A federation (Latin: ''foedus, foederis'', 'covenant'), also known as a federal state, is a type of sovereign state characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central (federal) government. In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision of the central government.

The form of government or constitutional structure found in a federation is known as federalism (see also federalism as a political philosophy). It can be considered the opposite of another system, the unitary state. The government of Germany with sixteen federated ''Länder'' is an example of a federation, whereas neighboring Austria and its ''Bundesländer'' was a unitary state with administrative divisions that became federated, and neighboring France by contrast has always been unitary.

Federations may be multi-ethnic and cover a large area of territory (like extreme diversity in India), although neither is necessarily the case. Federations are most often founded on an original agreement between a number of sovereign states based on mutual concerns or interests. The initial agreements create a stability that encourages other common interests, brings the disparate territories closer, and gives them all even more common ground. At some time this is recognized and a movement is organized to merge more closely. Other times, especially when common cultural factors are at play such as ethnicity and language, some of these steps in this pattern are expedited and compressed.

The international council for federal countries, the Forum of Federations, is based in Ottawa, Canada. It helps share best practices among countries with federal systems of government, and currently includes nine countries as partner governments.

Federations and other forms of state

Federations

In a federation the component states are known as in some sense sovereign, in so far as certain powers are reserved to them that may not be exercised by the central government. However, a federation is more than a mere loose alliance of independent states. The component states of a federation usually possess no powers in relation to foreign policy and so they enjoy no independent status under international law.

Some federations are called asymmetric because some states have more autonomy than others. An example of such a federation is Malaysia, in which Sarawak and Sabah entered the federation on different terms and conditions from the states of Peninsular Malaysia.

A federation often emerges from an initial agreement between a number of separate states. The purpose can be the will to solve mutual problems or to provide for mutual defense, or to create a nation state for an ethnicity spread over several states. The former was the case with the United States and Switzerland, the latter with Germany. However, as the history of countries and nations varies, the federalism system of a state can be quite different from these models. Australia, for instance, is unique in that it came into existence as a nation by the democratic vote of the citizens of each State who voted "yes" in referendums to adopt the Australian Constitution. Brazil on the other hand, has experienced both the federal and the unitary state through its history; some present day States of the Federation retain the borders set during Portuguese colonization (i.e. previous to the very existence of Brazilian state), whereas the latest State (Tocantins) was created by the 1988 Constitution, chiefly for administrative reasons.

Eight of ten of the world's largest countries by area are governed as federations.

Unitary states

A unitary state is sometimes one with only a single, centralised, national tier of government. However, unitary states often also include one or more self-governing regions. The difference between a federation and this kind of unitary state is that in a unitary state the autonomous status of self-governing regions exists by the sufferance of the central government, and may be unilaterally revoked. While it is common for a federation to be brought into being by agreement between a number of formally independent states, in a unitary state self-governing regions are often created through a process of devolution, where a formerly centralised state agrees to grant autonomy to a region that was previously entirely subordinate. Thus federations are often established voluntarily from 'below' whereas devolution grants self-government from 'above'.

It is often part of the philosophy of a unitary state that, regardless of the actual status of any of its parts, its entire territory constitutes a single sovereign entity or nation-state, and that by virtue of this the central government exercises sovereignty over the whole territory ''as of right''. In a federation, on the other hand, sovereignty is often regarded as residing notionally in the component states, or as being shared between these states and the central government.

Other forms of governance

Confederation

A confederation, in modern political terms, is usually limited to a permanent union of sovereign states for common action in relation to other states.

In Belgium, however, the opposite movement is under way. Belgium was founded as a centralised state, after the French model, but has gradually been reformed into a federal state by consecutive constitutional reforms since the 1970s. Moreover, although nominally called a federal state, the country's structure already has a number of confederational traits (ex. competences are exclusive for either the federal or the state level, the treaty-making power of the Federating units without almost any possible veto of the Federal Government). At present, there is a growing movement to transform the existing federal state into a looser confederation with two or three constitutive states and/or two special regions.

By definition, the difference between a confederation and a federation is that the membership of the member states in a confederation is voluntary, while the membership in a federation is not. A confederation is most likely to feature these differences over a federation: (1) No real direct powers: many confederal decisions are externalised by member-state legislation. (2) Decisions on day-to-day-matters are not taken by simple majority but by special majorities or even by consensus or unanimity (veto for every member). (3) Changes of the constitution, usually a treaty, require unanimity.

Over time these terms acquired distinct connotations leading to the present difference in definition. An example of this is the United States under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles established a national government under what today would be defined as a federal system (albeit with a comparatively weaker federal government). However, Canada, designed with a ''stronger'' central government than the U.S. in the wake of the Civil War of the latter, has always been called a Confederation by Canadians. Legal reforms, court rulings, and political compromises have greatly ''decentralised'' Canada in practice since its formation in 1867.

Empire

An empire is a multi-ethnic state or group of nations with a central government established usually through coercion (on the model of the Roman Empire). An empire will often include self-governing regions but these will possess autonomy only at the sufferance of the central government. On the other hand, an empire may simply consist of multiple kingdoms organised together in a federation with a high king designated as an emperor. One example of this was Imperial Germany.

Comparison to other systems of autonomy

Federacy

A federacy is essentially an extreme case of an asymmetric federation, either due to large differences in the level of autonomy, or the rigidity of the constitutional arrangements. The use of the term federacy is more often use to the relation between the sovereign state and its autonomous areas.

Devolution

A federation differs from a devolved state, such as the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Spain, because, in a devolved state, the central government can revoke the independence of the subunits (Scottish Parliament, Welsh National Assembly, Northern Ireland Assembly in the case of the UK) without changing the constitution.

Associated States

A federation also differs from an associated state, such as the Federated States of Micronesia (in free association with the United States) and Cook Islands and Niue (which form part of the Realm of New Zealand). There are two kinds of associated states: in case of Micronesia, association is concluded by treaty between two sovereign states; in case of Cook Islands and Niue, association is concluded by domestic legal arrangements.

Crown dependencies

The relation between the Crown dependencies of the Isle of Man and the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey in the Channel Islands and the United Kingdom is very similar to a federate relation: the Islands enjoy independence from the United Kingdom, which, via The Crown, takes care of their foreign relations and defence – although the UK Parliament does have overall power to legislate for the dependencies. However, the islands are neither an incorporated part of the United Kingdom, nor are they considered to be independent or associated states. The Isle of Man does not have a monarch, ''per se''; rather, the British Monarch is, ''ex officio'', Lord of Mann (irrespective of the incumbent's sex).

Overseas territories

Overseas territories, such as the British overseas territories, are vested with varying degrees of power; some enjoy considerable independence from the sovereign state, which only takes care of their foreign relations and defence. However, they are neither considered to be part of it, nor recognised as sovereign or associated states.

Alleged ''de facto'' federations

The distinction between a federation and a unitary state is often quite ambiguous. A unitary state may closely resemble a federation in structure and, while a central government may possess the theoretical right to revoke the autonomy of a self-governing region, it may be politically difficult for it to do so in practice. The self-governing regions of some unitary states also often enjoy greater autonomy than those of some federations. For these reasons, it is sometimes argued that some modern unitary states are ''de facto'' federations.

Spain

Spain is suggested as one possible ''de facto'' federation as it grants more self-government to its autonomous communities than most federations allow their constituent parts. For the Spanish parliament to revoke the autonomy of regions such as Galicia, Catalonia or the Basque Country would be a political near-impossibility, though nothing bars it legally. Additionally, some regions such as Navarre or the Basque Country have full control over taxation and spending, transferring a small payment to the central government for the common services (army, foreign relations, macroeconomic policy). For example, one scholar discusses the "federal nature of Spain's government (a trend that almost no one denies)." Each autonomous community is governed by a Statute of Autonomy (''Estatuto de Autonomía'') under the Spanish Constitution of 1978.

People's Republic of China

In the People's Republic of China, a form of de facto federation has evolved without formal legislation. This has occurred as largely informal grants of power to the provinces, to handle economic affairs and implement national policies. This has resulted in a system some have termed "de facto federalism with Chinese characteristics" (in reference to Deng Xiaoping's policy of socialism with Chinese characteristics). Constitutionally, the power vested in the special administrative regions of the People's Republic is granted from the Central People's Government, through decision by the National People's Congress. A Federal Republic of China, in effect the third Chinese Republic, has been proposed as a future replacement for the PRC.

European Union

The European Union (EU) is based on supranational principles which are neither confederal nor federal. Robert Schuman, the initiator of the European Community system, wrote that a supranational Community like the Europe's founding European Coal and Steel Community lay midway between an association of States where they retained complete independence and a federation leading to a fusion of States in a super-state. The European Founding Fathers made a Europe Declaration at the time of the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 18 April 1951 saying that Europe should be organized on a supranational foundation. They envisaged a structure quite different from a federation called the European Political Community.

The EU is a three pillar structure of the original supranational European Economic Community and the nuclear non-proliferation treaty, Euratom, plus two largely intergovernmental pillars dealing with External Affairs and Justice and Home Affairs. The EU is therefore not a ''de jure'' federation, although some academic observers conclude that after 50 years of institutional evolution since the Treaties of Rome it is ''becoming'' one. The European Union possesses attributes of a federal state. However, its central government is far weaker than that of most federations and the individual members are sovereign states under international law, so it is usually characterized as an unprecedented form of supra-national union. The EU has responsibility for important areas such as trade, monetary union, agriculture, fisheries. Nonetheless, EU member states retain the right to act independently in matters of foreign policy and defense, and also enjoy a near monopoly over other major policy areas such as criminal justice and taxation. Since the Treaty of Lisbon, Member States' right to leave the Union is codified, and the Union operates with more qualified majority voting (rather than unanimity) in many areas.

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A more nuanced view has been given by the German Constitutional Court. Here the EU is defined as 'an association of sovereign national states (''Staatenverbund'')'. With this view, the European Union resembles more of a confederation.

Russian Federation

The Russian Federation has inherited its structure from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) that was one of the 15 republics of the Soviet Union and itself was considered a federation of national territories. The RSFSR consisted of autonomous republics, which had a certain degree of autonomy, at least de jure, and of other types of administrative units (''oblasts'' and ''krais''), whose status was the same as that of oblasts in other – mostly unitary – Soviet Socialist Republics. Today's Russia is defined as a federation in its Constitution (Article 5), and Russia's federal subjects, i.e., the constituent republics, oblasts, krais, the federal-level cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as one autonomous oblast and four autonomous (national) ''okrugs'', are equal in legal terms, save for some symbolic features allowed to republics (constitution, president, national language). Some regions (Yakutia) have concluded agreements with the Federation so as to modify the degree of their autonomy.

According to an amendment passed in December 2004, governors and presidents of Russia's constituent regions, who were previously elected by popular vote, are now proposed by the President of Russia for the approval of the local parliament Local parliaments theoretically have the authority to reject the candidate, but if this occurs three times, the parliament may be dissolved by the President and new parliamentary elections held. This lets some argue that the Russian Federation is not a federation in the strictest sense and that it has centralized features similar to a unitary system.

Internal controversy and conflict

Certain forms of political and constitutional dispute are common to federations. One issue is that the exact division of power and responsibility between federal and regional governments is often a source of controversy. Often, as is the case with the United States, such conflicts are resolved through the judicial system, which delimits the powers of federal and local governments. The relationship between federal and local courts varies from nation to nation and can be a controversial and complex issue in itself.

Another common issue in federal systems is the conflict between regional and national interests, or between the interests and aspirations of different ethnic groups. In some federations the entire jurisdiction is relatively homogeneous and each constituent state resembles a miniature version of the whole; this is known as 'congruent federalism'. On the other hand, incongruent federalism exists where different states or regions possess distinct ethnic groups.

The ability of a federal government to create national institutions that can mediate differences that arise because of linguistic, ethnic, religious, or other regional differences is an important challenge. The inability to meet this challenge may lead to the secession of parts of a federation or to civil war, as occurred in United States and Switzerland. In the case of Malaysia, Singapore was expelled from the federation because of rising racial tension. In some cases internal conflict may lead a federation to collapse entirely, as occurred in Nigeria, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, the United Provinces of Central America and the West Indies Federation. Somalia, despite its Transitional Federal Charter, Transitional Federal Parliament, and Transitional Federal Government, has a weak central government: since 1992, federal institutions have rarely controlled territory outside of parts of Mogadishu (though this is changing) and the Somaliland region in the northwestern part of the country is autonomous.

List of federations

For a detailed list of federated units, see Federated state#List of constituents by federation. There are 27 federations as of July 2011.

Contemporary

! Federation !! Federating Units !! Major Federating Units!!Minor Federating Units
	Provinces of Argentina	23 provinces	1 autonomous city
	States and territories of Australia	6 states	10 territories
	States of Austria	9 ''Länder'' or ''Bundesländer''
		3 Communities, 3 Regions
			1 district
	States of Brazil	26 states	1 federal district and 5,561 municipalities
	Provinces and territories of Canada	10 provinces	3 territories
		3 islands
	Regions of Ethiopia	9 regions	2 chartered cities
	States of Germany	16 ''Länder'' or ''Bundesländer''
India	States and territories of India	28 States	7 Union Territories, including a National Capital Territory
	Governorates of Iraq	18 governorates, including the autonomous region of Kurdistan.
	States of Malaysia	13 states	3 federal territories
	States of Mexico	31 states	1 federal district
		4 states
	Zones of Nepal	14 zones	75 districts
	States of Nigeria	36 states	1 territory
	Provinces and territories of Pakistan	4 provinces	4 federal territories including a federal capital territory
	Federal subjects of Russia	21 republics, 46 ''oblasts'', 9 ''krais'', 1 autonomous ''oblast'', 4 autonomous ''okrugs'', 2 federal-level cities
	Islands/parishes of Saint Kitts and Nevis	2 islands/14 parishes
	Provinces of South Africa	9 provinces
		10 states
	Autonomous communities of Spain	17 autonomous communities	2 autonomous cities
	States of Sudan	15 states
	Cantons of Switzerland
		7 emirates
		50 states	1 federal district; 1 incorporated territory, 13 unincorporated territories
	States of Venezuela	23 states	1 federal district, 1 federal dependency

Long form titles

''Federal Republic'' of: Germany, Nigeria.

''Federation'': Russia, Saint Kitts and Nevis

''Federative Republic'' of: Brazil

''Republic'' of: Argentina, Austria, India (also called Indian Union), Iraq, Sudan.

Others:

* ''Bolivarian Republic'' (Venezuela)

* ''Confederation'' (Switzerland)

* ''Commonwealth'' (Australia)

* ''Dominion'' (Canada before 1982)

* ''Federal Democratic Republic'' (Ethiopia, Nepal)

* ''Federated States'' (FS Micronesia)

* ''Federative Republic'' (Brazil)

*''Islamic Republic'' (Pakistan)

* ''Kingdom'' (Belgium)

* ''Union'' (Comoros)

* ''United Emirates'' (United Arab Emirates)

* ''United Mexican States'' (Mexico)

* ''United States'' (United States)

None:

*Bosnia and Herzegovina

*Canada (since 1982)

*Malaysia

Defunct

Federal Republic of Cameroon (1961–1972)

United Provinces of Central America (1823 – circa 1838)

Confederate States of America (1861–1865)

United States of Colombia (1863–1886)

Czechoslovakia (1969–1992)

Federated Dutch Republic (1581–1795)

French Equatorial Africa (1910–1960)

French West Africa (1904–1958)

Inca Empire (1197–1572)

United States of Indonesia (1949–1950)

United Kingdom of Libya (1951–1963)

Federated Malay States (1896–1946)

Federation of Malaya (1948–1963)

Mali Federation (1959–1960)

New Granada (1855–1886)

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795)

Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953–1963)

Federation of South Arabia (1962–1967)

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)

Federal Republic of Spain (1873–1874)

Uganda (1962–1967)

West Indies Federation (1958–1962)

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1943–1992)

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1992–2003)

Some of the proclaimed Arab federations were confederations ''de facto''.

See also

Anti-Federalist

Capital city

Corporative federalism

Constitutional economics

Political economy

Rule according to higher law

European Union

European Coal and Steel Community

Federacy

Federalism in Australia

Federalist

The Federalist Papers

Federal monarchy

Federated state

Federation of Australia

Foederati

Indian Union

International organisation

Międzymorze (Intermarum)

Multinational state

Neo-functionalism

New federalism

Regional state

Supranationalism

Supranational union

Unitary state

United Federation of Planets

World Federalist Movement

Centre for Studies on Federalism

Footnotes

Category:Lists of country subdivisions

af:Federasie als:Bundesstaat ar:فيدرالية an:Federación az:Federasiya be:Федэрацыя be-x-old:Фэдэрацыя bs:Federacija bg:Федерация ca:Federació cs:Federace co:Federazione da:Føderation de:Bundesstaat et:Föderatsioon el:Ομοσπονδιακό κράτος es:Federación eo:Federacio eu:Federazio fa:فدراسیون fr:État fédéral gl:Federación ko:연방제 hi:संघ (प्रशासन) hr:Federacija id:Federasi is:Sambandsríki it:Federazione he:פדרציה ka:ფედერაციული სახელმწიფო kk:Федерация sw:Shirikisho ku:Federasyon la:Foederatio lv:Federācija (valsts) lt:Federacija hu:Föderáció arz:دوله فيدراليه ms:Persekutuan ja:連邦 no:Føderasjon nn:Føderasjon nrm:Fédéthâtion oc:Federacion pl:Federacja pt:Federação ro:Federație ru:Федерация sq:Federata scn:Fidirazzioni si:ෆෙඩරල් රාජ්‍යය simple:Federation sk:Federácia sl:Federacija sr:Федерација sh:Federacija fi:Liittovaltio sv:Federation tl:Pederasyon ta:கூட்டாட்சி th:สหพันธรัฐ tr:Federasyon uk:Федеративна держава vi:Liên bang yo:Àjọṣepọ̀ zh:联邦制

Coordinates	50°3′″N21°25′″N
Name	Saint Michael the Archangel
Feast day	November 21 (Old Calendar Eastern Orthodox Churches) / November 8 (New Calendar Eastern Orthodox Churches), September 29 ("Michaelmas"); May 8; many other local and historical feasts
Venerated in	Anglican Communion, Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam, Judaism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Lutheranism
Titles	Archangel
Canonized date	pre-congregation
Attributes	Archangel; Treading on Satan or a serpent; carrying a banner, scales, and sword
Patronage	Guardian of the Catholic Church; protector of the Jewish people.
Issues	}}

Michael ( (pronounced ), ''Micha'el'' or ''Mîkhā'ēl''; , ''Mikhaḗl''; or ''Míchaël''; , ''Mīkhā'īl'') is an archangel in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic tradition. He is viewed as the field commander of the Army of God. He is mentioned by name in the Book of Daniel, the Book of Jude, and the Book of Revelation, in which he leads God's armies against the Devil's forces during his uprising. In the book of Daniel, Michael appears as "one of the chief princes"

In Hebrew, ''Michael'' means "who is like God" (''mi''-who, ''ke''-as or like, ''El''-deity), which in Talmudic tradition is interpreted as a rhetorical question: "Who is like God?" (which expects an answer in the negative) to imply that ''no one'' is like God. In this way, Michael is reinterpreted as a symbol of humility before God.

Much of the late Midrashic detail about Michael was transmitted to Christianity through the Book of Enoch, whence it was taken up and further elaborated. Christian ''cultus'' devoted to the archangel was first initiated in the East, as a healer, at Chonae near Colossae in Phrygia and in the West, at the end of the fifth century, as a patron in war, at Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano. In late medieval Christianity, Michael, together with Saint George, became the patron saint of chivalry. Jean Molinet was one who glorified the primordial feat of arms of the archangel as "the first deed of knighthood and chivalrous prowess that was ever achieved." Thus Michael was the natural patron of the first chivalric order of France, the Order of Saint Michael of 1469. In the British honours system, a chivalric order founded in 1818 is also named for these two saints, the Order of St Michael and St George. Michael is also considered in many Christian circles as the patron saint of the warrior. Police officers and soldiers, particularly paratroopers and fighter pilots, regard him as their patron. He is the Patron of the Catholic Police Guild. He is also a patron of Germany, the City of Brussels, and Kiev.

Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Lutherans refer to him as Saint Michael the Archangel and also simply as Saint Michael. Orthodox Christians refer to him as the Taxiarch Archangel Michael or simply Archangel Michael. Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists, and certain New Age Christian denominations refer to Michael as the Christ Michael, or Christ before he became man. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that Michael is the heavenly form of Adam from the Book of Genesis, and that Michael assisted Jehovah (the heavenly form of Jesus Christ) in the creation of the world under the direction of God the Father.

Hebrew Bible

Book of Joshua

Some believe the numinous "captain of the host of the Lord" encountered by Joshua in the early days of his campaigns in the Promised Land (Joshua 5:13-15) is Michael the Archangel. This unnamed heavenly messenger is of supernatural and holy origin, likely sent by God:

(NRSV)}}

There is some controversy about this passage, however. In other places in the Bible, angels do not accept the worship of humans (see Rev. 22:9 for an example); the willingness of this person to accept Joshua's worship implies that he was divine (e.g., a theophany of God). However, it is clear that Joshua is instigating worship of God, not the commander of the Lord's army. In Revelation 19:10 we have the exact same scenario with St. John and an angel and unlike Joshua 5 it reads; 'I, John, fell on my face and worshiped him.' The angel rebukes him.

Book of Daniel

The prophet Daniel experiences a vision after having undergone a period of fasting. In the vision, an angel identifies Michael as the protector of Israel (10:13, 21). Later in the vision (12:1), Daniel is informed that Michael will stand for Israel during the time of the End. There is no further mention of Michael in the Hebrew Bible.

Apocrypha

War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness

In the War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, Michael is described as the prince of light, leading forces of God against the darkness of evil, who is led by Belial. He is described as the "viceroy of heaven".

Book of Enoch

Michael is designated in the ''Book of Enoch'', as "the prince of Israel" and the "archistratege"(meaning chief general in the Greek language) of God. He is the angel of forbearance and mercy (''Enoch'', xl:3) who taught Enoch the mysteries of clemency and justice (lxxi:2). Some speculate that the angel in the book of ''Jubilees'' (i:27 and ii:1), who is said to have instructed Moses on Mount Sinai and to have delivered to him the tablets of Law, may be Michael.

Enoch 9:1 states that Michael, along with Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel and Suriel heard the cries of men under the strain of the Watchers and their giant offspring. It was Michael and his compatriots that beseeched God on behalf of men, prompting Yahweh to call Enoch to prophethood.

In Enoch 10:15 Yahweh says to Michael; "Go and announce his crime to Samyaza, and to the others who are with him, who have been associated with women, that they might be polluted with all their impurity. And when all their sons shall be slain, when they shall see the perdition of their beloved, bind them for seventy generations underneath the earth, even to the day of Judgement, and of consummation, until the judgement, the effect of which will last forever and be completed."

Enoch 20:5 says that Michael presides over human virtue in order to command nations.

Enoch 24:4-10 has Enoch before the Tree of Life/Mercy, and Michael explains to him that he should not touch it, for it is for those who are 'elect' after the day of Judgement.

Enoch 40:8 says that Michael is patient and merciful.

Enoch 53:6 states that Michael, along with Gabriel, Raphael and Phanuel shall be strengthened during the Battle of Armageddon.

Enoch 58 shows Enoch overcome with terror over a vision he has, and Michael is quick to interpret. The terror is only for those who turn on Yahweh, that the Day of Judgement is for the elect, a day of covenant, while for sinners it is a day of inquisition.

Enoch 66:14-15 has Michael explaining to Enoch that the evil spirits [demons] shall bear witness against those of the flesh who supported them. Yet Enoch is told that Michael holds a secret oath so that the elect shall not perish by their knowledge like the sinners, Enoch 68:20-22.

Enoch 70:11-16 shows that Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and Phanuel always 'escort' Yahweh [God the Father], whenever he leaves his throne.

Rabbinic traditions

According to rabbinic Jewish tradition, Michael acted as the advocate of Israel, and sometimes had to fight with the princes of the other nations (cf. Daniel 10:13) and particularly with the angel Samael, Israel's accuser. Michael's enmity with Samael dates from the time when the latter was thrown down from heaven. Samael took hold of the wings of Michael, whom he wished to bring down with him in his fall; but Michael was saved by God (Midrash Pirke R. El. xxvi.).

The rabbis declare that Michael entered upon his role of defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Thus, according to Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, it was Michael who rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he had been thrown by Nimrod (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xliv. 16). It was Michael, the "one that had escaped" (Genesis 14:13), who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive (Midrash Pirke R. El.), and who protected Sarah from being defiled by Abimelech. He announced to Sarah that she would bear a son and he rescued Lot at the destruction of Sodom (Talmud B. M. 86b).

It is said that Michael prevented Isaac from being sacrificed by his father by substituting a ram in his place, and saved Jacob, while yet in his mother's womb, from being killed by Samael (Midr. Abkir, in Yalḳ., Gen. 110). Later Michael prevented Laban from harming Jacob (Pirke R. El. xxxvi.). According to one source, it was Michael who wrestled with Jacob and who afterward blessed him (Targum pseudo-Jonathan to Genesis xxxii. 25; Pirke R. El. xxxvii.).

The midrash ''Exodus Rabbah'' holds that Michael exercised his function of advocate of Israel at the time of the Exodus also, when Satan (as an adversary) accused the Israelites of idolatry and declared that they were consequently deserving of death by drowning in the Red Sea (Ex. R. xviii. 5). But according to Midr. Abkir, when Uzza, the tutelar angel of Egypt, summoned Michael to plead before God, Michael remained silent, and it was God himself who defended Israel.

Legend makes Michael the teacher of Moses; so that the Israelites are indebted to their advocate for the supreme good of the Torah. This idea is alluded to in Midrash Deuteronomy Rabbah xi. 6 in the statement that Michael declined to bring Moses' soul to God on the ground that he had been Moses' teacher.

Michael is said to have destroyed the army of Sennacherib (Midrash Exodus Rabbah xviii. 5), a deed normally attributed to an otherwise unnamed angel of destruction but perhaps accomplished by Uriel, Gabriel, or others.

Michael is also credited with being the angel who spoke to Moses in the burning bush (an honor often bestowed upon Zagzagel).

He is accepted in lore as well as being the special patron of Adam. Supposedly he was the first angel in all of the heavens to bow down before humanity. Michael then kept an eye on the first family, remaining vigilant even after the fall of Adam and Eve and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden.

In the apocryphal Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, Michael taught Adam how to farm. The archangel later brought Adam to heaven in a fiery chariot, giving him a tour of the blessed realm. After Adam's death, Michael helped convince the Lord to permit Adam's soul to be brought to heaven and cleansed of its great sin. Jewish legend also states Michael to be one of the three "men" who visited Abraham. He is said to have tried to prevent Israel from being led into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar II and to save the Temple from destruction; but the sins of the people were so great that he was powerless to carry his purposes into effect. There is a legend which seems to be of Jewish origin, and which was adopted by the Copts, to the effect that Michael was first sent by God to bring Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem, and that Michael was afterward very active in freeing his nation from Babylonian captivity (Amélineau, "Contes et Romans de l'Egypte Chrétienne," ii. 142 et seq.). According to a midrash, Michael saved Hananiah and his companions from the Fiery furnace (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xliv. 16). Michael was active in the time of Esther: "The more Haman accused Israel on earth, the more Michael defended Israel in heaven" (Midrash Esther Rabbah iii. 8). It was Michael who reminded Ahasuerus that he was Mordecai's debtor (Targum to Esther vi. 1); and there is a legend that Michael appeared to the high priest Hyrcanus, promising him assistance (comp. Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 10, § 3).

The motif of Michael and the dragon appears in Michael's fight with Samael in Assumptio Mosis, x.). This legend is not found in Jewish sources except insofar as Samael or Satan is called in the Kabbalah "the primitive serpent".

The idea that Michael was the advocate of the Jews became so prevalent that in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people, Michael came to occupy a certain place in the Jewish liturgy. There were two prayers written beseeching him as the prince of mercy to intercede in favor of Israel: one composed by Eliezer ha-Kalir, and the other by Judah b. Samuel he-Hasid. But appeal to Michael seems to have been more common in ancient times. Thus Jeremiah is said (Baruch Apoc. Ethiopic, ix. 5) to have addressed a prayer to him. "When a man is in need he must pray directly to God, and neither to Michael nor to Gabriel" (Yer. Ber. ix. 13a).

With regard to the nature of the offerings which Michael brings to the altar, one opinion is that they are the souls of the just, while according to another they are fiery sheep. The former opinion, which has become prevalent in Jewish mystical writings, explains the important position occupied by Michael in Jewish eschatology. The idea that Michael is the Charon of individual souls, which is common among Christians, is not found in Jewish sources, but that he is in charge of the souls of the just appears in many Jewish writings.

Michael is said to have had a dispute with Samael over the soul of Moses (Midrash Deut. Rabbah xi. 6.) According to the Zohar, Michael accompanies the souls of the pious and helps them to enter the gates of the heavenly Jerusalem. It is said that Michael and his host are stationed at the gates of the heavenly Jerusalem and give admittance to the souls of the just. Michael's function is to open the gates also of justice to the just. It is also said that at the resurrection, Gabriel will sound the trumpet, at which the graves will open and the dead will rise.

Christian tradition

Canonical New Testament

In the Epistle of Jude St Michael disputes with the Devil over the body of Moses. In the Book of Revelation "...there was war in heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon and his angels fought back. But he was not strong enough, and they lost their place in heaven. The great dragon was hurled down - that ancient serpent called the Devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him." Saint John describes Satan being thrown out of heaven three and a half years from the end of the age, "a time, times and half a time". The Devil being thrown from heaven coincides with the "abomination that causes desolation" spoken of by Daniel. In Catholic teachings, Saint Michael will also triumph at the end times when he defeats Antichrist. The Book of Daniel (12:1) states: "At that time Michael, the great prince who protects your people, will arise." as the ''"Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Chonae."'' The Monastery of the Miracle in the Moscow Kremlin, where the Russian Tsars were baptized, was dedicated to the Feast of the Miracle at Chonae (Kona). Hot springs at Pythia in Bithynia and elsewhere in Asia Minor were also dedicated to St Michael.

At Constantinople likewise, Saint Michael was a great heavenly physician. His principal sanctuary, the ''"Michaelion"'', was at Sosthenion, some fifty miles south of Constantinople. He supposedly visited Emperor Constantine the Great at Constantinople, intervened in assorted battles, and appeared, sword in hand, over the mausoleum of Hadrian, in apparent answer to the prayers of Pope St Gregory I the Great (r. 590-604) that a plague in Rome should cease. In honor of the occasion, the pope took to calling the mausoleum the ''"Castel Sant'Angelo"'' (Castle of the Holy Angel), the name by which it is still known. The sick slept in this church at night to wait for a manifestation of St Michael; his feast was kept there June 9.

Another famous church was within the walls of the city, at the baths of Arcadius; there the synaxis of the archangel was celebrated November 8. This feast spread over the entire Greek Church, and the Syrian, Armenian, and Coptic Churches also adopted it. It is currently the principal feast of St Michael amongst the Eastern Christians. Although originating in Phrygia, its station at Constantinople was known as the ''"Thermae of Arcadius"'' (Martinow, "Annus Graeco-slavicus", November 8). Other feasts of St Michael at Constantinople were: October 27, in the "Promotu" Church; June 18, in the Church of St Julian at the Forum; and December 10, at Athaea.

At Rome, the Leonine Sacramentary (sixth century) has the ''"Natale Basilicae Angeli via Salaria"'', September 30; of the five Masses for the feast, three mention St Michael. The Gelasian Sacramentary (seventh century) gives the feast ''"S. Michaelis Archangeli"'', and the Gregorian Sacramentary (eighth century), ''"Dedicatio Basilionis S. Angeli Michaelis"'', September 29. A manuscript also here adds "via Salaria" (Ebner, "Miss. Rom. Iter Italicum", 127). This Church of the Via Salaria was six miles to the north of the city; in the ninth century it was called Basilica Archangeli in Septimo (Armellini, "Chiese di Roma", p. 85). It disappeared a thousand years ago. At Rome also the part of heavenly physician was given to St Michael. According to a legend of the tenth century, he appeared over the Moles Hadriani (Castel di S. Angelo), in 950, during the procession which St Gregory held against the pestilence, putting an end to the plague. Pope Boniface IV (608-15) built on the Moles Hadriani in honour of him, a church, which was styled St Michaelis inter nubes (in summitate circi).

In Normandy, Saint Michael is the patron of mariners in his famous sanctuary at Mont-Saint-Michel in the Diocese of Coutances. He is said to have appeared there, in 708, to St Aubert, Bishop of Avranches. In Normandy, his feast, ''"S. Michaelis in periculo maris"'', or "in Monte Tumba", was universally celebrated on October 18, the anniversary of the dedication of the first church, October 16, 710; the feast is now confined to the Diocese of Coutances.

The hymns of the Roman Office are said to have been composed by Saint Rabanus Maurus of Fulda (d. 856). The hymn "Te Splendor" to Saint Michael (which derives its name from the fact that in Latin it begins with Te splendor et virtus Patris) is published in the Raccolta collection of prayers with indulgences, and, in 1817, Pope Pius VII granted an indulgence for saying the hymn.

In art, St Michael is represented as an angelic warrior, fully armed with helmet, sword, and shield (often the shield bears the Latin inscription: ''"Quis ut Deus?"''), standing over the dragon, whom he sometimes pierces with a lance. He also holds a pair of scales in which he weighs the souls of the departed (cf. Rock, "The Church of Our Fathers", III, 160), or the Book of Life, to show that he takes part in the judgment. Michelangelo depicted this scene on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel.

His feast (September 29) in the Middle Ages was celebrated as a holy day of obligation, as he was the patron of knights, but along with several other feasts it was gradually abolished since the eighteenth century. Michaelmas Day, in England and other countries, is one of the regular quarter-days for settling rents and accounts; but it is no longer remarkable for the hospitality with which it was formerly celebrated. Stubble-geese being esteemed in perfection about this time, most families had one dressed on Michaelmas Day. In some parishes, (such as the Isle of Skye,) they had a procession on this day and baked a cake, called St Michael's bannock.

Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians often refer to the angel Michael as ''"Saint Michael"'', an honorific title that does not indicate canonisation. He is generally referred to in Christian litanies as ''"Saint Michael the Archangel."'' Orthodoxy accords him the title ''"Archistrategos"'', or ''"Supreme Commander of the Heavenly Hosts."''

In the Roman Catholic Church, Saint Michael has four main roles or offices. He is the Christian angel of death, carrying the souls of all the deceased to heaven, where they are weighed in his perfectly balanced scales (hence Michael is often depicted holding scales). At the hour of death, Michael descends and gives each soul the chance to redeem itself before passing, thus consternating the devil and his minions. St Michael is the special patron of the Chosen People in the Old Testament and is guardian of the Church; it was thus not unusual for the angel to be revered by the military orders of knights during the Middle Ages. Last, he is the supreme enemy of Satan and the fallen angels.

Some early Protestant scholars identified Michael with the pre-incarnate Christ, basing their view, partly on the juxtaposition of the "child" and the archangel in Revelation 12, and partly on the attributes ascribed to him in Daniel.

In the Roman Catholic calendar of saints, Anglican Calendar of Saints, and the Lutheran Calendar of Saints, his feast day, once widely known as Michaelmas, is celebrated September 29 and was one of the four quarter days on which accounts were settled and, in England, when terms began in universities. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, his principal feast day is November 8 (November 21 by most Orthodox churches since they use the Julian calendar), where he is honored along with the rest of the ''"Bodiless Powers of Heaven"'' as their Supreme Commander, and his miraculous appearance at Colossae (see below) is commemorated on September 6.

The last visit, that of his appearance over the mausoleum of Hadrian, certified one major aspect involving Michael, namely his role as an angel of healing. This title was bestowed at Phrygia, in Asia Minor, which also propagated the cult of angels and became a leading center for their veneration. St Michael is reputed to have caused a healing spring to flow in the first century at Colossae, and his churches were frequently visited by the sick and lame. The angel is invoked additionally as the patron of sailors in Normandy (the famous monastery of Mont Saint Michel on the north coast of France is named after him). He is especially remembered in France as the angel who, along with Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret, gave Saint Joan of Arc the courage to save her country from the English during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1455).Pope Pius XII (r. 1939-1958) named him patron of policemen.

According to legend, Michael instructed St Aubert, bishop of Avranches to build a church on the rocky islet now known as Mont Saint Michel in 708. Also dedicated to Michael was the French Order of St Michel founded in 1469. Today, however, he is more usually associated with police officers, paramedics, EMTs and other emergency workers. He is also claimed as the patron saint of the American airborne units. He is the patron of Ukraine and its capital Kiev and of the archdiocese of Seattle.

Under the influence of the widely read angelology of the Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, among Church fathers much time was spent allotting Michael a rank in the celestial hierarchy: Alfonso Salmeron, Cardinal Bellarmine, Saint Basil the Great's homily (''De Angelis'') and other Greek fathers place Saint Michael over all the angels; they say he is called ''"Archangel"'' because he is the prince of the other angels. Others (cf. P. Bonaventura, ''op. cit.'') believe that he is the prince of the Seraphim, the first of the nine angelic orders. According to Saint Thomas Aquinas (''Summa'' Ia. 113.3), he is the Prince of the last and lowest choir, the angels.

A favorite angelic subject in art, matched only by Saint Gabriel, Saint Michael is often depicted as winged and with unsheathed sword. As with all angels' iconography, his wings represent swiftness, his sword means authority or power, and his white raiment stands for his enlightenment. In the Renaissance period, he is shown as young, strong, and handsome, and is most often depicted as a proud, handsome angel in white or magnificent armor or a splendid coat of mail and equipped with sword, shield and spear. His wings are generally conspicuous and very grand. He is usually shown holding in his hand a banner or the scales of justice. Quite often he is seen, like Saint George and in some representations of the Madonna, in conflict with a dragon or standing upon a vanquished devil, who most of the time is Satan.

Apparitions of Saint Michael the Archangel

The Sacred Tradition of the Orthodox Church celebrates the Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Chonae in Phrygia. According to the account, pagans diverted the stream of the river Lycus against the sanctuary of St Michael in order to destroy it, but Michael the Archangel appeared and split the rock by lightning (or, according to some accounts, with a spear) to open up a new bed for the stream, directing the flow away from the church and sanctifying forever the waters which came from the new gorge. The Orthodox celebrate a feast day in commemoration of this event on 6 September. The Monastery of the Miracle (Chudov Monastery) in the Moscow Kremlin, where the Russian Tsars were baptized, was dedicated to the Feast of the Miracle at Chonae.

The Roman Breviary for May 8 relates the story of the apparition of Saint Michael (494 or 530-40) at his sanctuary on Monte Gargano, where his original glory as patron in war was restored to him. This is further alluded to in a paragraph listed for the feast day of St Michael on this date found in the "Saint Andrew Daily Missal." To his intercession, the Lombards of Sipontum (modern-day Manfredonia) attributed their victory over the Greek Neapolitans May 8, 663. To commemorate this victory, the Church of Sipontum instituted a special feast on May 8 in honour of the archangel, which spread throughout the Latin Church under the name "Apparition of St Michael", although it originally commemorated the victory, not the apparition. The Tridentine Calendar gave this feast the rank of "Double", which was raised in 1602 to the newly invented rank of "Greater Double". In 1960, Pope John XXIII removed it from the General Roman Calendar, along with other cases of second feasts of a single saint.

There is a legend in Cornwall that in the 5th century, the Archangel appeared to fishermen on St Michael's Mount, which according to author Richard Freeman Johnson is perhaps a nationalistic twist to a myth. Cornish legends also hold that the mount itself was constructed by giants and that King Arthur battled giant there.

Also a Portuguese Carmelite nun, Antónia d'Astónaco, had reported an apparition and private revelation of the Archangel Michael who had told to this devoted Servant of God, in 1751, that he would like to be honored, and God glorified, by the praying of nine special invocations. These nine invocations correspond to invocations to the nine choirs of angels and origins the famous Chaplet of Saint Michael. This private revelation and prayers were approved by Pope Pius IX in 1851.

During the years 1961 to 1965, four young schoolgirls had reported several apparitions of Saint Michael the Archangel in the small village of San Sebastian de Garabandal, in Cantabria, north Spain. At Garabandal, the apparitions of the Archangel Michael were mainly reported as announcing the arrivals of the Virgin Mary. The Catholic Church has never condemned Garabandal apparitions, and the Vatican has never made an official pronouncement.

Major shrines

:''For a larger gallery (and hence a structured list) of church images, please see'': Saint Michael church gallery.

St. Michael's Cathedral (Toronto), Ontario, Canada

St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral, in Brussels, Belgium

Mont Saint Michel, Normandy, France - a World Heritage Site

Skellig Michael, off the Irish west coast - a World Heritage Site

Archangel Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin - a World Heritage Site

Chudov Monastery in the Moscow Kremlin, where the future Russian tsars were baptized

St. Michael Chapel in Košice, Slovakia

Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano, Gargano, Italy

St Michael's Mount, Cornwall, UK

St Michael's Cathedral, Coventry, UK

Michaelhouse Chapel, Balgowan, KZN, South Africa

St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, Kiev, Ukraine

St Michael's Church in Vienna, Austria

St. Michael and All Angels' Anglican Church, Weltevreden Park, Johannesburg, South Africa

Basilica of St Michael the Archangel, Tayabas, Quezon, Philippines

Archangel Michael’s Church, Znojmo, Czech Republic

St. Michael's Cathedral in Belgrade, Serbia

Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that there is only one "archangel" in heaven and in the Bible. They teach that the pre-human and post-resurrection Jesus and the Archangel Michael are the same person, saying: "the evidence indicates that the Son of God was known as Michael before he came to earth and is known also by that name since his return to heaven where he resides as the glorified spirit Son of God." They point out that the actual term "Archangel" in the Bible is only used in the singular, never clearly in the plural. They also say that Michael is the same "Angel of the Lord" who led the Israelites in the wilderness. He later took perfect human form as Jesus and led a life without sin. Additionally, the spirit being who bears the name Michael is referred to as "one of the chief princes," "the great prince who has charge of your (Daniel's) people," and as "the archangel." (Daniel 10:13; 12:1: Jude 9) This view is held because of the prominence Michael has among the heavenly sons of God in the Bible, and takes the lead in the vindication of the Heavenly Father's sovereignty and the sanctification of the Heavenly Father's name, and as the prince and protector of God's covenant people, the similarity of Michael’s and Jesus’ mission and the connection of Jesus with the archangelic office in 1 Thessalonians 4:16, where it is said: "Because the Lord himself will descend from Heaven with a commanding call, with an archangel's voice." Taking also into account that the Bible refers to one archangel only using a definite article (Jude 9), Jehovah's Witnesses have concluded that Michael and the pre-human and post-resurrection Jesus are one and the same.

Seventh-day Adventists

Seventh-day Adventists believe that Michael was another name for the ''Word-of-God'' (John 1) before He became incarnate as ''Jesus''. ''Archangel'' (meaning "Chief of the Angels") was the leadership position held by the Word-of-God as Michael while among the angels. Michael was the Word-of-God, not a created being, by whom all things were created. The Word-of-God was then born incarnate as Jesus.

Latter-day Saint belief

Latter-day Saints believe that Michael is Adam, the Ancient of Days (Dan. 7), a prince, and the patriarch of the human family (Doctrine and Covenants 27:11; 107: 53-56; 128:21)

Islam

Michael (Arabic: ميخائيل, ''Mikhail'' ميكائيل, ''Mikael'' ), is one of the Archangels in Islam, and one of the two archangels mentioned in the Qur'an, alongside Jibreel (Gabriel). In the Qur'an, Michael is mentioned once only, in Sura 2:98. }}

Michael is mentioned in the ''Hadith'' numerous times. According to Muslim belief, Mikhail is often depicted as an angel of mercy, and the one through whom God supplies rain and thunder for mankind. Furthermore, Muslims also believe that God has also put Mikhail in charge of rewarding the righteous in their life on Earth. Mikhail is also credited with being present with the Muslims in their first victory in Arabia, at the Battle of Badr.

Muslim commentators state with reference to Sura 11:69 that Michael was one of the three angels who visited Abraham.

Bahá'í

In ''Thief in the Night'', the Bahá'í writer, William Sears, interpreted references to Michael as referring to Bahá'u'lláh. He quotes Daniel (10:13): "But the prince of the kingdom of Persia withstood me one and twenty days: but, lo, Michael, one of the chief princes, came to help me...'. Daniel was told that this vision concerned "...what shall befall thy people (Israel) in the latter days." Sears interprets this as a prophecy about Bahá'u'lláh, who was a Persian nobleman of Sassanian royal lineage. He also quotes from the Book of Enoch (69:14): "He (God) spoke to holy Michael to discover to them the sacred name, that they might understand that secret name".

Occult

According to esoteric writer Rudolf Steiner: "in 1879, in November, a momentous event took place, a battle of the Powers of Darkness against the Powers of Light, ending in the image of Michael overcoming the Dragon".

Literature

In the English epic poem ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton, Michael commands the army of angels loyal to God against the rebel forces of Satan. Armed with a sword from God's armory, he bests Satan in personal combat, wounding his side.

See also

Angel

Adam

Saint Michael (Roman Catholic)

Chaplet of Saint Michael

Congregation of Saint Michael the Archangel

Legion of the Archangel Michael

Novena to Saint Michael

Prayer to Saint Michael

San Michele

St. George

St. Michael Fighting the Dragon by Albrecht Durer

Bibliography

Bamberger, Bernard Jacob, (March 15, 2006). ''Fallen Angels: Soldiers of Satan's Realm.'' Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0797-0

Briggs, Constance Victoria, 1997. ''The Encyclopedia of Angels : An A-to-Z Guide with Nearly 4,000 Entries.'' Plume. ISBN 0-452-27921-6.

Bunson, Matthew, (1996). ''Angels A to Z : A Who's Who of the Heavenly Host.'' Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-517-88537-9.

Cruz, Joan C. 1999. ''Angels and Devils.'' Tan Books & Publishers. ISBN 0-89555-638-3.

Davidson, Gustav. ''A Dictionary of Angels: Including the Fallen Angels''. Free Press. ISBN 0-02-907052-X

Graham, Billy, 1994. ''Angels: God's Secret Agents.'' W Pub Group; Minibook edition. ISBN 0-8499-5074-0

Guiley, Rosemary, 1996. ''Encyclopedia of Angels.'' ISBN 0-8160-2988-1

Kreeft, Peter J. 1995. ''Angels and Demons: What Do We Really Know About Them?'' Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-89870-550-9

Lewis, James R. (1995). ''Angels A to Z.'' Visible Ink Press. ISBN 0-7876-0652-9

Melville, Francis, 2001. ''The Book of Angels: Turn to Your Angels for Guidance, Comfort, and Inspiration.'' Barron's Educational Series; 1st edition. ISBN 0-7641-5403-6

Ronner, John, 1993. ''Know Your Angels: The Angel Almanac With Biographies of 100 Prominent Angels in Legend & Folklore-And Much More!'' Mamre Press. ISBN 0-932945-40-6.

Gallery

References

External links

''Catholic Encyclopedia'': St. Michael

''Jewish Encyclopedia'': Michael

Category:Archangels Category:Perspectives on Jesus Category:Individual angels Category:Hebrew Bible topics Category:Old Testament saints Category:Deities in the Hebrew Bible Category:Angels in Christianity Category:Angels in Judaism Category:Angels in Islam Category:Christian saints Category:Oriental Orthodox saints Category:Eastern Orthodox saints Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar Category:Roman Catholic saints Category:Anglican saints

am:ሚካኤል ar:رئيس الملائكة ميخائيل an:Sant Miguel Arcánchel arc:ܡܝܟܐܝܠ (ܡܠܐܟܐ) az:Mikayıl (mələk) be:Міхаіл, архістратыг br:Arc'hael Mikael bg:Михаил (архангел) ca:Sant Miquel Arcàngel cs:Michael (archanděl) cy:Mihangel da:Ærkeenglen Mikael de:Michael (Erzengel) et:Miikael el:Αρχάγγελος Μιχαήλ es:Arcángel Miguel eo:Sankta Mikaelo eu:Mikel goiaingerua fa:میکائیل fr:Michel (archange) fy:Aartsingel Michaël ga:Naomh Mícheál (an tArdaingeal) gl:Arcanxo Miguel ko:대천사 미카엘 hr:Sveti Mihovil id:Mikhael it:Arcangelo Michele he:מיכאל ka:მიქაელ მთავარანგელოზი ku:Mikaîl lv:Miķelis lt:Arkangelas Mykolas lmo:San Michee (sant) hu:Mihály arkangyal mk:Архангел Михаил mt:Arkanġlu Mikiel ms:Mikail nah:Migueltzin Huēyangel nl:Michaël (aartsengel) ja:ミカエル no:Erkeengelen Mikael nn:Erkeengelen Mikael nrm:Saint Miché pl:Archanioł Michał pt:Miguel (arcanjo) ksh:Michael (Erzengel) ro:Arhanghelul Mihail ru:Архангел Михаил sq:Mihael (kryengjël) scn:San Micheli Arcancilu sk:Michal (anjel) sl:Sveti Mihael sr:Архангел Михаил fi:Mikael (arkkienkeli) sv:Mikael (ärkeängel) te:మీకాయీల్ chr:ᎹᎩ tr:Mikâil uk:Архангел Михаїл ur:میکائیل vec:San Michièl Arcànxoło zh:米迦勒

Coordinates	50°3′″N21°25′″N
Name	Gerald Celente
Birth date	November 29, 1946
Birth place	The Bronx, New York City, New York, U.S.
Occupation	Trend forecaster
Nationality	American
Ethnicity	White
Parents	}}

Gerald Celente (born November 29, 1946) is an American trend forecaster, publisher of the ''Trends Journal'', business consultant and author who makes predictions about the global financial markets and other events of historical importance. Celente has described himself as a "political atheist" and "citizen of the world". He has appeared as a guest on television news shows such as ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'', ''The Today Show'', ''Good Morning America'', ''CBS Morning News'', ''The Glenn Beck Show'', ''NBC Nightly News'', ''The Alex Jones Show'' and ''Russia Today''.''

Background

Celente was born in The Bronx, New York City, New York. He had early political experience running a mayoral campaign in Yonkers, New York and served as executive assistant to the secretary of the New York State Senate, which Celente called the worst job he ever had. From 1973 to 1979 Celente traveled between Chicago and Washington D.C. as a government affairs specialist. In 1980 Celente founded The Trends Research Institute (at first called the Socio-Economic Research Institute of America), now located in Kingston, New York, publisher of the ''Trends Journal'' which forecasts and analyzes business, socioeconomic, political, and other trends.

Forecasting

His forecasts since 1993 have included predictions about terrorism, economic collapses and war. More recent forecasts involve fascism in the United States, food riots and tax revolts. Celente has long predicted global anti-Americanism, a failing economy and immigration woes in the U.S. In December 2007 Celente wrote, "Failing banks, busted brokerages, toppled corporate giants, bankrupt cities, states in default, foreign creditors cashing out of US securities ... whatever the spark, the stage is set for panic in the streets" and "Just as the Twin Towers collapsed from the top down, so too will the U.S. economy ... when the giant firms fall, they’ll crush the man on the street." He has also predicted tax revolts. In November 2008 Celente appeared on Fox Business Network and predicted economic depression, tax rebellions and food riots in the United States by 2012. Celente also predicted an "economic 9/11" and a "panic of 2008."

In 2009 Celente predicted turmoil which he described as "Obamageddon" and he was a popular guest on conservative cable-TV shows such as ''Fox News Sunday'' and Glenn Beck's television program. In April 2009 Celente wrote, "Wall Street controls our financial lives; the media manipulates our minds. These systems cannot be changed from within. There is no alternative. Without a revolution, these institutions will bankrupt the country, keep fighting failed wars, start new ones, and hold us in perpetual intellectual subjugation." He appeared on the ''Glenn Beck'' show and criticized the U.S. stimulus plan of 2009, calling government controlled capitalism "fascism" and saying shopping malls in the U.S. would become "ghost malls." Celente has said, "smaller communities, the smaller groups, the smaller states, the more self-sustaining communities, will 'weather the crisis in style' as big cities and hypertrophic suburbias descend into misery and conflict," and forecasts "a downsizing of America."

Revolution in the USA

On Russia Today, he predicted that the USA would face a revolution.

Neosurvivalism

Celente's website has stated that:

Predictions

2009

"The Crash of '09 was as dramatic as the crash of '29. The New Depression had begun." (Trends Journal, Summer 2008, pg. 12)

2010

Some areas of the U.S. are experiencing resurgences in real estate values due to highly localized factors, and some investors profit from this. However, the rises will almost all stop and reverse with time, and the overall national trend in real estate values is downward. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 8)

Ghost malls have become a common sight across America. Especially hard-hit are big chain stores (Sears, Home Depot, etc.). (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 8)

2011

Developers have begun rehabbing some of the ghost malls for more productive uses. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 9)

2012

The economic policies of the U.S. government over the past few years have failed to fix America's fundamental problems and have merely papered over them and in fact made them worse. By 2012, the "American Empire" is collapsing. In the U.S., basic staple goods like quality food and water are too expensive for most people to afford,(T.J. Summer 08, pg. 1) and "food riots" happen across the country (T.J. Summer 09, pg.1). Major American cities look like disaster zones, and mass homelessness exists across the country. Crime is rampant, with much of it being directed at the rich. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 1) Kidnappings and ransomings of rich people are on the rise. Average people fed up with big government, high taxes and out-of-control spending join tax revolts. (T.J. Summer 09, pg. 1) The world is also experiencing major environmental problems and "the blackest of plagues." The global financial system has also "melted down" and the situation is very bad outside the U.S.(T.J. Summer 08, pg. 1) The advanced industrial economies collapse first, and their sagging consumer spending drags down the export-based economies of emerging economies next.(T.J. Summer 09, pg. 2) The economy is as bad as it was during the Great Depression in many ways. In spite of all this, the U.S. government, power elites, and mainstream media continue to insist that the fundamentals of the world economy are sound, and that official policies can lead to a recovery. A growing number of average people, however, doubt this. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 1)

While the Mayan and Hopi prophecies of global destruction do not come to pass, 2012 is indeed a watershed year that sees the death of an ailing and unsustainable global economic system and lifestyle and its replacement with something better. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 2)

By 2012, Obama is viewed by most as a stale president who sold himself as a fresh, visionary candidate in 2008 and instead proved to be a servant of the big corporations and the military-industrial complex like his predecessors.(T.J. Summer 09, pg. 5) His economic policies only delayed disaster and in fact have made the situation worse: Expansionary monetary policy and the various government bailouts and stimulus programs create a "Bailout Bubble" that invariably bursts in a cataclysm for the U.S. and world economy.(T.J. Summer 09, pg. 11) Obama blames other factors for this and might have even tried to start a war by 2012 to distract attention from the domestic misery.(T.J. Summer 09, pg. 12) Obama's foreign policy has also failed to accomplish anything significant on the world stage, and Pakistan is a mess and the Afghan war continues to drag on without hope of conclusion.(T.J. Summer 09, pg. 12)

In the 2012 U.S. elections, online news sites, bloggers and independent journalists wield as much influence on voters as mainstream media outlets (TV, cable, magazines, newspapers) for the first time. This breaks the corporate and moneyed stranglehold on American politics and allows a third party to attain nation-level recognition. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 5)

Broad future trends

Americans will adapt to lower standards of living and will travel less, both on a daily basis and for vacations. Higher fuel costs, advances in telecommuting and an aging American population will push many more people to work from home or close to home. Walking-distance communities will be constructed and will become popular. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 7)

Geographically isolated resort destinations like Las Vegas will wither due to higher fuel costs, lower American incomes and increased overseas competition while vacation spots closer to population centers will revive. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 9)

Government-run lotteries, on the other hand, will thrive. (T.J. Summer 08, pg. 9)

In America and to a lesser extent overseas, consumer spending habits will be motivated out of fear and escapism. Businesses that capitalize upon this will succeed. (T.J. Summer 09, pg. 24)

Publications

''Trend Tracking: The System to Profit from Today's Trends'' (1991), ISBN 978-0446392877

''Trends 2000: How to Prepare for and Profit from the Changes of the 21st Century'' (1997), ISBN 978-0446519014

''What Zizi Gave Honeyboy: A True Story about Love, Wisdom, and the Soul of America'' (2002), ISBN 978-0066212661

References

External links

trendsresearch.com

geraldcelente.com

Category:1946 births Category:Living people Category:American economics writers Category:Futurologists Category:People from the Bronx

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