Alejo Carpentier y Valmont (December 26, 1904 – April 24, 1980) was a Cuban novelist, essayist, and musicologist who greatly influenced Latin American literature during its famous "boom" period. Born in Lausanne, Switzerland, Carpentier grew up in Havana, Cuba; and despite his European birthplace, Carpentier strongly self-identified as Cuban throughout his life. He traveled extensively, particularly in France, and to South America and Mexico, where he met prominent members of the Latin American cultural and artistic community. Carpentier took a keen interest in Latin American politics and often aligned himself with revolutionary movements, such as Fidel Castro's Communist Revolution in Cuba in the mid-century. Carpentier was jailed and exiled for his leftist political philosophies.

With a developed knowledge of music, Carpentier explored musicology, publishing an in-depth study of the music of Cuba, La música en Cuba and integrated musical themes and literary techniques throughout his works. He explored elements of Afro-Cubanism and incorporated the cultural aspects into the majority of his writings. Although Carpentier wrote in a myriad of genres, such as journalism, radio drama, playwrighting, academic essays, opera and libretto, he is best known for his novels. He was among the first practitioners of magical realism using the technique, lo real maravilloso to explore the fantastic quality of Latin American history and culture. The most famous example of Afro-Cuban influence and use of lo real maravilloso is Carpentier's 1949 novel El reino de este mundo (The Kingdom of this World) about the Haitian revolution of the late 18th century.

Carpentier's writing style integrated the resurgent Baroque style, or New World Baroque style that Latin American artists adopted from the European model and assimilated to the Latin American artistic vision. With a first-hand experience of the French Surrealist movement, Carpentier also adapted the Surrealist theory to Latin American literature. Always eager to explore more than Cuban identity, Carpentier used his traveling experiences throughout Europe and Latin American to expand his understanding of Latin American identity. Carpentier wove elements of Latin American political history, music, social injustice and art into the tapestries of his writings, all of which exerted a decisive influence on the works of younger Latin American writers. Carpentier died in Paris in 1980 and was buried in Havana's Colon Cemetery with other Cuban political and artistic luminaries.

Life

Early life and education

Carpentier was born on December 26, 1904 in Lausanne, Switzerland, to Jorge Julián Carpentier, a French architect, and Lina Valmont, a Russian language teacher. For a long time it was believed that he was born in Havana, where his family moved immediately after his birth; however, following Carpentier's death, his birth certificate was found in Switzerland.

In 1912, Alejo and his family moved from Cuba to Paris. He also spoke French and as an adolescent, he read Balzac, Flaubert, and Zola.

Cuba and exile in France

In 1921, while studying in Havana, Carpentier became a cultural journalist, writing mostly about avant-garde developments in the arts, particularly music." He contributed columns to La Discusión, a daily journal from Havana. His journalistic work, which was considered leftist, helped establish the Cuban Communist Party. In 1927, with the help of Jorge Mañach, Juan Marinello, Francisco Ichaso, and Martí Casanovas, he became a founding member of Revista de Avance, a magazine devoted to nationalism, radicalism and new ideas in the arts. The first issue appeared on March 15, 1927; it lasted until September 15, 1930, and became the "voice of the vanguard" and the primary voice of expression of the Cuban movement. Carpentier felt that it was important for him to remain outside of the influences of movements because he believed in maintaining a “balance against the insularity of his homeland”. Upon arriving in Paris he immediately began working on poems and editorials in Parisian and Cuban magazines. Contributions to the Parisian Journal such as the short story "Cahiers du Sud" (1933), in French, were an effort to acquire European readers as a way to improve his recognition. Carpentier was familiar with the activities of the Comité de Jeunes Revolutionnaires Cubains, a group of exiled Cuban leftists who had published La Terreur á Cuba, a brochure against the Machado government. He documented the latest news about this group and their activities in his book Homenaje a nuestros amigos de Paris. It was also during this time that, with the help of Robert Desnos, Carpentier became part of the surrealist movement which became a positive influence in his work. While in France, Carpentier also founded a literary magazine called Imán in 1931, for which he became editor-in-chief. Most of the authors who worked with him in La Revolution Surrealiste also contributed works in Imán under the title “Conocimiento de America”. Carpentier contributed the short story Histoire de Lunes (1933); it was experimental for its time as it contained elements of fantasy and folklore characterized as magical reality.

As Carpentier became acquainted with those among the arts community he had several encounters to meet other famous authors such as Pablo Neruda, who had sent him a draft of his book “Residencia el la Tierra” to review; Guatemalan author Miguel Ángel Asturias, whose work on pre-Columbian mythology influenced his writing;

Throughout his time in France Carpentier was occupied with not only literary works, but also other projects that kept him engaged within the arts. He collaborated with French composer Marins François Gaillard on the musical Yamba-O, “a burlesque tragedy”, that was presented in the Théâtre Beriza in Paris (1928); and with composer Amadeo Roldán helped organize the Cuban premieres of works by Stravinsky and Poulenc. In film, Carpentier wrote text and edited music for the French documentary Le Vaudou. He continued to earn his living by writing on contemporary culture, both in French and Spanish. He also began working for a French radio station as a sound-technician and producer. From 1932 until 1939 Carpentier worked on several projects produced by Foniric Studios. Carpentier himself inidicated that he was tiring of Paris, and "...in 1939 without any other reason than the nostalgia of Cuba, I vacated my apartment and started the return to La Havana".

Return to Cuba and years in Venezuela

Carpentier returned to Cuba and continued to work as a journalist at the outbreak of World War II. He worked on a history of Cuban music, eventually published in 1946 as La música en Cuba. He also wrote short stories which were later collected in The War of Time (1958). In 1949, he finished his novel The Kingdom of this World. This novel has a prologue that "outlines Carpentier's faith in the destiny of Latin America and the aesthetic implications of its peculiar cultural heritage."

In 1966, Carpentier settled in Paris where he served as Cuban ambassador to France. In 1975 he was the recipient of the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca. He received the Cervantes Prize in 1977 and was recipient of the French Laureates Prix Médicis étranger in 1979 for La harpe et l'ombre.

Carpentier was struggling with cancer as he completed his final novel, El arpa y la sombra, and finally died in Paris on April 24, 1980. His remains were returned to Cuba for interment in the Colon Cemetery, Havana.

Themes

Lo real maravilloso

Carpentier is widely known for his theory of lo real maravilloso. This is the notion that the history and the geography of Latin America are both so extreme as to appear fictional or even magical to outsiders. Thus, Latin America is a region where the line between magic and reality is blurred. It was in the prologue to The Kingdom of this World, a novel of the Haitian Revolution, that he described his vision of lo real maravilloso: "But what is the history of Latin America but a chronicle of magical realism?". The novel itself develops the outlandish (but true) history of Henri Christophe, first king of Haiti, as an example of how the real history of Latin America is so strange as to appear fictional. Some critics interpret the real maravilloso as being synonymous with magical realism. However, Carpentier's theory and its development in his work are more limited in their scope than is the magical realism of, for example, Gabriel García Márquez. Whereas García Márquez's works include events that the reader never mistakes for reality (rainfall of flowers, old men with wings, etc.), Carpentier, for the most part, simply writes about extreme aspects of the history and geography of Latin America, aspects that are almost unbelievable, but that are in fact true.

Music

As a young child Carpentier was exposed to a great deal of music. Carpentier himself played the piano, as did his mother; his father played cello, studying under Pau Casals, and his grandmother played the organ. Carpentier studied music theory at the Lycée Jeanson de Sailly when he lived in Paris for the first time. Carpentier's own compositions made him an important part of the contemporary Cuban musical landscape, but he also studied the origins and political nuances of Cuban music. His devotion to the adaptations of European artistic styles into Latin American music styles can also be seen in his admiration for Afro-Cuban musical themes.

Early in his career Carpentier collaborated with other young musicians eager to explore Cuban musical roots. One such collaborator was Amadeo Roldán a French musician of Cuban background. They helped to organize the Cuban premiere of popular orchestral music of the era Conciertos de música nueva (Concerts of New Music), featuring composers such as Stravinsky, Milhaud, Ravel, Malipiero, Poulenc and Eric Satie. In regards to their own music, Carpentier and Roldán were far more interested in integrating African rhythms and melodies into their works and abandoned imitation of European musical styles. "¡Abajo la lira, arriba el bongó!" (Down with the lyre, up with the bongo!) was the popular slogan for their style of music. Carpentier and Roldán collaborated on numerous works; including the 1925 orchestral piece Obertura sobre temas cubanos (Overture on Cuban Themes) which was regarded as scandalous for its betrayal of what was seen as the proper European-style symphony in favor of Afro-Cuban inspired music.

Carpentier's interest in music had great influence on his prose writing. Navarro suggests that readers of Carpentier's works are more listeners than they are readers. Lyrical use of colloquial dialects, literary rhythms such as alliteration and assonance and the theme of music within the world of the narrative (drums, footsteps, etc.) are a few examples of music's influence over Carpentier's work. For Carpentier, analysis of Cuban identity was grounded in the analysis of Cuban music. As such, for Carpentier to better understand Cuban identity through his work, he eagerly integrated music into his writing.

Ethnomusicology and Afro-Cubanism

With this intrinsic appreciation of music and a fascination with Cuban identity, Carpentier began investigating the origins of Cuban music in a more academic sense. In 1946, Carpentier published the ethnomusicological study La Música en Cuba which explores how European music, transplanted African music and the indigenous music of the island all blended together to create Cuban music. Carpentier took particular interest in Afro-Cuban themes.

Particularly fascinated with the overwhelming influence of African music in Cuban music, Carpentier introduced Afro-Cuban influenced music called lo afrocubano, (i.e. heavily improvised and rhythm based music) into what was deemed more formal music venues dependent on European styles, called lo guajiro. Carpentier once wrote that lo guajiro was, "very poetic, but lo guajiro is not music...On the other hand, in mestizo and black music...the rich material has an incredible wealth to it...to make it the work of national expression." Because of racial tensions between white Cubans and black and criollo Cubans, such preferences were not well received by the Cuban elite of the mid century. Carpentier devoted the majority of his musicology research to the Afro-Cuban influences present in Cuba. For example, Carpentier paid particular attention to Contradanza, a wildly popular Cuban dance derived from the European style of music and dance, Contredanse. The ample room left for musical improvisation and the element of group dance were easily adapted into African musical tradition where improvisation and dance play integral roles. Hence, a hybrid musical form unique to Cuba was created. Carpentier argued that the improvisation inherent in African influenced music allowed for varied interpretations that catalyzed regional differences and therefore regional identity, and concluded that this was why Cuba had such a varied musical identity.

Major works

Carpentier's major works include:

Ecue-yamba-o! (1933) (Praised Be the Lord!)

La música en Cuba (1946) (The Music of Cuba), an ethno-musicological study of Cuba starting from the sixteenth century, the arrival of European explorers, till the present day of publication, the mid twentieth century.

El reino de este mundo (1949) (The Kingdom of this World)

Los pasos perdidos (1953) (The Lost Steps)

El acoso (1956) (Manhunt)

Guerra del tiempo (1958) (War of Time)

El siglo de las luces (1962) (Explosion in a Cathedral)

El Recurso del método (1974) (Reasons of State)

Concierto barroco (1974) (Concierto barroco; English: Baroque Concert), based on the 1709 meeting of Vivaldi, Handel and Domenico Scarlatti, with cameo appearances by Wagner and Stravinsky, and fictional characters from the new world who inspire the Venetian composer's opera, Motezuma.

La consagración de la primavera (1978) (The Rite of Spring; Le Sacre du Printemps, ballet by Igor Stravinsky)

El arpa y la sombra (1978) (The Harp and the Shadow) dealing with Columbus.

El reino de este mundo (The Kingdom of this World)

Carpentier's El reino de este mundo (1949) highlights the Haitian Revolution of the 18th century when the African slaves fought the French colonists for their freedom and basic human rights. The novel combines not only historical references of the event with aspects of African faith and rituals, most notably voodoo; but also the connections between corporeal and spiritual self. The story is seen through the eyes of the protagonist Ti Noël, a black slave. Being a white, European/Cuban writer who published on the subject of the Haitian Revolution, it has been implied that Carpentier chose to write from Ti Noël's point of view so that he would avoid being criticized for any racial stereotyping. Carpentier incorporates symbolic architecture throughout the novel; representing the dictatorship of colonial rule with structures such as the Sans-Souci Palace and the fortress of La Ferrière.

La música en Cuba (The Music of Cuba)

La música en Cuba (The Music of Cuba) is an ethno-musicological study of the Music of Cuba starting from the sixteenth century with the arrival of European explorers, until the present day of publication, the mid-twentieth century. The blending of different cultures—black, white, mulattos, criollos and natives—mirrors the blending of Cuba’s two main musical styles, the Christian European music and the elemental percussion and rhythm based music of the transported Africans and aboriginal peoples of the island. The book includes a general history of music in colonized Latin America, but mainly focuses on Cuban styles of music and dance, influential Cuban musicians and Cuban musical identity. Carpentier devotes a great deal of his study to exploring the influence African descendants had on Cuban music. He has an entire chapter titled, “Los Negros” ("The Blacks") that explores the many substantial ways African music influenced all of Latin American music. According to Carpentier, the African influence on Cuban music in particular was deliberately concealed by the colonist prejudice of 18th and 19th century Cuba. At the time of the book's publication many white Cubans were reluctant to even acknowledge the blending of the cultures much less investigate it. Carpentier, though, was eager to do so, and by making bold statements about Cuba’s past and integral relationships with a wide range of cultures he succeeded in giving back to Cuba an in-depth academic perspective of its own cultural identity through its music.

Style

Baroque

The Baroque style dates back to the cultural period of the 17th and early 18th centuries. It is most often defined as "the dominant style of art in Europe between the Mannerist and Rococo eras, a style characterized by dynamic movement, overt emotion and self-confident rhetoric". Carpentier first became fascinated with this style in architecture and sculpture; however, he later describes el barroco as un espíritu, and not un estilo histórico ("a spirit, not an historical style"). Wakefield insists that this attitude towards the Baroque stemmed from Carpentier's background in both Europe and Latin America which allowed him to take on a superior front in the face of post-colonialism and ultimately have the literary upper-hand where he could use European style to tell the Latin American story. Carpentier developed his vision of the baroque in his early works before he described himself as a baroque writer. He experimented with the technique in several developmental stages: "first as a cultural style of aesthetic fascination, later as a literary device to create period ambience, and finally as a weapon of postcolonial pride, defiance and one-upmanship".

This style strongly presents itself when comparing works such as the early Ecue-Yamba-O to the celebrated El reino de este mundo, regarding Carpentier's use of more historically eloquent vocabulary in the latter, instead of the authentic language of the ethnically-inspired characters. Here he escapes the stereotype of "nativism" by incorporating European standards, but continues to achieve a sense of normalcy without the expected use of the colloquialisms which the protagonist Ti Noel would undoubtedly use.

Kaup claims that Carpentier utilizes what is known as the "New World Baroque", since Latin America didn't come into contact with the Enlightenment or "European modernity". This contraconquista (counter conquest) allows the New World authors to experiment with new identities and the manners of expressing them. As such, Carpentier observed in his 1975 essay that "American Baroque develop[ed] along with criollo culture ...: the awareness of being Other, of being new, of being symbiotic, of being a criollo; and the criollo spirit is itself a Baroque spirit." This criollo of the New World Baroque is often seen as the dominant style of European literature emerging as a subordinate literary construction in Latin America.

Influence of Travel

Wakefield notes that Carpentier's diverse travels were motivated by his need to incorporate the sights he experienced into familiar descriptions within his novels. Carpentier's El reino de este mundo was inspired by his 1943 trip to Haiti, and Los pasos perdidos drew on his visit to Venezuela in 1949. Similarly, his travels to Guadelupe and the Gulf of Sante Fe inspired El siglo de las luces, and Vera and Enrique's firsthand descriptions of Baku and Mexico in La consegración de la primavera were drawn from Carpentier's trips to those places.

Surrealism

During his visit to France early in his life, Carpentier met and collaborated with many figures of the French Surrealist movement. Taken with Surrealist theory, Carpentier absorbed much of it from his contemporaries, mainly his friend and colleague, the Parisian journalist Robert Desnos. Striving to portray unlikely beauty, termed, "the third beauty", Surrealist theory embraced unique perspectives of the world. Within the Surrealist theory was the concept of Primitivism or a reverence for presiding folkloric tradition. Carpentier, inspired by French Surrealists, learned to view his Cuban home in this new light. He left France with a bursting sense of Cuban and Latin American pride and the artistic goal to capture what it meant to be both.

Notes

References

;Primary

;Secondary

Further reading

;English

Adams, Michael Ian (1975) Three authors of Alienation : Bombal, Onetti, Carpentier, Austin: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292780095

Echevarría, Roberto González (1983) Alejo Carpentier : Bibliographical guide, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313239231

Brennan, Timothy (Ed. 2001) Alejo Carpentier Music in Cuba: Edited and with and Introduction by Timothy Brennan, translated by Alan West-Durán, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 9780816632299

Cox, Timothy J. (2001) Postmodern Tales of Slavery in the Americas : From Alejo Carpentier to Charles Johnson, New York: Garland.

Harvey, Sally (1994) Carpentier's Proustian Fiction : The Influence of Marcel Proust on Alejo Carpentier, London: Tamesis Books, ISBN 1855660342

Janney, Frank (1981) Alejo Carpentier and his Early Works, London : Tamesis Books, ISBN 0729300625

King, Lloyd (1972) Alejo Carpentier : His Euro-Caribbean Vision, St. Augustine, Trinidad: Research & Publications Fund Committee.

Pancrazio, James J. (2004) The Logic of Fetishism : Alejo Carpentier and the Cuban Tradition, Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press.

Shaw, Donald, (1985) Alejo Carpentier Twayne World Author's Series, ISBN 0805766065

Tusa, Bobs (1983) Alchemy of a hero : a Comparative Study of the Works of Alejo Carpentier and Mario Vargas Llosa, Valencia; Chapel Hill : Albatros Hispanofila, ISBN 8472740994

Tusa, Bobs, (1982) Alejo Carpentier, a Comprehensive Study, Valencia; Chapel Hill : Albatros Hispanofila, ISBN 8472740900

Wakefield, Steve (2004) Carpentier's Baroque fiction : Returning Medusa's Gaze, Tamesis Books, ISBN 9781855661073

Webb, Barbara (1992) Myth and History in Caribbean Fiction : Alejo Carpentier, Wilson Harris, and Edouard Glissant, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.

Young, Richard E. (1983) Carpentier, El reino de este mundo.

;Spanish

Acosta, Leonardo (1981) Música y épica en la novela de Alejo Carpentier.

Ainsa, Fernando, (2005) Alejo Carpentier ante la crítica.

Arias, Salvador (1977) Recopilación de textos sobre Alejo Carpentier.

Barroso, Juan (1977) Realismo mágico y lo real maravilloso en El reino de este mundo y El siglo de las luces.

Bergh, Klaus Müller (1972) Alejo Carpentier : Estudio biográfico-critico.

Bergh, Klaus Müller (1972) Asedios a Carpentier.

Birkenmaier, Anke (2006) Alejo Carpentier y la cultura del surrealismo en América Latina.

Blanco, Luis (1970) Alejo Carpentier : tientos y differencias.

Calahorro,Inmaculada López (2006) Alejo Carpentier y el mundo clasico.

Chaple, Sergio (2004) Estudios carpenterianos.

Collard, Patrick (1991) Cómo leer a Alejo Carpentier.

Cvitanovic, Dinko (1997) Carpentier : una revisión lineal.

Duno-Gottberg, Luis (2003) "Solventando las diferencias: La ideología del mestizaje en Cuba", Iberoamericana – Frankfurt am Main, Vervuert, Madrid.

Echevarría, Roberto González (1993) Alejo Carpentier, el peregrino en su patria.

Echevarría, Roberto González (2004) Alejo Carpentier, el peregrino en su patria.

Fama, Antonio (1995) Las últimas obras de Alejo Carpentier.

Fowler, Víctor (2004) Diccionario de conceptos de Alejo Carpentier.

González, Eduardo (1978) Alejo Carpentier : el tiempo del hombre.

Labastida, Jaime (1974) Casa de las Américas, no.87, "Con Alejo Carpentier".

Martí, José (1974) Un camino de medio siglo : Homenaje nacional al 70 aniversario de Alejo Carpentier.

Mayo, Edmundo Gómez, Construcción y lenguaje en Alejo Carpentier.

Mocega-González, Esther P. (1980) Alejo Carpentier : estudios sobre su narrativa.

Mocega-González, Esther P. (1975) La narrativa de Alejo Carpentier : el concepto del tiempo como tema fundamental.

Mujica, Héctor (1975) Conversación con Alejo Carpentier.

Padura, Leonardo (2002) Un camino de medio siglo : Alejo Carpentier y la narrativa de lo real maravilloso.

Pickenhayn,Jorge Oscar (1978) Para leer a Alejo Carpentier.

Plaza, Sixto (1984) El acá y el allá en la narrativa de Alejo Carpentier.

Sáinz, Enrigue (1980) Conversación con Alejo Carpentier.

Santander, Carlos (1971) Alejo Carpentier : viaje a la Semilly y otros relatos.

Selma, José Vila (1978) El "último" Carpentier.

Rodríguez, Alexis Márquez (1982) Lo barroco y lo real-maravilloso en la obra de Alejo Carpentier.

Rodríguez, Alexis Márquez (2004) Nuevas lecturas de alejo Carpentier.

Zurdo, Oscar Velayos (1985) El diálogo con la historia de Alejo Carpentier.

Category:Cuban communists Category:Cuban music history Category:Cuban novelists Category:Magic realism writers Category:Premio Cervantes winners Category:1904 births Category:1980 deaths Category:Cuban essayists Category:Cuban people of French descent Category:Prix Médicis étranger winners Category:Prix mondial Cino Del Duca winners

Name	Esteban Salas y Castro
Birth date	December 25, 1725
Birth place	Havana, Cuba
Death date	July 14, 1803
Death place	Santiago de Cuba, Cuba

Esteban Salas y Castro (December 25, 1725 – July 14, 1803) was a Cuban composer of religious music. His compositions focused chiefly on vocal music, and are a fine representation of the late Baroque style. Although heavily influenced by French and Italian works of the period, his music is considered to incorporate an original Latin American component.

He became a teacher and head of music at the Chapel of Music at the cathedral of Santiago de Cuba from 1764. He also studied theology and canon law and was ordained a priest in Santiago de Cuba in 1790. Salas composed his last carol for Christmas 1801.

Interest in his works was revived during the twentieth century following the rediscovery of many of his scores during the 1940s by the Cuban novelist and musicologist, Alejo Carpentier.

The music conservatory in Santiago de Cuba is named in his honor.

References

External links

Category:1725 births Category:1803 deaths Category:People from Santiago de Cuba Category:Cuban music history Category:Cuban composers Category:Baroque composers Category:Cuban Roman Catholic priests