)	Trick or Treat''	Himself
rowspan="6"	2009	|	Narrator
''Red Nose Day 2009	Comic Relief 2009''	Presenter
''Doctor Who: Tonight's the Night''	Himself
''Troubled Young Minds''	Narrator
''QI''
''Never Mind the Buzzcocks''
2009–	Masterpiece Contemporary'' ||	Host
rowspan="9"	2010	Caught in the Web – A Newsround Special'' ||	Narrator
''Eddie Izzard: Marathon Man''	Narrator
''My Life''	Narrator
''Diet or My Husband Dies''	Narrator
''Doctor Who: The Ultimate Guide''	Himself
''Stealing Shakespeare''	Narrator
''Ask Rhod Gilbert''
''Chris Moyles' Quiz Night''	Himself
''BBC Wildlife Specials: Polar Bear: Spy on the Ice''	Narrator
rowspan="7"	2011	|	Narrator
''Twenty Twelve (TV series)	Twenty Twelve''	Narrator
''Starlight: For The Children''	Narrator
''The TA & The Taliban''	Narrator
''Gerry Rafferty: Right Down the Line''	Narrator
''Shrek: Once Upon a Time''	Narrator
''Earthflight''	Narrator
rowspan="3"	2012	|	Narrator
''Tree Fu Tom''	Twigs
''We Won't Drop The Baby''	Narrator

Film

''Jude (film) ''Bite'' ''L.A. Without a Map'' ''The Last September'' ''Being Considered'' ''Sweetnight Goodheart'' ''Nine 1/2 Minutes'' ''Bright Young Things'' ''Traffic Warden'' ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film) ''Free Jimmy'' ''Glorious 39'' ''How to Train Your Dragon (film) >''The Decoy Bride'' ''Pirates

style="background:#b0c4de; width:10%;"	Year	Title	Role	Notes
1993	''Spaces''	Vinny
1996	Jude'' ||	Drunk Undergraduate	Appeared alongside Christopher Eccleston, whom Tennant succeeded in the role of the Doctor in ''Doctor Who''.
1997	|	Alastair Galbraith	Short film
1998	|	Richard	Plays lead opposite Vinessa Shaw. Also features Johnny Depp
1999	|	Captain Gerald Colthurst
2000	|	Larry
2001	|	Peter	Short film
2002	|	Charlie	Short film
2003	|	Ginger Littlejohn
rowspan="2"	2004	|	The Traffic Warden	Short film
''Old Street''	Mr. Watson
2005	Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire'' ||	Barty Crouch, Jr>Barty Crouch Jr.
2006	|	Hamish	Voice only
rowspan="2"	2009	|	Hector
''St. Trinian's II: The Legend of Fritton's Gold''	Sir Piers Pomfrey
	2010	How to Train Your Dragon'' ||	Spitelout	Voice only
rowspan="3"	2011	|	James Arber
''Fright Night (2011 film)	Fright Night''	Peter Vincent
''The Itch of the Golden Nit''	News announcer / Stretchy McStretch
rowspan="2"	2012	(2012 film)	The Pirates! Band of Misfits''	Charles Darwin
''Nativity 2: The Second Coming''	Mr Peterson

Radio and CD audio drama

''Hemlock and After'' ''Fire In The Heart'' ''Henry VI, Part 1 '' ''Much Ado about Nothing'' ''Dr. Finlay's Casebook (TV & radio) ''Sympathy for the Devil (Doctor Who audio) ''The Exterminators (Doctor Who audio) ''UNIT: The Wasting'' ''The Virgin Radio Christmas Panto'' ''The Wooden Overcoat'' ''Pest Control (Doctor Who audio) ''The Day of the Troll ''Of Mice and Men'' ''My Sister Lives on the Mantelpiece'' ''Love Virtually''

style="background:#b0c4de; width:10%;"	Year	Title	Role	Radio Station / Production Company
1996	''Paint Her Well''	The Son
rowspan="3"	1998	|	Eric Craddock	BBC Radio 4
''The Airmen Who Would Not Die''	Captain Raymond "Hinch" Hinchliffe
''The Golden Triangle: The Order of Release''	John Everett Millais
1999	|	Reader	BBC Radio 4
rowspan="4"	2000	|	Henry VI of England>Henry VI	Arkangel Shakespeare
''Henry VI, Part 2 ''	Henry VI
''Henry VI, Part 3 ''	Henry VI
''The Sea''	Willy Carson
rowspan="4"	2001	|	Benedick	BBC Radio 4
''Sunday Worship''	Himself (Presenter)
''Colditz (Doctor Who audio)	Doctor Who: Colditz''
''Dr. Finlay's Casebook (TV & radio)	Dr Finlay: Adventures of a Black Bag''	Jackson
rowspan="2"	2002	Dr Finlay: Further Adventures of a Black Bag'' ||	McKellor	BBC Radio 4
''Double Income, No Kids Yet''	Daniel
rowspan="8"	2003	Doctor Who: Sympathy For The Devil'' ||	Col. Brimmecombe-Wood	Big Finish Productions>Big Finish
''Exile (Doctor Who audio)	Doctor Who: Exile''	Time Lord # 2/Pub Landlord >
''Caesar! – Peeling Figs for Julius''	Caligula
''Scream of the Shalka	Doctor Who: Scream of the Shalka''
''The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents''	Dangerous Beans
''Pompeii (novel)	Pompeii''	Narrator
''The Rotters' Club (novel)	The Rotters' Club''	Bill Trotter
''Strangers and Brothers''	Donald Howerd
rowspan="9"	2004	Dalek Empire III'' ||	Galanar	Big Finish Productions>Big Finish
''Medicinal Purposes	Doctor Who: Medicinal Purposes''
''Quite Ugly One Morning''	Narrator
''Starter for Ten (novel)	Starter for Ten''	Narrator
''Whiteout (novel)	Whiteout''	Narrator
''The Merchant of Venice''	Launcelot Gobbo
''Richard III (play)	Richard III''	The Archbishop/Ghost of Henry VI
''How to Train Your Dragon''	Narrator
''How to Be a Pirate''	Narrator
rowspan="8"	2005	|	Col. Brimmecombe-Wood	Big Finish Productions>Big Finish
''Dixon of Dock Green''	PC Andy Crawford
''The Adventures of Luther Arkwright''
''The Beasts of Clawstone Castle''	Narrator
''Macbeth ''	Porter
''King Lear ''	Edgar
''The Comedy of Errors ''	Antipholus of Syracuse
''Romeo and Juliet ''	Mercutio
rowspan="5"	2006	|	Buttons	Virgin Radio
''The Stone Rose	Doctor Who: The Stone Rose''	Narrator
''The Resurrection Casket	Doctor Who: The Resurrection Casket''	Narrator
''The Feast of the Drowned	Doctor Who: The Feast of the Drowned''	Narrator
''How to Speak Dragonese''	Narrator
rowspan="2"	2007	|	Peter	BBC Radio 4
''How to Cheat a Dragon's Curse''	Narrator
	2008	Doctor Who: Pest Control'' ||	Narrator	BBC Audio
rowspan="2"	2009	Doctor Who: The Day of the Troll'' ||	Narrator	BBC Audio
''How to Twist a Dragon's Tale''	Narrator
rowspan="9"	2010	|	George Milton	BBC Radio 4
''Murder in Samarkand''	Craig Murray
''How to Ride a Dragon's Storm''	Narrator
''The Last Voyage (Doctor Who)	Doctor Who: The Last Voyage''	Narrator
''Dead Air (Doctor Who)	Doctor Who: Dead Air''	Narrator
''Bear Snores On''	Narrator
''Dogfish''	Narrator
''How Roald Dahl Shaped Pop''	Narrator
''Book at Bedtime''	Narrator
rowspan="12"	2011	|	Narrator	Orion Books
''Kafka: The Musical''	Franz Kafka
''The Gobetweenies''	Joe
''Tales of Hans Christian Andersen''	Narrator
''The Purple Land''	Richard Lamb
''Life and Fate''	Nikolai Krymov
''How to Break a Dragon's Heart''	Narrator
''A Hero's Guide to Deadly Dragons''	Narrator
''Supermarket Zoo''	Narrator
''Book at Bedtime''	Narrator
''Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (novel)	Chitty Chitty Bang Bang Flies Again''	Narrator
''The Pied Piper of Hamelin''	Narrator
rowspan="5"	2012	|	Leo	BBC Radio 4
''Romeo and Juliet''	Prince Escalus
''Twelfth Night''	Malvolio
''Silver: The Return To Treasure Island''	Narrator
''How to Steal a Dragon's Sword''	Narrator

Theatre

''Fools (play) ''Mozart from A to Z'' ''Shinda the Magic Ape'' ''Jump the Life to Come'' ''Merlin'' ''Antigone (Sophocles) ''Long Day's Journey Into Night'' ''What the Butler Saw (play) ''The Glass Menagerie'' ''Hurly Burly'' ''The Real Inspector Hound'' ''Maxim Gorky ''The Comedy of Errors'' ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' ''Push-Up'' ''The Pillowman'' ''The Fleer'' ''Look Back in Anger'' ''Look Back in Anger'' ''Hamlet'' ''Celebrity Autobiography'' ''Much Ado About Nothing''

style="background:#b0c4de; width:10%;"	Year	Title	Role	Theatre / Notes
1989	''The Ghost of Benjy O'Neil''	The Ghost
rowspan="2"	1990	Fools'' ||	Leon Steponovitch Tolchinsky	Made in Glasgow (RSAMD Student Company), Chandler Studio, RSAMD
''Twelve Angry Men (play)	Twelve Angry Men''
rowspan="2"	1991	|	Mozart	RSAMD
''The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui''
1991-2	|		Royal Lyceum Theatre, Edinburgh
rowspan="4"	1992	|		rowspan="2"
''Scotland Matters''
''Hay Fever''	Simon
''Tartuffe''	Valere
1992-3	|	King Arthur>Arthur	UK tour
rowspan="2"	1993	Antigone'' ||	Haemon	7:84
''The Princess and the Goblin''	Curdie
rowspan="2"	1994	|	Edmund	Dundee Repertory Theatre.
''The Slab Boys Trilogy''	Alan
rowspan="2"	1995	What the Butler Saw'' ||	Nick	Royal National Theatre
''An Experienced Woman Gives Advice''	Kenny
rowspan="5"	1996	|	Tom	Dundee Repertory Theatre
''Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf''	Nick
''As You Like It''
''The General From America''	Hamilton
''The Herbal Bed''	Jack Lane
rowspan="3"	1997	|	Mickey	Old Vic/Queen's Theatre
''Tamagotchi Heaven''	Boyfriend
''Blue'', a monologue written by Derek Jarman
rowspan="3"	1998	|	Moon	Comedy Theatre
''Black Comedy''	Brinsley Miller
''For One Night Only''
rowspan="3"	1999	Vassa – Scenes from Family Life'' ||	Pavel	Albery Theatre
''Edward III (play)	Edward III''	Edward, the Black Prince
''King Lear''	Edgar
rowspan="4"	2000	|	Antipholus of Syracuse	Royal Shakespeare Company
''The Rivals''	Jack
''Romeo and Juliet''	Romeo
''Laughter in the Dark''
rowspan="3"	2001	|	Lysander and Flute.	Royal Shakespeare Company at Barbican Centre>The Barbican
''Comedians (play)	Comedians''	Gethin Price
''Medea (play)	Medea''	Bodyguard
rowspan="2"	2002	|	Robert	Royal Court Theatre
''Lobby Hero''	Jeff
rowspan="2"	2003	|	Katurian	National Theatre
''London Concert for Peace''	Performer 'Nevertheless'
2004	|	Lord Piso	Shakespeare's Globe (staged reading 2004-06-20, at the Globe Education Centre)
2005	|	Jimmy Porter	Theatre Royal, Bath/ Royal Lyceum Theatre
2006	|	Jimmy Porter	Royal Court Theatre (rehearsed reading)
rowspan="2"	2008	|	Prince Hamlet>Hamlet	Royal Shakespeare Company/Novello Theatre London
''Love's Labour's Lost''	Berowne
2010	|	Various characters	Leicester Square Theatre (guest starred in two performances)
2011	|	Benedick	Wyndham's Theatre

Awards and nominations

;Awards 2005 Critics Award for Theatre in Scotland, Best Male Performance: Jimmy Porter in ''Look Back in Anger'' 2006 TV Quick and TV Choice Award, Best Actor: ''Doctor Who'' 2006 National Television Award, Best Actor: ''Doctor Who'' 2007 Welsh BAFTAs, Best Actor, ''Doctor Who'' 2007 The Constellation Awards, Best Male Performance in a 2006 Science Fiction Television Episode: ''Doctor Who: The Girl In The Fireplace'' 2007 TV Quick and TV Choice Award, Best Actor: ''Doctor Who'' 2007 National Television Awards, Most Popular Actor 2007 Glenfiddich Spirit of Scotland Award, screen award 2008 The Constellation Awards, Best Male Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode: ''Doctor Who: Human Nature/The Family Of Blood'' 2008 TV Quick and TV Choice Award, Best Actor: ''Doctor Who'' 2008 National Television Award, Outstanding Drama Performance: ''Doctor Who'' 2009 Critics' Circle Award for Best Shakespearean Performance: Hamlet (Shares the award with Sir Derek Jacobi for his performance as Malvolio in ''Twelfth Night'') 2009 Theatregoers' Choice Awards, The AKA Theatre Event of the Year: ''Hamlet''

2010 National Television Award, Outstanding Drama Performance: ''Doctor Who''

2010 The Constellation Awards, Best Male Performance in a 2009 Science Fiction Television Episode: ''Doctor Who: The Waters of Mars'' 2011 TV Choice Award, Best Actor: ''Single Father'' 2012 BBC Audio Drama Awards, Best Actor: ''Kafka: The Musical''

;Nominations 1996 Theatre Management Association, Best Actor: ''The Glass Menagerie'' and ''An Experienced Woman Gives Advice''. 2000 Ian Charleson Award, Best classical actor under 30: ''The Comedy of Errors''. 2003 Olivier Award, Best Actor: ''Lobby Hero''. 2006 Broadcasting Press Guild, Best Actor: ''Casanova'', ''Secret Smile'' and ''Doctor Who''. 2008 Royal Television Society Programme Awards, Best Actor: ''Recovery'' and ''Doctor Who''. 2008 Satellite Awards, Best Actor in a Drama Series: ''Doctor Who'' 2009 Broadcasting Press Guild, Best Actor: ''Einstein and Eddington'' and ''Doctor Who''. 2009 Scottish BAFTA, Acting in TV Male: ''Doctor Who''. 2009 Standard Theatre awards longlist, Best Actor: ''Hamlet''. 2009 Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television, ''Doctor Who: The End of Time'' 2010 Broadcasting Press Guild, Best Actor: ''Hamlet'' and ''Doctor Who''. 2011 Royal Television Society Programme Awards, Best Actor: ''Single Father'' 2012 What's On Stage Awards, Best Actor: ''Much Ado About Nothing''

See also

Andre Tchaikowsky#Skull

References

Further reading

Smallwood, Robert (editor) (2000). ''Players of Shakespeare 4: Further Essays in Shakespearean Performance by Players with the Royal Shakespeare Company'', David Tennant on playing Touchstone in As You Like It, pp. 30–44. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79416-1

Smallwood, Robert (editor) (2005). ''Players of Shakespeare 5: Further Essays in Shakespearean Performance by Players with the Royal Shakespeare Company'', David Tennant on playing Romeo in Romeo and Juliet, pp. 113–130. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-67698-3

Mitchell, Molly (2009). ''David Tennant''. London: Orion Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-409-10469-8

External links

Hamlet, (3:05:52), Great Performances, PBS, 28 April 2008 (video-only link)

Category:1971 births Category:Living people Category:People of Northern Ireland descent Category:Scottish Protestants Category:Audio book narrators Category:People educated at Paisley Grammar School Category:People from Crouch End Category:Royal National Theatre Company members Category:Alumni of the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama Category:Royal Shakespeare Company members Category:Scottish film actors Category:Scottish stage actors Category:Scottish television actors Category:Scottish voice actors Category:Shakespearean actors Category:People from Bathgate Category:People from Paisley

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