A knight is a member of the warrior class of the Middle Ages in Europe who followed a code of law called "chivalry". In other Indo-European languages, cognates of ''cavalier'' or ''rider'' are more prevalent (e.g., French ''chevalier'' and German ''Ritter''), suggesting a connection to the knight's mode of transport. Since antiquity a position of honour and prestige has been held by mounted warriors such as the Greek ''hippeus'' and the Roman ''eques'', and knighthood in the Middle Ages was inextricably linked with horsemanship.

The British legend of King Arthur was popularised throughout Europe in the Middle Ages by the cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth in his ''Historia Regum Britanniae'' ("History of the Kings of Britain"), written in the 1130s. Sir Thomas Malory's ''Le Morte d'Arthur'' ("The Death of Arthur"), written in 1485, was important in defining the ideal of chivalry which is essential to the modern concept of the knight as an elite warrior sworn to uphold the values of faith, loyalty, courage, and honour. During the Renaissance, the genre of chivalric romance became popular in literature, growing ever more idealistic and eventually giving rise to a new form of realism in literature popularised by Miguel de Cervantes' ''Don Quixote''. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes' world. In the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations.

Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have themselves become the object of legend; others have disappeared into obscurity. Today, a number of orders of knighthood continue to exist in several countries, such as the English Order of the Garter, the Swedish Royal Order of the Seraphim, and the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav. Each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement.

Etymology

The word ''knight'', from Old English ''cniht'' ("boy" or "servant"), is a cognate of the German word ''Knecht'' ("servant, bondsman"). This meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages (cf: Old Frisian ''kniucht'', Dutch ''knecht'', Danish ''knægt'', Swedish ''knekt'', Middle High German ''kneht'', all meaning "boy, youth, lad", as well as German ''Knecht'' "servant, bondsman, vassal"). Old English ''cniht'' had no particular connection to horsemanship, referring to any servant. A ''rādcniht'' (meaning "riding-servant") was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback. Old English ''cnihthād'' ("knighthood") had the meaning of adolescence (''i.e.'' the period between childhood and manhood) by 1300.

A narrowing of the generic meaning "servant" to "military follower of a king or other superior" is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a ''knight'' being a mounted warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years' War. The verb "to knight", i.e. to make someone a knight appears around 1300, and from the same time, the word "knighthood" shifted from "adolescence" to "rank or dignity of a knight".

In this respect English differs from most other European languages, where the equivalent word emphasizes the status and prosperity of war horse ownership. Linguistically, the association of horse ownership with social status extends back at least as far as ancient Greece, where many aristocratic names incorporated the Greek word for ''horse'', like Hipparchus and Xanthippe; the character Pheidippides in Aristophanes' ''Clouds'' has his grandfather's name with ''hipp-'' inserted to sound more aristocratic. Similarly, the Greek (''hippeus'') is commonly translated "knight"; at least in its sense of the highest of the four Athenian social classes, those who could afford to maintain a warhorse in the state service.

An Equestrian (Latin, from ''eques'' "horseman", from ''equus'' "horse") was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as "knight"; the medieval knight, however, was called ''miles'' in Latin, (which in classical Latin meant "soldier", normally infantry).

In the later Roman Empire the classical Latin word for horse, ''equus,'' was replaced in common parlance by vulgar Latin ''caballus'', sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish ''caballos''. From ''caballus'' arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate to the (French-derived) English ''cavalier'': Old Italian ''cavaliere'', Italian ''cavallo'', French ''cheval'', Spanish ''caballero'', French ''chevalier'', Portuguese ''cavaleiro'', Romanian ''cavaler''. The Germanic languages prefer terms cognate to the English ''rider'': German ''Ritter'', and Dutch and Scandinavian ''ridder''.

Origins of medieval knighthood

Since antiquity, heavy cavalry known as Cataphracts were involved in various wars mainly by Iranian peoples, with their arms and role in battle similar to those of the medieval knight. However, a cataphract had no fixed political position or social role other than his military function. The Iranian Sarmatians were probably the originator of the armored knights of medieval Europe. Knighthood as known in Europe was characterized by the combination of two elements, feudalism and service as a mounted warrior. Both arose under the reign of the Frankish emperor Charlemagne, from which the knighthood of the Middle Ages can be seen to have had its genesis.

Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century CE, had always been mounted, and some armies, such as those of the Ostrogoths, comprised mainly cavalry. However it was the Franks who came to dominate Western and Central Europe after the fall of Rome, and they generally fielded armies composed of large masses of infantry, with an infantry elite, the comitatus, which often rode to battle on horseback rather than marching on foot. Riding to battle had two key advantages: it reduced fatigue, particularly when the elite soldiers wore armour (as was increasingly the case in the centuries after the fall of the Western Roman empire); and it gave the soldiers more mobility to react to the raids of the enemy, particularly the Muslim invasions which reached Europe in 711. So it was that the armies of the Frankish ruler and warlord Charles Martel, which defeated the Umayyad Arab invasion at the Battle of Tours in 732, were still largely infantry armies, the elites riding to battle but dismounting to fight, providing a hard core for the levy of the infantry warbands. As the 8th century progressed into the Carolingian Age, the Franks were generally on the attack, and larger numbers of warriors took to their horses to ride with the Emperor in his wide-ranging campaigns of conquest. At about this time the Franks increasingly remained on horseback to fight on the battlefield as true cavalry rather than as mounted infantry, and would continue to do so for centuries thereafter. Although in some nations the knight returned to foot combat in the 14th century, the association of the knight with mounted combat with a spear, and later a lance, remained a strong one. These mobile mounted warriors made Charlemagne’s far-flung conquests possible, and to secure their service he rewarded them with grants of land called benefices. These were given to the captains directly by the Emperor to reward their efforts in the conquests, and they in turn were to grant benefices to their warrior contingents, who were a mix of free and unfree men. In the century or so following Charlemagne’s death, his newly empowered warrior class grew stronger still, and Charles the Bald declared their fiefs to be hereditary. The period of chaos in the 9th and 10th centuries, between the fall of the Carolingian central authority and the rise of separate Western and Eastern Frankish kingdoms (later to become France and Germany respectively), only entrenched this newly-landed warrior class. This was because governing power, and defence against Viking, Magyar and Saracen attack, became an essentially local affair which revolved around these new hereditary local lords and their ''demesnes''.

The resulting hereditary, landed class of mounted elite warriors, the knights, were increasingly seen as the only true soldiers of Europe, hence the exclusive use of ''miles'' for them.

The first military orders of knighthood were the Knights Hospitaller founded at the First Crusade of 1099, followed by the Knights Templar (1119). At the time of their foundation, these were intended as monastic orders, whose members would act as simple soldiers protecting pilgrims. It was only over the following century, with the successful conquest of the Holy Land and the rise of the crusader states, that these orders became powerful and prestigious.

The ideal of chivalry as the ethos of the Christian warrior, and the transmutation of the term ''knight'' from the meaning "servant, soldier", and of ''chevalier'' "mounted soldier", to refer to a member of this ideal class, is significantly influenced by the Crusades, on one hand inspired by the military orders of monastic warriors, as seen retrospectively from the point of view of the beginning Late Middle Ages, and on the other hand influenced by Islamic (Saracen) ideals of ''furusiyya''.

Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (1459–1519) is often referred to as the last true knight. He was the last emperor to lead his troops onto the battlefield.

Chivalric code

Knights of the medieval era were asked to "Protect the weak, defenseless, helpless, and fight for the general welfare of all." These few guidelines were the main duties of a medieval knight, but they were very hard to accomplish fully. Rarely could even the best of knights achieve these goals. Knights trained in hunting, fighting, and riding, amongst other things. They were also trained to practise courteous, honorable behaviour, which was considered extremely important. Chivalry (derived from the French word chevalier implying "skills to handle a horse") was the main principle guiding a knight’s life style. The code of chivalry dealt with three main areas: the military, social life, and religion.

The military side of life was very important to knighthood. Along with the fighting elements of war, there were many customs and rules to be followed as well. A way of demonstrating military chivalry was to own expensive, heavy weaponry. Weapons were not the only crucial instruments for a knight. Horses were also extremely important, and each knight often owned several horses for distinct purposes. One of the greatest signs of chivalry was the flying of coloured banners, to display power and to distinguish knights in battle and in tournaments. Warriors were not only required to own all these belongings to prove their allegiance: they were expected to act with military courtesy as well. In combat when nobles and knights were taken prisoner, their lives were spared and were often held for ransom in somewhat comfortable surroundings. This same code of conduct did not apply to non-knights (archers, peasants, foot-soldiers, etc.) who were often slaughtered after capture, and who were viewed during battle as mere impediments to knights' getting to other knights to fight them.

Becoming a knight was not a widely attainable goal in the medieval era. Sons of knights were eligible for the ranks of knighthood, but while other young men could indeed become knights, the job was just nearly impossible, especially for those from the lowest class. Those who were destined to become knights were singled out: in boyhood, these future warriors were sent off to a castle as pages, later becoming squires. Commonly around the age of 20, knights would be admitted to their rank in a ceremony called either "dubbing" (from the French ''adoubement''), or the "Accolade". Although these strong young men had proved their eligibility, their social status would be permanently controlled. They were expected to obey the code of chivalry at all times, and no failure was accepted.

Chivalry and religion were mutually influenced. The early Crusades helped to clarify the moral code of chivalry as it related to religion. As a result, Christian armies began to devote their efforts to sacred purposes. As time passed, clergy instituted religious vows which required knights to use their weapons chiefly for the protection of the weak and defenceless, especially women and orphans, and of churches.

The Code of Chivalry continued to influence social behaviour long after the actual knighthood ceased to exist, influencing for example 19th century Victorian perceptions of how a "gentleman" ought to behave up to today.

Knights in literature

Knights and the ideals of knighthood featured largely in medieval and Renaissance literature, and have secured a permanent place in literary romance. While chivalric romances abound, particularly notable literary portrayals of knighthood include Geoffrey Chaucer's ''The Knight's Tale'', Baldassare Castiglione's ''The Book of the Courtier'', and Miguel de Cervantes' ''Don Quixote'', as well as Sir Thomas Malory's ''Le Morte d'Arthur'' and other Arthurian tales (Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''Historia Regum Britanniae'', the Pearl Poet's ''Sir Gawain and the Green Knight'', etc.). The ideal courtier—the chivalrous knight—of Baldassarre Castiglione's ''The Book of the Courtier'' became a model of the ideal virtues of nobility. Castiglione's tale took the form of a discussion among the nobility of the court of the Duke of Urbino, in which the characters determine that the ideal knight should be renowned not only for his bravery and prowess in battle, but also as a skilled dancer, athlete, singer and orator, and he should also be well-read in the Humanities and classical Greek and Latin literature.

Heraldry and other attributes

Knights are generally ''armigerous'' (bearing a coat of arms), and indeed they played an essential role in the development of heraldry. As heavier armour, including enlarged shields and enclosed helmets, developed in the Middle Ages, the need for marks of identification arose, and with coloured shields and surcoats, coat armory was born. Armorial rolls were created to record the knights of various regions or those who participated in various tournaments.

Additionally, knights adopted certain forms of regalia which became closely associated with the status of knighthood. At the Battle of Crécy (1346), Edward III of England sent his son, Edward, the Black Prince, to lead the charge into battle and when pressed to send reinforcements, the king replied, "say to them that they suffer him this day to win his spurs." Clearly, by this time, spurs had already become emblematic of knighthood. The livery collar is also specifically associated with knighthood.

Orders of knighthood

Military–monastic orders

Knights Hospitaller, founded during the First Crusade, 1099

Order of Saint Lazarus established about 1100

Knights Templar, founded 1118, disbanded 1307

Teutonic Knights, established about 1190, and ruled the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia until 1525

Other orders were established in the Iberian peninsula, under the influence of the orders in the Holy Land and the Crusader movement of the Reconquista:

the Order of Aviz, established in Avis in 1143

the Order of Alcántara, established in Alcántara in 1156

the Order of Calatrava, established in Calatrava in 1158

the Order of Santiago, established in Santiago in 1164.

Chivalric orders

After the Crusades, the military orders became idealized and romanticized, resulting in the late medieval notion of chivalry, as reflected in the Arthurian romances of the time. The creation of chivalric orders was fashionable among the nobility in the 14th and 15th centuries, and this is still reflected in contemporary honours systems, including the term order itself. Examples of notable orders of chivalry are:

the Order of Saint George, founded by Charles I of Hungary in 1325/6

the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, founded by count Amadeus VI in 1346

the Order of the Garter, founded by Edward III of England around 1348

the Order of the Dragon, founded by King Sigismund of Luxemburg in 1408

the Order of the Golden Fleece, founded by Philip III, Duke of Burgundy in 1430

the Order of Saint Michael, founded by Louis XI of France in 1469

the Order of the Thistle, founded by King James VII of Scotland (also known as James II of England) in 1687

the Order of the Elephant, which may have been first founded by Christian I of Denmark, but was founded in its current form by King Christian V in 1693

the Order of the Bath, founded by George I in 1725

Ceremonial

From roughly 1560, purely honorific orders were established, as a way to confer prestige and distinction, unrelated to military service and chivalry in the more narrow sense. Such orders were particularly popular in the 17th and 18th centuries, and knighthood continues to be conferred in various countries:

The United Kingdom (see British honors system) and some Commonwealth of Nations countries;

Some European countries, such as The Netherlands (see below).

The Holy See — see Papal Orders of Chivalry.

There are other monarchies and also republics that also follow this practice. Modern knighthoods are typically awarded in recognition for services rendered to society: services which are not necessarily martial in nature. The British musician Elton John, for example, is a Knight Bachelor, thus entitled to be called Sir Elton. The female equivalent is a ''Dame''.

In the British honor system the knightly style of ''Sir'' is accompanied by the given name, and optionally the surname. So, Elton John may be called ''Sir Elton'' or ''Sir Elton John'', but never ''Sir John''. Similarly, actress Judi Dench DBE may be addressed as ''Dame Judi'' or ''Dame Judi Dench'', but never ''Dame Dench''.

Wives of knights, however, are entitled to the honorific "Lady" before their husband's surname. Thus Sir Paul McCartney's ex-wife was formally styled ''Lady McCartney'' (rather than ''Lady Paul McCartney'' or ''Lady Heather McCartney''). The style ''Dame Heather McCartney'' could be used for the wife of a knight; however, this style is largely archaic and is only used in the most formal of documents, or where the wife is a Dame in her own right (such as Dame Norma Major, who gained her title six years before her husband Sir John Major was knighted). The husbands of Dames have no honorific, so Dame Norma's husband remained John Major until he received his own knighthood.

Since the reign of Edward VII a clerk in holy orders in the Church of England or in another Anglican Church has not normally received the accolade on being appointed to a degree of knighthood. He receives the insignia of his honor and may place the appropriate letters after his name or title but he may not be called Sir and his wife may not be called Lady. The Rt Revd the Hon Sir Paul Reeves did receive the accolade and is correctly called Sir but it is not clear how this situation arose. Ministers of other Christian Churches are entitled to receive the accolade. For example, His Eminence Sir Norman Cardinal Gilroy did receive the accolade on his appointment as Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in 1969. A knight who is subsequently ordained does not lose his title. A famous example of this situation was The Revd Sir Derek Pattinson, who was ordained just a year after he was appointed Knight Bachelor, apparently somewhat to the consternation of officials at Buckingham Palace. A woman clerk in holy orders may be appointed a Dame in exactly the same way as any other woman since there are no military connotations attached to the honour. A clerk in holy orders who is a baronet is entitled to use the title Sir.

Outside the British honours system it is usually considered improper to address a knighted person as 'Sir' or 'Dame'. Some countries, however, historically ''did'' have equivalent honorifics for knights, such as Cavaliere in Italy (e.g. ''Cavaliere'' Benito Mussolini), and Ritter in Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire (e.g. Georg ''Ritter'' von Trapp'').

State Knighthoods in the Netherlands are issued in three orders, the Order of William, the Order of the Netherlands Lion, and the Order of Orange Nassau. Additionally there remain a few hereditary knights in the Netherlands.

In France, among other orders are the Légion d'Honneur, the Ordre National du Mérite, the Ordre des Palmes académiques and the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. The lowest of the ranks conferred by these orders is ''Chevalier'', meaning Knight.

In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the monarchs tried to establish chivalric orders but the hereditary lords who controlled the Union did not agree and managed to ban such assemblies. They feared the King would use Orders to gain support for absolutist goals and to make formal distinctions among the peerage which could lead to its legal breakup into two separate classes, and that the King would later play one against the other and eventually limit the legal privileges of hereditary nobility. But finally in 1705 King August II managed to establish the Order of the White Eagle which remains Poland's most prestigious order of that kind. The head of state (now the President as the acting Grand Master) confers knighthoods of the Order to distinguished citizens, foreign monarchs and other heads of state. The Order has its Chapter. There were no particular honorifics that would accompany a knight's name as historically all (or at least by far most) its members would be royals or hereditary lords anyway. So today, a knight is simply referred to as "Name Surname, knight of the White Eagle (Order)".

Hereditary knighthoods in Great Britain and Ireland

There are traces of the Continental system of hereditary knighthood on the British Isles.. Notably all three of the following belong to the Welsh-Norman FitzGerald dynasty, created by the Earls of Desmond, acting as Earls Palatine, for their kinsmen.

Knight of Kerry or Green Knight (FitzGerald of Kerry) — the current holder is Sir Adrian FitzGerald, 6th Baronet of Valencia, 24th Knight of Kerry. He is also a Knight of Malta, and currently President of the Irish Association of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.

Knight of Glin or Black Knight (FitzGerald of Limerick) — the current holder is Desmond FitzGerald, 29th Knight of Glin

White Knight (see Edmund Fitzgibbon) — now dormant

Another Irish family were the O'Shaughnessys, who were created knights in 1553 under the policy of Surrender and regrant (first established by Henry VIII of England).

Since 1611, the British Crown has awarded a hereditary title in the form of the Baronetcy. Like knights, baronets are accorded the title ''Sir''. Baronets are not peers of the realm, and did not sit in the House of Lords when it was a hereditary house, therefore like knights they remain commoners in the view of the British nobility system. However, unlike knights, the title is hereditary and the recipient does not receive an accolade. The position is therefore more comparable with hereditary knighthoods in continental European orders of nobility, such as ''ritter'', than with knighthoods under the British orders of chivalry.

Women in orders of knighthood

England

Women were appointed to the Order of the Garter almost from the start. In all, 68 women were appointed between 1358 and 1488, including all consorts. Though many were women of royal blood, or wives of knights of the Garter, some women were neither. They wore the garter on the left arm, and some are shown on their tombstones with this arrangement. After 1488, no other appointments of women are known, although it is said that the Garter was granted to Neapolitan poet Laura Bacio Terricina, by Edward VI. In 1638, a proposal was made to revive the use of robes for the wives of knights in ceremonies, but this did not occur. Queen consorts have been made Ladies of the Garter since 1901 (Queens Alexandra in 1901, Mary in 1910, Elizabeth in 1937). The first non-Royal woman to be made Lady Companion of the Garter was Lavinia, duchess of Norfolk in 1990, the second was Baroness Thatcher in 1995 (post-nominal: LG). On Nov. 30, 1996, Marion Ann Forbes, Lady Fraser was made Lady of the Thistle, the first non-Royal woman (post-nominal: LT). (See Edmund Fellowes, Knights of the Garter, 1939; and Beltz: Memorials of the Order of the Garter). The first woman to be granted a knighthood in modern Britain seems to have been H.H. Nawab Sikandar Begum Sahiba, Nawab Begum of Bhopal, who became a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India (GCSI) in 1861, at the foundation of the order. Her daughter received the same honor in 1872, as well as her granddaughter in 1910. The order was open to "princes and chiefs" without distinction of gender. The first European woman to have been granted an order of knighthood was Queen Mary, when she was made a Knight Grand Commander of the same order, by special statute, in celebration of the Delhi Durbar of 1911. She was also granted a knighthood in 1917, when the Order of the British Empire was created (it was the first order explicitly open to women). The Royal Victorian Order was opened to women in 1936, and the Order of Bath and Saint Michael and Saint George in 1965 and 1971 respectively.

France

Medieval French had two words, chevaleresse and chevalière, which were used in two ways: one was for the wife of a knight, and this usage goes back to the 14th c. The other was possibly for a female knight. Here is a quote from Menestrier, a 17th c. writer on chivalry: "It was not always necessary to be the wife of a knight in order to take this title. Sometimes, when some male fiefs were conceded by special privilege to women, they took the rank of chevaleresse, as one sees plainly in Hemricourt where women who were not wives of knights are called chevaleresses." Modern French orders of knighthood include women, for example the Légion d'Honneur (Legion of Honor) since the mid-19th c., but they are usually called chevaliers. The first documented case is that of Marie-Angélique Duchemin (1772-1859), who fought in the Revolutionary Wars, received a military disability pension in 1798, the rank of 2nd lieutenant in 1822, and the Legion of Honor in 1852. A recipient of the Ordre National du Mérite recently requested from the order's Chancery the permission to call herself "chevalière," and the request was granted (AFP dispatch, Jan 28, 2000).

Italy

As related in ''Orders of Knighthood, Awards and the Holy See'' by H.E. Cardinale (1983), the Order of the glorious Saint Mary was founded by Loderigo d'Andalo (a nobleman of Bologna) in 1233, and approved by pope Alexander IV in 1261. It was the first religious order of knighthood to grant the rank of militissa to women. However, this order was suppressed by Sixtus V in 1558.

The Low Countries

At the initiative of Catherine Baw in 1441, and 10 years later of Elizabeth, Mary, and Isabella of the house of Hornes, orders were founded which were open exclusively to women of noble birth, who received the French title of chevalière or the Latin title of equitissa. In his Glossarium (s.v. militissa), Du Cange notes that still in his day (17th c.), the female canons of the canonical monastery of St. Gertrude in Nivelles (Brabant), after a probation of 3 years, are made knights (militissae) at the altar, by a (male) knight called in for that purpose, who gives them the accolade with a sword and pronounces the usual words.

Spain

To honor those women who defended the town of Tortosa against an attack by the Moors, Raymond Berenger, then count of Barcelona, created the order of the Hatchet (orden de la Hacha) in 1149. As reported by Ashmole in ''The Institution, Laws, and Ceremony of the Most Noble Order of the Garter'' (1672) Ch. 3, sect. 3: "The inhabitants [of Tortosa] being at length reduced to gread streights [sic], desired relief of the Earl, but he, being not in a condition to give them any, they entertained some thoughts of making a surrender. Which the Women hearing of, to prevent the disaster threatning their City, themselves, and Children, put on men's Clothes, and by a resolute sally, forced the Moors to raise the Siege. The Earl, finding himself obliged, bythe gallentry [sic] of the action, thought fit to make his acknowlegements thereof, by granting them several Privileges and Immunities, and to perpetuate the memory of so signal an attempt, instituted an Order, somewhat like a Military Order, into which were admitted only those Brave Women, deriving the honor to their Descendants, and assigned them for a Dadge, a thing like a Fryars Capouche [sic], sharp at the top, after the form of a Torch, and of a crimson colour, to be worn upon their Head-clothes. He also ordained, that at all publick [sic] meetings, the women should have precedence of the Men. That they should be exempted from all Taxes, and that all the Apparel and Jewels, though of never so great value, left by their dead Husbands, should be their own. These Women having thus aquired this Honor by their personal Valour, carried themselves after the Military Knights of those days."

See also

Accolade

British honours system

Chivalric orders

Destrier

Heavy Cavalry

Knightly Virtues

Knight-errant

Medieval warfare

Nobility

Papal Orders of Chivalry

Analogous concepts:

Bogatyr, or ''vityaz'', the Kievan Rus' knight-errant

Vitez, the Medieval Bosnian knight

Cataphract, an ancient heavy cavalry

Hwarang, a similar class in Korean history

Hidalgo, a similar class in Spanish history

Sipahi, a similar class in Turkish history

Kshatriya, a similar class in Indian history

Mamluk, a similar class in Middle Eastern history

Noker, a similar class in Mongol history

Samurai, a similar class in Japanese history

Youxia, a similar class in Chinese history

Notes

References

Arnold, Benjamin. ''German Knighthood, 1050-1300''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985. ISBN 0198219601

Bloch, Marc. ''Feudal Society'', 2nd ed. Translated by Manyon. London: Routledge & Keagn Paul, 1965.

Bluth, B. J. ''Marching with Sharpe''. London: Collins, 2001. ISBN 0004145372

Boulton, D'Arcy Jonathan Dacre. ''The Knights of the Crown: The Monarchical Orders of Knighthood in Later Medieval Europe, 1325-1520''. 2d revised ed. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2000. ISBN 0851157955

Bull, Stephen. ''An Historical Guide to Arms and Armour''. London: Studio Editions, 1991. ISBN 1851707239

Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John. ''Warfare in the Medieval World'', UK: Pen & Sword Military, June 2006. ISBN 1844153398

Edge, David; John Miles Paddock (1988) ''Arms & Armor of the Medieval Knight''. Greenwich, CT: Bison Books Corp. ISBN 0517103192

Edwards, J. C. "What Earthly Reason? The replacement of the longbow by handguns." ''Medieval History Magazine'', Is. 7, March 2004.

Embleton, Gerry. ''Medieval Military Costume''. UK: Crowood Press, 2001. ISBN 1861263716

Forey, Alan John. ''The Military Orders: From the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries''. Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Macmillan Education, 1992. ISBN 0333462343

Hare, Christopher. ''Courts & camps of the Italian renaissance''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1908.

Laing, Lloyd and Jennifer Laing. ''Medieval Britain: The Age of Chivalry''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996. ISBN 0312162782

Oakeshott, Ewart. ''A Knight and his Horse'', 2nd ed. Chester Springs, PA: Dufour Editions, 1998. ISBN 0802312977

Robards, Brooks. ''The Medieval Knight at War''. London: Tiger Books, 1997. ISBN 1855019191

Shaw, William A. ''The Knights of England: A Complete Record from the Earliest Time''. London: Central Chancery, 1906. (Republished Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1970). ISBN 080630443X Williams, Alan. "The Metallurgy of Medieval Arms and Armour", in ''Companion to Medieval Arms and Armour''. Nicolle, David, ed. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2002. ISBN 0851158722

External links

Association of Papal Orders in Great Britain

Modern Honours of the UK

International Commission for Orders of Chivalry

The Soldier in later Medieval England Detailed service records of 250,000 medieval soldiers are online.

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realm	Norway
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coatofarms article	Coat of arms of Norway
incumbent	Harald V
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first monarch	Harald I
date	c. 872 }}

The Norwegian monarch or Sovereign is the head of state of Norway, which is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government. The Norwegian monarchy can trace its line back to the reign of Harald Fairhair and the previous petty kingdoms which were united to form Norway; it has been united with both Sweden and Denmark for long periods.

The present sovereign is King Harald V, who has reigned since 17 January 1991. The heir apparent is his only son, Crown Prince Haakon. The Crown Prince undertakes various public ceremonial functions, as does the King's wife, Queen Sonja. The Crown Prince also acts as regent in the King's absence. There are several other members of the Royal Family, including the King's daughter, grandchildren and siblings. The Royal House is a branch of the princely family of Glücksburg, originally from Schleswig-Holstein in Germany, the same royal house as the Danish and former Greek royal families.

While the Constitution of Norway grants important executive powers to the king, these are almost always exercised by the Council of State in the name of the King (King's Council, or cabinet). Formally the King appoints the government according to his own judgement, but parliamentary practice has been in place since 1884. Constitutional practice has replaced the meaning of the word King in most articles of the constitution from the king personally to the elected government. The powers vested in the Monarch are significant, but are treated only as reserve powers and as an important security part of the role of the Monarchy.

The King's functions are mainly ceremonial. He ratifies laws and royal resolutions, receives and sends envoys to foreign countries and hosts state visits. He has a more tangible influence as the symbol of national unity. The annual New Year's Eve speech is one venue where the king traditionally raises issues dealing with negative aspects in society. The King is also High Protector of the Church of Norway (the state church), Supreme Commander of the Norwegian armed forces and Grand Master of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit.

History

::''Main article: Hereditary Kingdom of Norway''

The position of King of Norway has been in continuous existence since the unification of Norway in 872. Although Norway has officially been a hereditary kingdom throughout that entire time there have been several instances of elective succession, latest in 1905 Haakon VII was elected by the people of Norway to the position of king through a plebiscite. In recent years members of the Socialist Left party have proposed the abolition of the monarchy during each new session of parliament, though without any likelihood of success. This gives the Norwegian monarchy the unique status of being a popularly elected royal family and receiving regular formal confirmations of support from the Storting.

Germanic kingdom

Prior to and in the early phase of the Viking Age Norway was divided into several smaller kingdoms. These are thought to follow the same tradition as other Germanic monarchies of the time; the king was usually elected by the high ranking farmers of the area and served mainly as judge during the popular assemblies, as a priest during the sacrifices and as a military leader during wars.

Harald Fairhair was the first king of Norway. The date of the first formation of a unified Norwegian kingdom is set to 872 when he defeated the last petty kings who resisted him at the Battle of Hafrsfjord, however the consolidation of his power took many years. The boundaries of Fairhair's kingdom were not identical to those of present day Norway, and upon his death the kingship was shared among his sons. Some historians put emphasis on the actual monarchial control over the country and assert that Olaf II alias ''Saint Olaf'', who reigned from 1015 and to 1028, was the first king to control the entire country. Olaf is generally held to be the driving force behind Norway's final conversion to Christianity. Furthermore he was in 1031 revered as Rex Perpetuum Norvegiæ (Latin for ''Eternal King of Norway''), and subsequently, the 1163 Succession Law stated that all kings after Olaf II's son, Magnus I, were not independent monarchs, but vassals holding Norway as a fief from Saint Olaf.

Middle ages

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Norwegian kingdom was at its geographical and cultural peak. The kingdom included Norway (including the now Swedish provinces of Jemtland, Herjedalen, Særna, Idre and Båhuslen), Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Shetland, Orkney and other smaller areas in the present day United Kingdom. The king had diplomatic relations with most of the European kingdoms and formed alliances with Scotland and Castile, among others. Large castles such as Haakon's Hall and cathedrals, the foremost being Nidaros Cathedral, were built.

In the tradition of the Germanic monarchy the king had to be elected by a representative assembly of noblemen. Men eligible for election had to be of royal blood; the eldest son of the previous king was not automatically chosen. During the civil war era the unclear succession laws and the practice of power-sharing between several kings simultaneously gave personal conflicts the potential to become full-blown wars. Over the centuries kings consolidated their power and eventually a strict succession law made Norway a principally hereditary kingdom. In practice the king was elected by the Riksråd in a similar way to Denmark. He adhered to a håndfæstning and governed in the council of Norwegian noblemen according to existing laws.

After the death of Haakon VI of Norway in 1380, his son Olav IV of Norway succeeded to both the thrones of Norway and Denmark and was also elected King of Sweden. After his death at the age of 17 his mother Margrethe united the three Scandinavian kingdoms in personal union under one crown, in the Kalmar Union. Olav's death extinguished the Norwegian male royal line; he was also the last Norwegian king to be born on Norwegian soil for the next 567 years.

The Black Death of 1349–51 was a contributing factor to the decline of the Norwegian monarchy as the noble families and population in general were gravely affected. But the most devastating factor for the nobility and the monarchy in Norway was the steep decline in income from their holdings. Many farms were deserted and rents and taxes suffered. This left the Norwegian monarchy weakened in terms of manpower, noble support, defence ability and economic power.

Surviving the unions

The Kalmar Union was made possible not only by the complex events in the royal dynasties of Scandinavia but was also, among other things, a direct reaction to the expansive and aggressive policies of the Hanseatic League.

On 6 June 1523 Sweden left the union permanently, leaving Norway in an unequal union with a Danish king already embarked on centralising the government of the Union.

In the following centuries the Norwegian monarchy was characterised by a king mostly residing abroad. This weakened the monarchial governing structures of Norway; the Riksråd, for example, was gradually undermined as the Norwegian nobles were not able to enjoy the King's confidence to the same extent as their Danish counterparts. The King was also less able to govern according to Norwegian needs as the distance meant he and his advisors had less knowledge of the conditions in Norway.

Norway was one of few countries where the archdiocese was coterminous with the national territory. The church was therefore an important factor in trying to maintain the separate Norwegian monarchy. In the 16th century the power struggle between the Norwegian nobles and the king culminated at the same time as the reformation. This prompted a set of events in which the struggle against the Danish dominance in Norway was coupled with the struggle against the reformation. When both failed the effects were harsh. The Norwegian Catholic bishops were replaced with Danes and the Norwegian church was subdued and made wholly Danish. The Norwegian Riksråd was abolished in 1536 and more and more foreign men were appointed to important positions in Norway. The Danish nobles pushed the king to reduce Norway to a Danish province in order for them to gain more control in the election of future kings. However, the hereditary nature of the Norwegian monarchy meant that the King had to maintain the basic principle of Norway being a separate and extant kingdom. If the Danish nobles were to elect as king someone other than the next in line to the throne the Union would be dissolved. This gave the king the upper hand in the negotiations for the håndfesting. Potential heirs to Norway were present both in the royal dynasties of Sweden and Schleswig-Holstein, so if the King of Denmark did not assert his position as King of Norway they would.

During this time the Danish kings were more preoccupied with securing the traditionally Danish fringe territories and therefore paid little attention to and made few attempts at maintaining the Norwegian interests. As a result Jemtland, Herjedalen, Båhuslen, Shetland and Orkney were lost to Sweden and Scotland. In addition all contact with Greenland ceased.

In 1661 Frederick III introduced absolute monarchy in Denmark and Norway and introduced new laws in both countries to that effect. Up until that time the law of Magnus the law-mender given in 1274 and 1276 had been the law of Norway. Christian IV's Norwegian law was in effect a translation into Danish of that older law. 1661 also marks the point where the last remnants of representational local government were removed and had to be rebuilt. However, that process started almost immediately when local men of means started putting pressure on local governors in order to gain or regain influence on local matters.

Emerging independence

During the Napoleonic Wars the King aligned Denmark–Norway with France. When Napoleon lost the war, the king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden under the Treaty of Kiel in 1814. It was initially proposed that the Norwegian dependencies of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroes would remain with Norway, but that point was dropped during the negotiations so they became Danish.

On hearing news of the treaty, the Prince of the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway, Christian Frederick, the resident viceroy in Norway, participated in founding a Norwegian independence movement. The independence movement was successful, partly due to clandestine support from the Danish Crown, but also because of the strong desire for independence in Norway. On April 10, a national assembly met at Eidsvoll to decide on a constitution. Norway eventually declared independence on May 17, 1814, electing Christian Frederick as King. A short war with Sweden later that year ended with the Convention of Moss. This led to the ousting of Christian Frederick, and the Norwegian Storting electing Charles XIII of Sweden as King of Norway, creating the union between Sweden and Norway. In turn the king recognised the Norwegian constitution which was only changed to facilitate the union.

The end result was that the Norwegian monarchy became a constitutional monarchy. In this new union the King was much more a King of Norway than under the previous Danish system. The only area of policy not in the hands of the Norwegians was foreign policy.

Norway had been brought along into the new developments of the world as they arrived in Denmark. However, with the break the Norwegians were able to forge a more progressive political development than was the case in Denmark. Denmark introduced a constitutional monarchy 35 years after Norway. Parliamentarism was introduced in Norway 17 years before Denmark and 33 years before Sweden. The union with Denmark also had its adverse effects on the monarchy, among other things it resulted in the crown of Norway experiencing a loss of territory which today amounts to 2 322 755 km². Very few royal undertakings had been located to Norway and the country is thus lacking the monumental palaces of the period as can be seen in Copenhagen and other parts of Denmark.

Union with Sweden

The Treaty of Kiel stipulated that Norway was to be ceded by the king of Denmark–Norway to the king of Sweden. This was however rejected in Norway, where calls for self-determination were already mounting. A Norwegian constituent assembly was called, and a liberal constitution was adopted on 17 May 1814. A short war ensued, ending in a new agreement between the Norwegian parliament and the Swedish king. The Convention of Moss was from a Norwegian point of view a significant improvement over the terms dictated to Denmark-Norway at the treaty of Kiel. Notably, Norway was no longer to be treated as a Swedish conquest but rather as an equal party in a personal union of two independent states. Both the principle and substance of the Norwegian Constitution were preserved, with only such amendments as were required to allow for the union with Sweden. Norway retained its own parliament and separate institutions, except for the common king and foreign service.

The Norwegian Storting would propose Norwegian laws without interference from Sweden, to be approved by the common King in his capacity as King of Norway. The King would occasionally enact laws unfavourable to Sweden. As the Norwegian movement towards full independence gained momentum, the King approved the building of forts and naval vessels intended to defend Norway against a Swedish invasion.

The union was nevertheless marked by the Norwegians' constant and growing discontent with being in a union of any kind. The Storting would propose laws to reduce the king's power or to assert Norwegian independence. This would most often be vetoed by the king, but as he only had the right to veto the same law twice, it would eventually be passed. Already the constitution of 1814 specified that Norway would have a separate flag, and the present design was introduced in 1821. The flags of both kingdoms were defaced with the union mark in 1844 to denote their equal status within the union. It was discarded despite royal objections from the Norwegian flag in 1898. In 1837 local self-government in certain areas of policy was introduced in rural areas as well as towns. Parliamentarism was introduced in 1884.

It also has to be said that the Royal House of Bernadotte tried hard to be a Norwegian Royal House as well. The Royal Palace in Oslo was built during this period. There were separate coronations in Trondheim as stipulated in the Constitution. The royal princes even had a hunting lodge built in Norway in order to spend more private time there. King Oscar II himself spoke and wrote Norwegian fluently.

Full independence

In 1905 a series of disputes between parliament and the King culminated with the matter of separate Norwegian consuls to foreign countries. Norway had grown into one of the world's leading shipping nations while Sweden retained control of both the diplomatic and consulate corps. The Swedes had little insight in the matters Norwegian ships and businessmen needed assistance with abroad and consulates were not even established in several important shipping cities. The demand for separate Norwegian consuls was seen as very important by the Norwegian parliament and society. The Storting proposed a law establishing a separate Norwegian consulate corps. King Oscar II refused to ratify the law and subsequently the Norwegian cabinet resigned. The king was not able to form any other government that had the support of parliament and as such it was deemed on 7 June that he had failed to function as King of Norway.

The Norwegian people gave their consent in a plebiscite held on 13 August which resulted in an overwhelming 368,208 votes (99.95%) in favor of dissolution of the Union, against 184 (0.05%) opposed, with 85 percent of Norwegian men voting. No women voted, as universal suffrage was not granted until 1913, however Norwegian feminists collected more than 200,000 signatures in favor of dissolution.

On November 12 and November 13, in the second constitutional plebiscite in three months, Norwegian voters decided by a nearly 79 percent majority (259,563 to 69,264) to keep the monarchy instead of establishing a republic.

During the summer a Norwegian delegation had already approached the 33-year-old Prince Carl of Denmark, the second son of the Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark. The Norwegian parliament had considered other candidates but ultimately chose Prince Carl, partly because he already had a son to continue the line of succession, but more significantly because Carl was married to Maud of Wales, the daughter of King Edward VII. By bringing in a king with British royal ties, it was hoped that Norway could court Britain's support.

Prince Carl impressed the delegation in many ways, not the least because of his sensitivity to the liberal and democratic movements that had led to Norway's independence. Though the Norwegian constitution stipulated that the Storting could choose a new king if the throne were vacant, Carl was aware that many Norwegians — including leading politicians and high-ranking military officers — favored a republican form of government. Attempts to persuade the prince to accept the throne on the basis of Parliament's choice failed; Carl insisted that he would accept the crown only if the Norwegian people expressed their will for monarchy by referendum and if the parliament then elected him king.

Following the November plebiscite affirming Norwegians' desire for a monarchy, the parliament by an overwhelming majority offered Carl a clear mandate to the Norwegian throne on November 18. The prince accepted the same evening, choosing the name Haakon, a traditional name used by Norwegian kings. The last king with that name was Haakon VI, who died in the year 1380.

The new king therefore became Haakon VII, King of Norway. His two-year-old son Alexander, the heir apparent, was renamed Olav and became Crown Prince Olav. The new royal family arrived in the capital Kristiania (later Oslo) on November 25. Haakon VII was sworn in as king of Norway on November 27.

A new monarchy

The early years of the new Norwegian monarchy were marked by a shortage of funds. The Norwegian state was poor and funds were needed elsewhere than in the upkeep of a large court. In that sense it was a stroke of good fortune that Prince Carl had set as a condition for accepting the throne that he would not be forced to keep a large court. However, the royal travels and the upkeep of the royal residences, after the initial refurbishment in 1905, were to some extent neglected. One example of the negative financial situation is that Prince Carl had been promised a Royal Yacht when he accepted the throne, but this was not fulfilled until 1947.

One important incident in the early years of the new monarchy was in 1928 when the King appointed the first Labour government. The Norwegian Labour Party was at that time quite radical and even had the abolition of monarchy as part of their programme. It was the custom for the King to rely on the advice of previous Prime Minister in deciding who to give the assignment as new Prime Minister. In this case the previous conservative Prime Minister was opposed to giving power to the radicals and advised the appointment of someone else. But the King adhered to the established practice of parliamentarism and decided to appoint Christopher Hornsrud the first Labour Prime Minister. The Labour party later dropped the abolition of monarchy from their programme.

During the German occupation of World War II the King was an important symbol of national unity and resistance. His steadfast opposition to the German demands of surrender was important for the fighting spirit of the Norwegian population. The constitutional powers granted to the King in the Norwegian monarchial system made his position very important and enabled the government in exile to continue its work with the utmost legitimacy.

After the war the Norwegian royal house succeeded in maintaining a balance between regality and approachability. King Olav V was deemed the people's king and the spontaneous show of mourning from the population upon his death in 1991 demonstrated the high standing he had among the Norwegian people. Even republicans were among the masses lighting candles in front of the Palace.

In later years the marriages of the then Crown Prince Harald in 1968 and of Crown Prince Haakon in 2001 sparked considerable controversy, but the lasting effect on the popularity of the monarchy has been minimal. Although decreased from its level of above 90 percent after the war, support for the monarchy seems to remain stable around and mostly above the 70 percent mark.

Constitutional rights and privileges

Although the 1814 constitution grants important executive powers to the king, these are almost always exercised by the Council of State in the name of the King (King's Council, or cabinet). Constitutional practice has replaced the meaning of the word King in most articles from the king personally to the elected government. The reserve powers vested in the Monarch by the constitution are significant and an important security part of the role of the Monarchy, and were last used during World War II.

Immunity

Article 5 states: ''The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his Council.''

This article applies to the king personally. The king has legal sovereign immunity.

Article 37 states: ''The Royal Princes and Princesses shall not personally be answerable to anyone other than the King, or whomever he decrees to sit in judgment on them.''

This means that the Princes and Princesses also have immunity on the discretion of the king. He could decide to let them be judged by the regular courts or he could decide to judge them himself. This has never been tested in practice.

Council of State

The Council of State consists of a Prime Minister and his council, all formally appointed by the King. The Council of State is the Government of Norway. Parliamentarism has been in place since 1884 and entails that the cabinet must not have the parliament against it, and that the appointment by the King is a formality. In practice, the monarch will ask the leader of a parliamentary block that has a majority in the Storting to form a government. The King relies on the advice of the previous prime minister and the President of the Storting in this question. The last time the King appointed a new prime minister contrary to the advice of the previous was in 1928 when he appointed the first Labour government.

Article 12 states: ''The King himself chooses a Council from among Norwegian citizens who are entitled to vote.'' [...] ''The King apportions the business among the Members of the Council of State, as he deems appropriate.''

Article 30 states: [...] ''Everyone who has a seat in the Council of State has the duty frankly to express his opinion, to which the King is bound to listen. But it rests with the King to make a decision according to his own judgment.'' [...]

Veto of laws

The King has to sign all laws in order for them to become valid. He can veto any law. However, if three separate Stortings approves the law it becomes valid even without the King's consent. The King has not vetoed any law in modern times. The last law enacted without the King's consent was the law regarding a pure national flag in 1898.

Article 78 states: ''If the King assents to the Bill, he appends his signature, whereby it becomes law.''

''If he does not assent to it, he returns it to the Odelsting with a statement that he does not for the time being find it expedient to sanction it. In that case the Bill must not again be submitted to the King by the Storting then assembled.'' [...]

Church of Norway

The Church of Norway, also known as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway, is the state church of Norway, to which 86% of Norwegians are members. The Church of Norway professes the Lutheran branch of Christianity, and is a member of the Porvoo Communion.

The King is the supreme governor and protector of the Church of Norway. He formally decides who is to become bishops and oversees that the church conducts its business according to "the norms prescribed" for them. In practice this authority has been delegated to the Ministry of Church Affairs.

Pardoning criminals

Article 20 states: ''The King shall have the right in the Council of State to pardon criminals after sentence has been passed.''

A pardon is the forgiveness of a crime and the penalty associated with it. It may be given if new information on the crime or criminal has come to light after sentencing has begun. A pardon may entail a complete or partial withdrawal of punishment. The practical execution of this right has been delegated to the Ministry of Justice which may dismiss an application for a pardon. The formal approval of a pardon has to be done by the King in Council. In 2004 a total of 51 applications for pardon were approved and 274 were denied.

Appointing senior officials

Article 21 states: ''The King shall choose and appoint, after consultation with his Council of State, all senior civil, ecclesiastical and military officials.'' The appointment is formally made by the king, but is in practice up to the elected government.

Dismissing the government

Article 22 states: ''The Prime Minister and the other Members of the Council of State, together with the State Secretaries, may be dismissed by the King without any prior court judgment, after he has heard the opinion of the Council of State on the subject.''

Chivalric orders

Article 23 states: ''The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases, as a reward for distinguished services''[...]

Norway has two chivalric orders: the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit. In addition the King awards several other distinguished medals for a wide range of accomplishments.

War

Article 25 states: ''The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm.'' The King is also Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force. It is not mentioned because there was no Air Force in 1814.

Article 26 states: ''The King has the right to call up troops, to engage in hostilities in defence of the Realm and to make peace, to conclude and denounce conventions, to send and to receive diplomatic envoys.''

The King is revered in the armed forces as their highest commander, but there is no doubt as to the complete control of the armed forces by the elected government. The Kings of Norway have traditionally received an extensive military training and to some extent pursued a career within the armed forces before ascending to the throne. During World War II the King took a more active role in the decision-making and while the government still had the last word the King's advice was given much weight. On one occasion during the invasion the King was given an ultimatum from the Germans demanding Norway's surrender. King Haakon VII told the government he would abdicate if they decided to accept. In 1944 Crown Prince Olav was appointed Chief of Defence based on his military leadership abilities.

Coronation

From before recorded Norwegian history the monarch would be installed by acclamation, a ceremony held on the ting where the king swore to uphold the laws of the land and the assembled chieftains swore allegiance to him. The first coronation in Norway and in all Scandinavia took place in Bergen in 1163 or 1164. For a long time both ceremonies were used in Norway. That way the king was invested with powers both from the noblemen and from the church. The coronations also symbolised that the king would hold the kingdom in fief to St. Olav the eternal king of Norway. The last acclamation took place on Akershus Castle in 1648. The last medieval coronation in Norway took place 29 July 1514. Today the king still goes through a ceremony similar to the acclamation when he takes the oath of allegiance to the Constitution in the Storting. The Norwegian Constitution of 1814 determined that any Norwegian coronations from that time onward were to take place in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. This re-established the relationship to the sacred king's burial church. The constitutional article about the coronation was annulled in 1908. When king Olav V ascended the throne in 1957 he still wanted to receive the blessing of the church for his reign and the Benediction of the king was introduced. The benediction is a much simpler ceremony, but it still takes place in Nidaros Cathedral and with the Royal Regalia at the high altar. King Harald V and Sonja also received the benediction in 1991.

Succession

The order of succession to the Norwegian throne has followed absolute primogeniture since 1990, as is described in article 6 in the Constitution of Norway:

:''The order of succession is lineal, so that only a child born in lawful wedlock of the Queen or King, or of one who is herself or himself entitled to the succession may succeed, and so that the nearest line shall take precedence over the more remote and the elder in the line over the younger.''

:''An unborn child shall also be included among those entitled to the succession and shall immediately take her or his proper place in the line of succession as soon as she or he is born into the world.''

:''The right of succession shall not, however, belong to any person who is not born in the direct line of descent from the last reigning Queen or King or a sister or brother thereof, or is herself or himself a sister or brother thereof.''

:[...]

:''For those born before the year 1971, Article 6 of the Constitution as it was passed on 18 November 1905 shall, however, apply. For those born before the year 1990 it shall nevertheless be the case that a male shall take precedence over a female.''

Article 6 of the original constitution had specified salic (male-only) succession; so Harald's sisters Ragnhild (b. 1930) and Astrid (b. 1932) and their descendants are excluded from the line of succession. Under the male-preference primogeniture applying to those born between 1971 and 1990, Princess Märtha Louise (b. 1971) places behind her younger brother Haakon and his descendants.

If a monarch were to be without any heirs they are allowed to nominate their successor, but the decision rests with the Storting.

The specific line of succession is as follows: #HRH Crown Prince Haakon Magnus, King Harald's son (b. 1973) #HRH Princess Ingrid Alexandra, Crown Prince Haakon's daughter (b. 2004) #HH Prince Sverre Magnus, The Crown Prince's son (b. 2005) #HH Princess Märtha Louise, King Harald's daughter (b. 1971) #Maud Angelica Behn, Princess Märtha Louise's daughter (b. 2003) #Leah Isadora Behn, Princess Märtha Louise's second daughter (b. 2005) #Emma Tallulah Behn, Princess Märtha Louise's third daughter (b. 2008)

As specified in the constitution the line of succession to the throne will never be very long as successors will lose their right when they no longer are a direct descendant of the last reigning monarch or of his or her siblings.

Finances

The King, Queen, Crown Prince and Crown Princess are exempt from paying any taxes and their personal finances are not revealed to the public. Other members of the royal family have lost that privilege upon marriage. It is believed that only the King has a personal fortune of a notable size.

The royal farms generate some revenue, but this is always re-invested in the farms themselves.

In the Norwegian state budget of 2010 the sum of 142.5 million Norwegian kroner was allocated to the Royal Household. 16.5 million was also given to the monarchs as appanage. 20.9 million was in addition allocated to rehabilitazion of royal property. In 2010, the Royal Household of Norway claimed that King Haralds fortune was close to a 100 million Norwegian kroner. 500 million Norwegian kroner was in the late 1990s allocated to the extensive refurbishments of the royal residences that have been taking place and are still under way. The restoration of the Royal Palace in Oslo went far beyond budget because the structural state of the palace was much worse than expected. However, the large expense was criticised in the media.

Residences

The Royal Palace in Oslo is the main official residence of the monarch. It was built in the first half of the 19th century as the Norwegian residence of Norwegian and Swedish king Charles III (Carl Johan, Charles XIV of Sweden) and is used as the official residence of the present Norwegian Monarch. Bygdøy Royal Estate is the official summer residence and is also situated in Oslo. Bygdøy has been under extensive restoration and has therefore not been used regularly since the accention of King Harald V. Oscarshall castle is a "recreational castle" also situated in Oslo, but rarely used. There are also official residences in three other Norwegian cities:

Gamlehaugen in Bergen

Ledaal in Stavanger

Stiftsgården in Trondheim

All of the official residences are partially open to the public.

The King owns a royal yacht bearing the name HNoMY Norge which is manned and maintained by the Royal Norwegian Navy and used both for official and private travels in Norway and abroad. The Norwegian State Railways maintains a set of royal train carriages.

The crown princely couple resides at Skaugum Manor in Asker municipality outside of Oslo, while the three princesses of Norway live on estates in Oslo, Fredrikstad and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Both Skaugum and Bygdøy are working farms producing grain, milk and meat where the profits are re-invested in the farms themselves. In 2004 the King transferred management of the farming activities on Bygdøy to the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History.

The royal family also possess several other holiday homes of a private nature.

Full title

His Majesty King Harald V of the Kingdom of Norway

Royal coat of arms

The Coat of arms of Norway is one of the oldest in Europe and serves both as the coat of arms of the nation and of the Royal House. This is in keeping with its origin as the coat of arms of the kings of Norway during the Middle Ages.

Håkon the Old (1217-1263) used a shield with a lion. The earliest preserved reference to the colour of the arms is the King's Saga written down in 1220.

In 1280 King Eirik Magnusson added the crown and silver axe to the lion. The axe is the martyr axe of St. Olav, the weapon used to kill him in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030.

The specific rendering of the Norwegian arms has changed through the years, following changing heraldic fashions. In the late Middle Ages, the axe handle gradually grew longer and came to resemble a halberd. The handle was usually curved in order to fit the shape of shield preferred at the time, and also to match the shape of coins. The halberd was officially discarded and the shorter axe reintroduced by royal decree in 1844, when an authorized rendering was instituted for the first time. In 1905 the official design for royal and government arms was again changed, this time reverting to the medieval pattern, with a triangular shield and a more upright lion.

The coat of arms of the royal house as well as the Royal Standard uses the lion design from 1905. The earliest preserved depiction of the Royal Standard is on the seal of Duchess Ingebjørg from 1318. The rendering used as the official coat of arms of Norway is slightly different and was last approved by the king 20 May 1992.

When used as the Royal coat of arms the shield features the insignias of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav around it and is framed by a royal ermine robe, surmounted by the crown of Norway.

The Royal coat of arms is not used frequently. Instead, the king's monogram is extensively used, for instance in military insignia and on coins.

External links

Video from NRK of the history of the present monarchy

See also

Norwegian Royal Family

List of Norwegian monarchs

Royal coronations in Norway

Politics of Norway

Abel Prize

References

* Category:Government of Norway Category:Current monarchies

et:Norra kuningas ka:ნორვეგიის მონარქი no:Norges konge nn:Kongen av Noreg se:Norgga Gonagas sv:Norges monarki

name	Sir Bruce Forsyth CBE
birth name	Bruce Joseph Forsyth-Johnson
birth date	February 22, 1928
birth place	Edmonton, Middlesex, England
other names	''Brucie'', ''Brucey'', ''Bruce Johnson'', ''Bruce Forsyth Johnson'', ''Boy Bruce'', ''Boy Bruce, the Mighty Atom'', ''Mr. Entertainment, 'Sir Brucie'', ''big chin'', ''the dinosaur'', ''silver tongue'''.
occupation	Television presenter, game show host, entertainer, showman, singer–songwriter, dancer
years active	1939–present
spouse	Penny Calvert (1953–1973, divorced)Anthea Redfern (1973–1979, divorced)Wilnelia Merced (1983–present)
children	5 daughters, 1 son }}

Sir Bruce Joseph Forsyth-Johnson, CBE (born 22 February 1928), commonly known as Bruce Forsyth, is an English TV personality. He became known through the series ''Sunday Night at the London Palladium'', going on to present television series such as ''The Generation Game'', ''Play Your Cards Right'', ''The Price Is Right (UK)'', ''You Bet!'' and ''Strictly Come Dancing'', the latter of which he presents with Tess Daly.

Early life

Forsyth was born in Edmonton, Enfield, London, the son of Florence Ada (née Pocknell) and John Thomas Forsyth-Johnson. His family owned a car repair garage in Victoria Road, Edmonton, and as members of the Salvation Army his parents played brass instruments and his mother was a singer. His great grandfather Joseph Forsyth Johnson (1840–1906) was a landscape architect who worked in Russia, Ireland and the United States. His great-great-great-great grandfather William Forsyth (1737–1804) was a founder of the Royal Horticultural Society and the namesake of the plant genus ''Forsythia''.

"Boy Bruce, the Mighty Atom"

Forsyth attended The Latymer School. After watching Fred Astaire in films at age eight, he trained in dance in Tottenham and then Brixton. He started in show business aged 14, with a song, dance, and accordion act called "Boy Bruce, the Mighty Atom." His first appearance was at the Theatre Royal, Bilston, with ''The Great Marzo'' at the top of the bill. Forsyth made his television debut in 1939 as a child, singing and dancing on a talent show introduced by Jasmine Bligh, probably an episode of ''Come and Be Televised'' (BBC, 1939), broadcast from Radiolympia.

Post Second World War theatre

Forsyth continued to perform through the Second World War, even after the death of his Royal Air Force pilot brother John in 1943 over Turnberry, Scotland. After the war, with the goal of joining Moss Empires theatres, he spent years on stage with little success and travelled the UK working seven days a week, doing summer seasons, pantomimes and circuses, where he became renowned for his strong-man act.

In 1958 an appearance with the comedian Dickie Henderson led to his being offered the job of compère of Val Parnell's weekly TV variety show, ''Sunday Night at the London Palladium''. He hosted the show for two years, followed by a year's break, then returned for another year. His schedule of stage performances, which continued throughout the 1960s, forced him to give up the job of host.

In 1968, he played alongside Julie Andrews in the musical movie ''Star!'', a biopic of stage actress Gertrude Lawrence. In 1976, he appeared on ''The Muppet Show'' where he took on the famous duo of Statler & Waldorf.

Game show host

Forsyth's next success was ''Bruce Forsyth and the Generation Game'' (BBC1, 1971–1977, 1990–1994) which proved popular and attracted huge Saturday evening audiences. It was on this show that Forsyth introduced his "The Thinker" pose, emulating Rodin's sculpture, appearing in silhouette each week after the opening titles. This pose is reminiscent of the circus strong-man attitude. He also wrote and sang the theme for the show "Life Is The Name of the Game."

He left the BBC in 1978 to present ''Bruce Forsyth's Big Night'', which was also transmitted on Saturday evening, but on rival broadcaster ITV. However, the show was not a success and lasted just the one series. He was replaced on ''The Generation Game'' by Larry Grayson. Forsyth remained with ITV, he hosted the game show ''Play Your Cards Right'' for two periods (1980–87, 1994–99), and a brief period in 2002 before the show was cancelled due to low ratings.

In 1986, he went to the United States to host a game show on ABC, ''Bruce Forsyth's Hot Streak'', which ran for 65 episodes from January to April that year. Forsyth starred in the Thames Television sitcom ''Slinger's Day'' in 1986 and 1987, taking over a role played by Leonard Rossiter. His television appearances since the 1960s have included variety, comedy and light entertainment shows.

He was the original host of ''You Bet!'' (1988 to 1990) before the show reached mainstream success under the stewardship of Matthew Kelly. Forsyth fronted the third version of ''The Price Is Right'' (1995 to 2001). Forsyth's unsuccessful gameshows include ''Takeover Bid'' (1990 to 1991), ''Hollywood Or Bust'' (1984), ''Bruce's Guest Night'' (1992 to 1993) and ''Didn't They Do Well'' (2004). During the 1970s Bruce featured in the "Stork Margarine" adverts on television and then during the 1980s and 1990s he appeared in advertising for the furniture retailer Courts, in which he dressed as a judge.

Forsyth celebrated his 70th birthday in 1998 and appeared in a week-long run of his one-man show at the London Palladium, culminating in a 90-minute edition of ''Sunday Night at the London Palladium'' live on ITV. In 2000, Forsyth hosted a series called ''Tonight at the London Palladium'', which revived the original format. The show was not picked up for a further series.

Comeback

In 2003, and again in 2010, Forsyth was a guest presenter on the news and satire quiz show, ''Have I Got News For You''. During one of these appearances, he presented a parody of his ''Play Your Cards Right'' format entitled ''Play Your Iraqi Cards Right''. He has been co-presenter of ''Strictly Come Dancing'' (a popular British television show featuring celebrities with professional dance partners competing in Ballroom and Latin dances) since 2004. On 20 March 2010, Forsyth's interview on the autobiography-interview programme ''Piers Morgan's Life Stories'' was aired on ITV.

On 7 April 2010, Forsyth become one of the first three celebrities to be subjected to the British version of the American institution of a comedy roast, on Channel 4's ''A Comedy Roast''. Forsyth was the subject of the BBC genealogy series ''Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series)'', broadcast on 19 July 2010.

Tributes and honours

On 27 February 2005, the BBC screened ''A BAFTA Tribute to Bruce Forsyth'', to mark the entertainer's 60 years in show business. Forsyth had a bronze bust of himself unveiled at the London Palladium in May 2005. The sculpture was created by his son-in-law, and is on display in the theatre's Cinderella Bar.

He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1998 and Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2006 New Year Honours. His showbiz awards include Variety Club Show Business Personality of the Year in 1975; ''TV Times'' Male TV Personality of the Year, in 1975, 1976, 1977 and 1978; and BBC TV Personality of the Year in 1991.

In 1987, an honourary society was set up due to rising poularity amongst the British People, called The Great Bruce Forsyth Social Club. They would later go on to assist Forsyth in singing his opening number "It's Never Too Late" at his Audience With show. Bruce repaid this favour by adding the society to his busy schedule in June 1997, and appeared at their 10th AGM in Plymouth, and also mentioned them in his autobiography.

In December 2007, his catchphrase 'Nice to see you, to see you, nice' was voted the most popular UK catchphrase by the British public. On 24 February 2008, the BBC featured an 85-minute programme celebrating the star's 80th birthday, entitled "Happy Birthday Brucie!"

In 2008, he was made a Fellow of BAFTA. In 2009, he was awarded the ''Theatre Performers Award'' at the annual Carl Alan Awards. Hosted by the International Dance Teachers' Association, the awards are voted for by the leading dance organisations in the United Kingdom and recognise those who have made an exceptional contribution to the world of dance and theatre.

He received a Royal Television Society Lifetime Achievement Award on 17 March 2009. On 26 January 2011 he received the National Television Awards special recognition award.

He was knighted in the 2011 Birthday Honours for services to entertainment and charity. This followed a years-long public campaign to award Forsyth a knighthood.

Personal life

From 1953 to 1973, Forsyth was married to Penny Calvert, with whom he had three daughters: Debbie, Julie and Laura. According to his autobiography, he dated Miss World 1964 Ann Sidney during her reign and in a 2009 interview, Kathy Kirby claimed to have been Forsyth's lover and that he proposed marriage. From 1973 to 1979, he was married to Anthea Redfern, who had been the hostess on ''The Generation Game'' with whom he had two daughters: Charlotte and Louisa. Asked to judge the 1980 Miss World competition, he fell in love with fellow judge, the 1975 Miss World, Wilnelia Merced; they married in 1983, and have one son together, Jonathan Joseph Forsyth Johnson (born 1987).

Due to his love of golf, his main residence is at the Wentworth Estate adjacent to the Wentworth golf course near Virginia Water in northwest Surrey. A childhood supporter of Arsenal, when the team's stadium was taken for air-defence searchlights during the Second World War, matches were played at Tottenham Hotspur's White Hart Lane ground, so he became a supporter of both clubs. His daughter Julie was a member of the Pop Group Guys 'n' Dolls. She later formed the duo "Grant & Forsyth" with her husband Dominic Grant who had also been a member of Guys 'n' Dolls.

Forsyth has his own company, ''Bruce Forsyth Enterprises Ltd'', based in Surrey, to run his day to day monetary affairs.

Forsyth is also a strong supporter of the Conservative party (UK) and Margaret Thatcher

Television and film

''The Bruce Forsyth Show'' ''Frankie and Bruce'' ''Star ''Can Hieronymus Merkin Ever Forget Mercy Humppe and Find True Happiness?'' ''Red Peppers'' ''Bedknobs and Broomsticks'' ''The Magnificent Seven Deadly Sins'' ''The Generation Game ''The Muppet Show'' ''Disco Bruce'' ''Bruce Forsyth's Big Night''

Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
1957–1961	''Sunday Night at the London Palladium''	himself
1966	|	himself	TV
1966 1975	|	himself	TV
1968	(film)	Star!	Arthur Lawrence
1969	|	Uncle Limelight
1969	|	George Pepper
1971	|	Swinburne, Bookman's henchman
1971	|	Avarice Segment
1971–1977 1990–1994	Bruce Forsyth and the Generation Game'' ||	himself	TV
1976	|	himself	TV
1978–1980	|	himself	TV
1978	|	himself	TV
1980–1987 1994–1999 2002–2003	Play Your Cards Right>Bruce Forsyth's Play Your Cards Right''
1986	''Bruce Forsyth's Hot Streak''
1986	Magnum, P.I.>Magnum, P.I.: A Little Bit of Luck...A Little Bit of Grief''
1988	''Bruce and Ronnie''
1988–1990	''You Bet!''
1990–1991	''Takeover Bid''
1995–2001	The Price is Right (UK)>Bruce's Price is Right''
1997	An Audience with...>An Audience with Bruce Forsyth''
1998	The Game (1998 film)>The Game''
2000	''Tonight at the London Palladium''
2003, 2010	''Have I Got News for You''
2003	''Bruce Forsyth & William Hague''
2004 – present	''Strictly Come Dancing''
2007	The Generation Game>The Generation Game: Then Again''
2010	Guest Appearance on ''Have I Got News for You''
2010	''Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series)''

Discography

Mr. Entertainment (2007 EMI Records, UK)

Both Sides of Bruce (Live) (1977 Warner Brothers Records, UK)

Come Get It! (1979 Pye, UK)

References

External links

"Traveller, Tom Grundy, honouring Forsythe around the world"

Bruce Forsyth 80th birthday tribute on itv.com

Tribute to Forsyth at British Classic Comedy website

Category:1928 births Category:English entertainers Category:English television presenters Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Category:English people of Scottish descent Category:English game show hosts Category:Living people Category:People from Edmonton, London Category:Strictly Come Dancing Category:English television personalities Category:People educated at The Latymer School

ga:Bruce Forsyth la:Brutius Forsyth

name	Keith Richards
background	solo_singer
alias	Keith Richard
born	December 18, 1943Dartford, Kent, England
instrument	Guitar, Vocals, Bass guitar, Keyboards
genre	Rock and rollBluesCountryBlues rockRhythm and blues
occupation	MusicianSongwriterRecord producer
years active	1962–present
label	DeccaRolling StonesVirginMindless Records
associated acts	The Rolling StonesThe Dirty MacThe New BarbariansThe X-Pensive Winos
website	keithrichards.com
notable instruments	1953 Fender Telecaster "Micawber"1959 Gibson Les PaulGibson ES-355Fender Stratocaster }}

Keith Richards (born 18 December 1943) is an English musician, songwriter and founding member of The Rolling Stones. ''Rolling Stone'' magazine, calling him the creator of "rock's greatest single body of riffs", placed him as the "10th greatest guitarist of all time", and listed fourteen songs written by Richards and songwriting partner and band vocalist Mick Jagger as among their "500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Richards' notoriety for illicit drug use has stemmed in part from several drug busts in the late 1960s and the 1970s.

Early life

Keith Richards is the only child of Bert Richards and Doris Dupree Richards. He was born at Livingston Hospital in Dartford, Kent. His father was a factory worker injured during World War II during the Normandy invasion.

Richards' paternal grandparents were socialists and civic leaders whose family originated from Wales. His maternal grandfather (Augustus Theodore Dupree), who toured Britain with a jazz big band, "Gus Dupree and his Boys", fostered Richards' interest in guitar.

Richards' mother introduced him to the music of Billie Holiday, Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington and bought his first guitar, while his father disparaged his son's musical enthusiasm. Richards' first guitar hero was Scotty Moore.

Richards attended Wentworth Primary School with Mick Jagger and was his neighbor until 1954, when the family moved. From 1955 to 1959 he attended Dartford Technical School. Recruited by Dartford Tech's choirmaster Jake Clair, Richards sang in a trio of boy sopranos at, among other occasions, Westminster Abbey for Queen Elizabeth II.

In 1959 Richards was expelled from Dartford Technical School for truancy and transferred to Sidcup Art College. At Sidcup, he was diverted from his studies proper and devoted more time to playing guitar with other students in the boys room. At this point, Richards had learned most of Chuck Berry's solos. thumb|220px|right|Richards 1965 Richards met Jagger on a train as Jagger was headed to classes at the London School of Economics. The mail order rhythm & blues albums from Chess Records albums by Chuck Berry and Muddy Waters Jagger was carrying revealed a mutual interest and led to a renewal of their friendship. Along with mutual friend Dick Taylor, Jagger was singing in an amateur band: "Little Boy Blue and the Blue Boys", which Richards soon joined. The Blues Boys folded when Brian Jones and Ian Stewart accepted Richards, Jagger, and Taylor into the just-forming Rolling Stones.

In mid-1962 Richards had left Sidcup Art College to devote himself to music and moved into a London flat with Jagger and Jones. His parents divorced about the same time, resulting in his staying close to his mother and remaining estranged from his father until 1982.

After the Rolling Stones signed to Decca Records in 1963, their band manager, Andrew Loog Oldham, dropped the "s" from his surname believing "Keith Richard", in his words, "looked more pop". In the late 1970s Richards reestablished the "s" to his surname.

Musicianship

Bandleader

Richards views his role in the Rolling Stones as "oiling the machinery", while Stewart has called him the musical leader of the band. Both Bill Wyman and Ronnie Wood have said that, unlike most other bands which usually follow the drummer, the Rolling Stones, in Wyman's words, "have no way of ''not'' following him".

Guitar playing

Richards' guitar playing shows a fascination with chords and rhythm while avoiding flamboyant virtuosity in favour of riffs described by Chris Spedding as "direct, incisive and unpretentious." Richards prefers to play in tandem with another guitarist and has always toured with one. Chuck Berry has been an inspiration for Richards, and it was Richards and Jagger who introduced Berry's songs to the Rolling Stones' early repertoire. Chicago artists such as Jimmy Reed and Muddy Waters provided the basis of a style of interwoven lead and rhythm guitar that Richards developed with Brian Jones that continues with the Rolling Stones' current guitarist, Ronnie Wood. In the late 1960s, Jones' declining contributions led Richards to record all guitar parts on many tracks, including slide guitar, which had been Jones' specialty in the band's early years. Jones' replacement guitarist Mick Taylor worked with the Rolling Stones from 1969 to 1974, and Taylor's virtuosity at lead guitar led to a much more pronounced separation between lead and rhythm guitar roles, notably onstage. In 1975 Taylor was replaced by Wood, marking a return to the style of guitar interplay that he and Richards described as "the ancient art of weaving".

The 1967/68 break in touring allowed Richards to focus on open tunings, which are commonly used for slide guitar. Instead, Richards primarily used open tunings for fingered chording, developing a distinctive style of syncopated and ringing I-IV chording heard on "Street Fighting Man" and "Start Me Up". Richards has used various open tunings (while continuing to use standard tuning) but has often favoured a five-string variant of open G tuning using GDGBD unencumbered by a low sixth string. Several of his Telecasters are tuned this way (see the "Guitars" section below), and this tuning is prominent on Rolling Stones tracks and concert renditions including "Honky Tonk Women", "Brown Sugar" and "Start Me Up".

Richards regards acoustic guitar as the basis for his playing, believing that the limitations of electric guitar would cause him to "lose that touch" if he didn't play acoustic. Richards plays acoustic guitar on many Rolling Stones' tracks including like "Not Fade Away", "Satisfaction", "Brown Sugar", and "Angie". All guitars on the studio versions of "Street Fighting Man" and "Jumping Jack Flash" feature acoustic guitars overloaded to a cassette recorder which were then reamped through a loudspeaker in the studio.

Vocals

Richards' backing vocals appear on every Rolling Stones album; and on most albums since ''Between the Buttons'' (1967), he has sung lead or co-lead on at least one track (see list below). Richards views the vocal training he got in his choirboy days as part of his professional arsenal, and has said of his own singing: "It's not the most beautiful voice in the world anymore, but the Queen liked it, when it was at its best... It's not been my job, singing, but to me, if you're gonna write songs, you've got to know how to sing".

Richards began singing regular lead-vocals on stage in 1972, with "Happy" (from the album ''Exile on Main Street''). "Happy", a signature song for Richards, is often performed by him during Rolling Stones concerts, as well as on both of his solo tours. From 1972 to 1982, Richards routinely took one lead-vocal turn during Rolling Stones concerts; since 1989 he has normally sung lead on two numbers per show. Each of the band's studio albums since ''Dirty Work'' (1986) have also featured Richards's lead vocals on at least two tracks.

During concerts on the two final legs (autumn 2006 and summer 2007) of The Rolling Stones' Bigger Bang Tour, Richards set his guitar aside to sing his 1969 ballad "You Got the Silver" without self-accompaniment. Prior to that he had occasionally switched from guitar to keyboards in concert, but these concerts were the first time since his choirboy days that Richards appeared on stage armed with only his voice.

Other instruments

Richards has played bass guitar on about two dozen Rolling Stones studio recordings, from "Have You Seen Your Mother, Baby, Standing in the Shadow?" (1966) through "Infamy" (2005). One unusual instance was when he and Bill Wyman joined forces to play the bowed double bass on "Ruby Tuesday" (1967) – Wyman did the fingerboard work while Richards manned the bow. The rest of Richards' contributions that followed have been on bass guitar, rather than double bass. Among these were on tracks including "Jumpin' Jack Flash" (1968), "Sympathy for the Devil" (1968), "Live With Me" (1969), "Before They Make Me Run" (1978), "Sleep Tonight" (1986), and "Brand New Car" (1994). He has occasionally played bass on stage, including The Dirty Mac performance in 1968 (see "Recordings with other artists", below) and on "Sympathy for the Devil" at a Rolling Stones concert at Madison Square Garden in June 1975.

Richards' keyboard playing has also been featured on several Rolling Stones tracks, including "She Smiled Sweetly" (1967), "Memory Motel" (1976), "All About You" (1980), "Thru and Thru" (1994), and "This Place Is Empty" (2005), among others. He sometimes composes on piano – "Have You Seen Your Mother, Baby, Standing in the Shadow?" and "Let's Spend the Night Together" are two early examples, and he's said of his keyboard playing: "Maybe I'm a little more accomplished now – to me it's just a way of getting out of always using one instrument to write." Richards played keyboards on stage at two 1974 concerts while Wood toured to support his solo albums, and on The New Barbarians' tour in 1979, and 1977 and 1981 studio sessions featuring his piano and vocals have been well documented, though never officially released.

Richards has also served as percussionist on a few Rolling Stones tracks, including the floor tom on "Jumpin' Jack Flash" and bicycle spokes on "Continental Drift" (1989).

Songwriting

Richards and Jagger collaborated on songs in 1963, following the nearby example of the Beatles' Lennon/McCartney and the encouragement of Rolling Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham, who saw little future for a cover band. The earliest Jagger/Richards collaborations were recorded by other artists, including Gene Pitney, whose rendition of "That Girl Belongs to Yesterday" was their first top-ten single in the UK. Richards recalls: "We were writing these terrible pop songs that were becoming Top 10 hits... They had nothing to do with us, except we wrote 'em."

The Rolling Stones' first top-ten hit with a Jagger/Richards original was "The Last Time" (1965); "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" (also 1965) was their first international #1 recording. (Richards has stated that the "Satisfaction" riff came to him in his sleep; he woke up just long enough to record it on a cassette player by his bed.) Since ''Aftermath'' (1966) most Rolling Stones albums have consisted mainly of Jagger/Richards originals. Their songs reflect the influence of blues, R&B;, rock & roll, pop, soul, gospel and country, as well as forays into psychedelia and Dylanesque social commentary. Their work in the 1970s and beyond has incorporated elements of funk, disco, reggae and punk. Richards has also written and recorded slow torchy ballads, such as "All About You" (1980).

In his solo career, Richards has often shared co-writing credits with drummer and co-producer Steve Jordan. Richards has said: "I've always thought songs written by two people are better than those written by one. You get another angle on it."

Richards has frequently stated that he feels less like a creator than a conduit when writing songs: "I don't have that God aspect about it. I prefer to think of myself as an antenna. There's only one song, and Adam and Eve wrote it; the rest is a variation on a theme."

Richards was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1993.

Record production

Richards has been active as a record producer since the 1960s. He was credited as producer and musical director on the 1966 album ''Today's Pop Symphony'', one of manager Andrew Loog Oldham's side projects, although there are doubts about how much Richards was actually involved with it. On the Rolling Stones' 1967 album ''Their Satanic Majesties Request'' the entire band was credited as producer, but since 1974, Richards and Mick Jagger have frequently co-produced Rolling Stones and other artists' records under the joint name "The Glimmer Twins", often in collaboration with other producers.

Since the 1980s Richards has chalked up numerous production and co-production credits on projects with other artists including Aretha Franklin, Johnnie Johnson and Ronnie Spector, as well as on his own albums with the X-Pensive Winos (see below). In the 1990s Richards co-produced and added guitar and vocals to a recording of nyabinghi Rastafarian chanting and drumming entitled ''Wingless Angels'', released on Richards's own record label, Mindless Records, in 1997.

Solo recordings

Richards has released few solo recordings. His first solo single released in 1978 was versions of Chuck Berry's "Run Rudolph Run" and Jimmy Cliff's "The Harder They Come". In 1987, after Jagger pursued a solo recording and touring career, Richards formed the "X-pensive Winos" with co-songwriter, and co-producer Steve Jordan whom Richards assembled for his Chuck Berry documentary, ''Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll''.

Additional members of the X-pensive Winos included guitarist Waddy Wachtel, saxist Bobby Keys, keyboardist Ivan Neville and Charley Drayton on bass. The first Winos' record,''Talk Is Cheap'' also featured Bernie Worrell, Bootsy Collins and Maceo Parker). Since its release, ''Talk Is Cheap'' has gone gold and has sold consistently. Its release was followed by the first of the two U.S. tours Richards has done as a solo artist. ''Live at the Hollywood Palladium, December 15, 1988'' documents the first of these tours. In 1992 the Winos' second studio record ''Main Offender'' was released, and was also following by a tour.

Recordings with other artists

During the 1960s most of Richards's recordings with artists other than The Rolling Stones were sessions for Andrew Oldham's Immediate Records label. Notable exceptions were when Richards, along with Mick Jagger and numerous other guests, sang on The Beatles' 1967 TV broadcast of "All You Need Is Love"; and when he played bass with John Lennon, Eric Clapton, Mitch Mitchell, Ivry Gitlis and Yoko Ono as The Dirty Mac for ''The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus'' TV special, filmed in 1968.

In the 1970s Richards worked outside The Rolling Stones with Ronnie Wood on several occasions, contributing guitar, piano and vocals to Wood's first two solo albums and joining him on stage for two July 1974 concerts to promote ''I've Got My Own Album to Do''. In December 1974 Richards also made a guest appearance at a Faces concert. In 1976–77 Richards played on and co-produced John Phillips' solo recording ''Pay, Pack & Follow'' (released in 2001). In 1979 he toured the U.S. with The New Barbarians, the band that Wood put together to promote his album ''Gimme Some Neck''; he and Wood also contributed guitar and backing vocals to "Truly" on Ian McLagan's 1979 album ''Troublemaker'' (re-released in 2005 as ''Here Comes Trouble'').

Since the 1980s Richards has made more frequent guest appearances. In 1981 he played on reggae singer Max Romeo's album ''Holding Out My Love to You''. He has worked with Tom Waits on two occasions, adding guitar and backing vocals to Waits's 1985 album ''Rain Dogs'', and co-writing, playing and sharing the lead vocal on "That Feel" on ''Bone Machine '' (1992). In 1986 Richards produced and played on Aretha Franklin's rendition of "Jumping Jack Flash" and served as musical producer and band leader (or as he phrased it "S&M; director") for the Chuck Berry film ''Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll''.

In the 1990s and 2000s Richards has continued to contribute to a wide range of musical projects as a guest artist. A few of the notable sessions he has done include guitar and vocals on Johnnie Johnson's 1991 release ''Johnnie B. Bad'', which he also co-produced; and lead vocals and guitar on "Oh Lord, Don’t Let Them Drop That Atomic Bomb on Me" on the 1992 Charles Mingus tribute album ''Weird Nightmare''. He duetted with country legend George Jones on "Say It's Not You" on the ''Bradley Barn Sessions'' (1994); a second duet from the same sessions – "Burn Your Playhouse Down" – appeared on Jones' 2008 release ''Burn Your Playhouse Down – The Unreleased Duets''. He partnered with Levon Helm on "Deuce and a Quarter" for Scotty Moore's album ''All the King's Men'' (1997). His guitar and lead vocals are featured on the Hank Williams tribute album ''Timeless'' (2001) and on veteran blues guitarist Hubert Sumlin's album ''About Them Shoes'' (2005). Richards also added guitar and vocals to Toots & the Maytals' recording of "Careless Ethiopians" for their 2004 album ''True Love'' and to their re-recording of "Pressure Drop", which came out in 2007 as the b-side to Richards's iTunes re-release of "Run Rudolph Run".

Rare and unreleased recordings

In 2005 The Rolling Stones released ''Rarities 1971-2003'', which includes some rare and limited-issue recordings, but Richards has described the band's released output as the "tip of the iceberg". Many of the band's unreleased songs and studio jam sessions are widely bootlegged, as are numerous Richards solo recordings, including his 1977 Toronto studio sessions, some 1981 studio sessions and tapes made during his 1983 wedding trip to Mexico.

Public image and private life

Music journalist Nick Kent attached to Richards Lord Byron's epithet of "mad, bad, and dangerous to know." Jagger thought that Richards' image had "contributed to him becoming a junkie." In 1994 Richards said his image was "like a long shadow ... Even though that was nearly twenty years ago, you cannot convince some people that I'm not a mad drug addict." In 2010, Peter Hitchens wrote of Richards that he is "a capering streak of living gristle who ought to be exhibited as a warning to the young of what drugs can do to you even if you're lucky enough not to choke on your own vomit".

Richards has been tried on drug-related charges five times: in 1967, twice in 1973, in 1977 and in 1978. The first trial – the only one involving a prison sentence – resulted from a February 1967 police raid on Redlands, Richards's Sussex estate, where he and some friends, including Jagger, were spending the weekend. The subsequent arrest of Richards and Jagger put them on trial before the Courts of the United Kingdom while also exposing them to public opinion. On 29 June 1967, Jagger was sentenced to three months' imprisonment for possession of four amphetamine tablets; Richards was found guilty of allowing cannabis to be smoked on his property and sentenced to one year in prison. Both Jagger and Richards were imprisoned at that point: Jagger was taken to Brixton prison in south London, and Richards to Wormwood Scrubs Prison in west London. Both were released on bail the next day pending appeal. On 1 July ''The Times'' ran an editorial entitled "Who breaks a butterfly on a wheel?", portraying Jagger's sentence as persecution, and public sentiment against the convictions increased. A month later the appeals court overturned Richards's conviction for lack of evidence, while Jagger was given a conditional discharge. On 27 February 1977 Richards was charged with "possession of heroin for the purpose of trafficking" – an offence that under the Criminal Code of Canada can result in prison sentences of seven years to life. His passport was confiscated and Richards and his family remained in Toronto until 1 April, when Richards was allowed to enter the United States on a medical visa for treatment for heroin addiction. The charge against him was later reduced to "simple possession of heroin".

For the next two years, Richards lived under threat of criminal sanction. Throughout this period he remained active with The Rolling Stones, recording their biggest-selling studio album, ''Some Girls'', and touring North America. Richards was tried in October 1978, pleading guilty to possession of heroin. He was given a suspended sentence and put on probation for one year, with orders to continue treatment for heroin addiction and to perform a benefit concert on behalf of the Canadian National Institute for the Blind. Although the prosecution had filed an appeal of the sentence, Richards performed two CNIB benefit concerts at Oshawa Civic Auditorium on 22 April 1979; both shows featured The Rolling Stones and The New Barbarians. In September 1979 the Ontario Court of Appeal upheld the original sentence.

Later in 1979, Richards met future wife, model Patti Hansen. They married on 18 December 1983, Richards's 40th birthday, and have two daughters, Theodora and Alexandra, born in 1985 and 1986 respectively.

Richards maintains cordial relations with Italian-born actress Anita Pallenberg, the mother of his first three children; although they were never married, Richards and Pallenberg were a couple from 1967 to 1979. Together they have a son, Marlon (named after the actor Marlon Brando), born in 1969, and a daughter, Angela (originally named Dandelion), born in 1972. Their third child, a boy named Tara (after Richards's and Pallenberg's friend Guinness heir Tara Browne), died on 6 June 1976, less than three months after his birth.

Richards still owns Redlands, the Sussex estate he purchased in 1966, as well as a home in Weston, Connecticut and another in Turks & Caicos. His primary home is in Weston. He is an avid reader with a strong interest in history and owns an extensive library. An April 2010 article revealed that Richards yearns to be a librarian.

21st century

On 27 April 2006, Richards, while in Fiji, suffered a head injury after falling out of a tree; he subsequently underwent cranial surgery at a New Zealand hospital. The incident caused a six-week delay in launching The Rolling Stones' 2006 European tour and the rescheduling of several shows; the revised tour schedule included a brief statement from Richards apologising for "falling off his perch". The band made up most of the postponed dates in 2006, and toured Europe in the summer of 2007 to make up the remainder.

In August 2006 Richards was granted a pardon by Arkansas governor Mike Huckabee for a 1975 reckless driving citation.

On 12 March 2007 Richards attended the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame ceremony to induct The Ronettes; he also played guitar during the ceremony's all-star jam session.

In an April 2007 interview for ''NME'' magazine, music journalist Mark Beaumont asked Richards what the strangest thing he ever snorted was, and quoted him as replying: "My father. I snorted my father. He was cremated and I couldn't resist grinding him up with a little bit of blow. My dad wouldn't have cared ... It went down pretty well, and I'm still alive." In the media uproar that followed, Richards' manager said that the anecdote had been meant as a joke; Beaumont told ''Uncut'' magazine that the interview had been conducted by international telephone and that he had misquoted Richards at one point (reporting that Richards had said he listens to Motörhead, when what he had said was Mozart), but that he believed the ash-snorting anecdote was true. Musician Jay Farrar from the band Son Volt wrote a song titled 'Cocaine And Ashes', which was inspired by Richards drug habits.

Doris Richards, Richards' 91-year-old mother, died of cancer in England on 21 April 2007. An official statement released by a family representative stated that Keith kept a vigil by her bedside during her last days.

Richards made a cameo appearance as Captain Teague, the father of Captain Jack Sparrow (played by Johnny Depp), in ''Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End'', released in May 2007, and won the Best Celebrity Cameo award at the 2007 Spike Horror Awards for the role. Depp has stated that he based many of Sparrow's mannerisms on Richards. Richards reprised his role in ''Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides'', released in May 2011.

In March 2008 fashion house Louis Vuitton unveiled an advertising campaign featuring a photo of Richards with his ebony Gibson ES-355, taken by photographer Annie Leibovitz. Richards donated the fee for his involvement to The Climate Project, an organisation for raising environmental awareness.

On 28 October 2008 Richards appeared at the Musicians' Hall of Fame induction ceremony in Nashville, Tennessee, joining the newly inducted Crickets on stage for performances of "Peggy Sue", "Not Fade Away" and "That'll Be the Day".

In August 2009, Richards was ranked #4 in ''Time'' magazine's list of the 10 best electric guitar players of all time. In September 2009 Richards revealed to ''Rolling Stone'' magazine that in addition to anticipating a new Rolling Stones album, he has done some recording with Jack White: "I enjoy working with Jack," he said. "We’ve done a couple of tracks." On 17 October 2009, Richards received the Rock Immortal Award at Spike TV’s Scream 2009 awards ceremony at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles; the award was presented by Johnny Depp. "I liked the living legend, that was all right," Richards said, referring to an award he received in 1989, "but immortal is even better."

In 2009, a book of Richards' quotations was published, titled ''What Would Keith Richards Do?: Daily Affirmations from a Rock 'n' Roll Survivor''.

In August 2007 Richards signed a publishing deal for his autobiography, ''Life'', which was released October 26, 2010. On October 15, 2010, the Associated Press published an article stating that Richards refers to Mick Jagger as "unbearable" in the book and notes that their relationship has been strained "for decades."

Musical equipment

Guitars

Richards has a collection of approximately 3,000 guitars. Even though Richards has used many different guitar models, in a 1986 ''Guitar World'' interview he joked that no matter what model he plays, "give me five minutes and I'll make 'em all sound the same." However, Richards has often thanked Leo Fender, and other guitar manufacturers for making the instruments, as he did during the induction ceremony of the Rolling Stones into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Some of his notable instruments are: 1959 Gibson Les Paul Standard: Richards acquired this instrument, fitted with a Bigsby tailpiece, in 1964. The guitar was the first "star-owned" Les Paul in Britain and served as one of Richards's main instruments through 1966. He later sold the guitar to future Rolling Stones bandmate Mick Taylor. 1961 Epiphone Casino: Richards first used this instrument in May 1964, shortly before the Stones' first tour of America. The guitar (along with the 1959 Les Paul Standard) became a frequently used guitar by Richards until 1966. 1957 Gibson Les Paul Custom: In 1966 Richards acquired a 1957 Les Paul Custom, and hand-painted it with psychedelic patterns in 1968. It served as his main stage and studio guitar from 1966 through the end of the Rolling Stones' 1970 European tour, for which he acquired a second late-50s Les Paul Custom which he used in open-G tuning.

1969 Gibson SG: In the 1969 film "Gimme Shelter", Richards is seen playing the iconic Gibson SG, with its signature "Heritage Cherry" finish. It is this Gibson flat-body which produced the raw, driving chord progression heard in the live version of "Jumping Jack Flash" on the Stones' 1969 live album "GET YER YA-YAS OUT!".

Gibson ES-355s: Richards used this semi-hollow model on stage during the Rolling Stones' 1969 tour; it was a favourite for both Richards and Taylor during recording sessions for ''Sticky Fingers'' and ''Exile on Main St.'' Richards has also used ES-355s on every tour since 1997. In 2006 he also unveiled a white Gibson ES-345. Gibson Les Paul Juniors: Richards has regularly used both single-cutaway and double-cutaway Juniors since 1973. The one he is most frequently seen with is a TV-yellow double-cutaway instrument nicknamed "Dice", which he has used since 1979. On recent tours he has used this guitar for "Midnight Rambler" and "Out of Control". 1953 Fender Telecaster: Richards acquired this butterscotch Telecaster in 1971. Nicknamed "Micawber", after a character in Charles Dickens's novel ''David Copperfield'', it is set up for five-string open-G tuning (-GDGBD), and has only five bridge saddles. The neck pick-up has been replaced by a Gibson PAF humbucking pick-up, and the bridge pick-up has been replaced by a Fender lap steel pick-up (similar to a Fender Broadcaster pick-up). "Micawber" is one of Richards' main stage guitars, and is often used to play "Brown Sugar", "Before They Make Me Run", and "Honky Tonk Women". 1954 Fender Telecaster: A second Telecaster, nicknamed both "Malcolm" and "Number 2", is also set up for 5-string open-G tuning and has a Gibson PAF pick-up in the neck position. It has a natural finish and the wood grain is visible. 1967 Fender Telecaster: A third Telecaster used for five-string open-G playing is a dark sunburst model which is also fitted with a Gibson PAF pick-up; the PAF on this guitar has had its cover removed, exposing the bobbins. Richards has used this guitar on stage for many songs, including "You Can't Always Get What You Want" and "Tumbling Dice". 1958 Fender Stratocaster: Fellow Rolling Stones guitarist Ronnie Wood gave Richards his 1958 Mary Kaye Signature Stratocaster after the band's 1982 tour. The guitar is finished in see-through blond and fitted with gold hardware. Richards has used this guitar onstage for "You Don't Have to Mean It" and "Miss You". 1975 Fender Telecaster Custom: Richards first used this guitar on the Rolling Stones' 1975 Tour of the Americas, and it was his main stage and recording guitar until 1986. It was later adapted for five-string open-G tuning, and reappeared on stage in 2005. Ampeg Dan Armstrong plexiglas guitar: The Dan Armstrong guitar was given to Richards during rehearsals for the 1969 tour, and became one of his main stage guitars from 1969 through the first shows of the 1972 tour. Fitted with a custom-made "sustained treble" humbucker pick-up, the guitar was used mainly in standard tuning and can be heard on "Carol", "Sympathy for the Devil" and "Midnight Rambler" on ''Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out''. On the 1970 tour Richards added a second Dan Armstrong guitar fitted with a "rock treble" pick-up.

Gibson L6-S Custom: Played around the time of "Black And Blue". Appears in a video performance of "Crazy Mama".

Zemaitis Five-String: Custom-made in 1974 by British luthier Tony Zemaitis, the guitar nicknamed both "Macabre" and "the Pirate Zemaitis" was decorated with skulls, a pistol and a dagger. Richards used it as his main open-G guitar from 1975 to 1978, when it was destroyed in a fire at his rented Los Angeles home. Richards used a Japanese-made replica on the 2005/06 tour. Newman-Jones custom guitars: Texas luthier Ted Newman-Jones made several custom five-string instruments that Richards used on the 1973 tours of Australasia and Europe. Richards used another Newman-Jones custom model on the 1979 New Barbarians tour.

Amplifiers

Richards's amplifier preferences have changed repeatedly, but some of his notable amplifiers are: Mesa Boogie Mark 1 A804 – Used between 1977 and 1993, this 100-watt 1x12" combo is finished in hardwood with a wicker grille. It can be heard on the Rolling Stones albums ''Love You Live'', ''Some Girls'', ''Emotional Rescue'' and Tattoo You, as well as on Richards's two solo albums ''Talk is Cheap'' and ''Main Offender''. This amplifier was handcrafted by Randall Smith and delivered to Richards in March 1977. Fender Twin – Since the 1990s, Richards has tended to use a variety of Fender "tweed" Twins on stage. Containing a pair of 12" speakers, the Fender Twin was, by 1958, an 80-watt all-tube guitar amplifier. Richards has utilised a pair of Fender Twins to "to achieve his signature clean/dirty rhythm and lead sound."

Fender Dual Showman – first acquired in 1964, Richards made frequent use of his blackface Dual Showman amp through mid-1966. Used to record The Rolling Stones, Now!, Out of Our Heads, December's Children and Aftermath before switching over to various prototype amplifiers from Vox in 1967 and the fairly new Hiwatt in 1968

Effects

In 1965 Richards used a Gibson Maestro fuzzbox to achieve the distinctive tone of his riff on "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction"; the success of the resulting single boosted the sales of the device to the extent that all available stock had sold out by the end of 1965. In the 1970s and early 1980s Richards frequently used guitar effects such as a wah-wah pedal, a phaser and a Leslie speaker, but he mainly relies on combining "the right amp with the right guitar" to achieve the sound he wants.

Discography

Studio albums

{|class="wikitable" |- !rowspan="2"| Year !rowspan="2"| Title !colspan="2"| Chart positions !rowspan="2"| Certifications(sales thresholds) |- ! U.K. ! U.S. |- |1988 |''Talk Is Cheap''

Released: October 3, 1988

Label: Virgin

| style="text-align:center;"|37 [3 wks] | style="text-align:center;"|24 [23 wks] |

US: Gold

|- |1991 |''Live at the Hollywood Palladium, December 15, 1988''

Released: December 10, 1991

Label: Virgin

| style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |1992 |''Main Offender''

Released: October 19, 1992

Label: Virgin

| style="text-align:center;"|45 [2 wks] | style="text-align:center;"|99 [10 wks] |- |2010 |''Vintage Vinos''

Released: November 2, 2010

Label: Mindless Records

| style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |}

Singles

!Release date	!Title	!US Mainstream Rock
December 1978	"Run Rudolph Run" b/w "The Harder They Come"
October 1988	"Take It So Hard"
November 1988	"You Don't Move Me"
February 1989	"Struggle"
October 1992	"Wicked As It Seems"
January 1993	"Eileen"
December 2007

Guest appearances on other artists' releases

The Beatles: backing vocals on "All You Need Is Love" broadcast (1967)

The Dirty Mac: ''The Rolling Stones' Rock & Roll Circus'' (recorded 1968, released 2004): bass on "Yer Blues" and "Her Blues"

Billy Preston: ''That's the Way God Planned It'' (1969): bass

Alexis Korner: ''Musically Rich...and Famous: Anthology 1967–1982'' (2003): guitar on "Get Off of My Cloud" (recorded 1974 or 1975)

Ronnie Wood: ''I've Got My Own Album to Do'' (1974): co-composer, guitar and vocals on "Sure the One You Need"; co-composer, guitar, piano and backing vocals on "Act Together"; guitar and backing vocals on several other tracks; ''The First Barbarians Live From Kilburn'' (recorded 1974, released 2007): guitar, vocals, keyboards; ''Now Look'' (1975): guitar and backing vocals on "Breathe on Me", "I Can't Stand the Rain" and "I Can Say She's Alright"; ''Gimme Some Neck'' (1979): guitar and backing vocals on "Buried Alive", backing vocals on "Seven Days"

Faces: ''The Faces' Final Concert'' (recorded 1974, released 2000): guitar on "Sweet Little Rock & Roller", "I’d Rather Go Blind" and "Twistin’ The Night Away"

John Phillips: ''Pay, Pack & Follow'' (recorded 1976–1977, released 2001) and ''Pussycat'' (outtakes and alternate mixes – recorded 1976–77, released 2008): co-producer, guitar, backing vocals

Peter Tosh: ''Bush Doctor'' (1978): guitar

The New Barbarians: ''Buried Alive: Live in Maryland'' (recorded 1979, released 2006): guitar, piano, lead and backing vocals

Ian McLagan: ''Troublemaker'' (1979, re-released in 2005 as ''Here Comes Trouble''): guitar and backing vocals on "Truly"

Screamin' Jay Hawkins: ''Portrait of a Man: A History of Screamin' Jay Hawkins'' (1979): guitar on "I Put a Spell on You and "Armpit #6"

Max Romeo: ''Holding Out My Love For You'' (1981): guitar, mixing

Tom Waits: ''Rain Dogs'' (1985): guitar and backing vocals on "Big Black Mariah", "Union Square" and "Blind Love"; ''Bone Machine'' (1992): co-composer, guitar and vocals on "That Feel"

''Sun City: Artists United Against Apartheid'' (1985): co-composer and guitar on "Silver and Gold"

Slim Jim Phantom, Lee Rocker & Earl Slick: ''Phantom Rocker and Slick'' (1986): guitar on "My Mistake"

Aretha Franklin: ''Jumpin' Jack Flash'' film soundtrack (1986): producer and guitar on title track, also on ''Jewels in the Crown: All-Star Duets with the Queen'' (2007)

Chuck Berry concert film ''Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll'' (1987): musical producer, guitar and backing vocals

Nona Hendryx: ''Female Trouble'' (1987): guitar on "Rock This House"

Ziggy Marley: ''Conscious Party'' (1988): guitar on "Lee & Molly"

Feargal Sharkey: ''Wish'' (1988): guitar on "More Love"

The Dirty Strangers: ''Dirty Strangers'' (1988): guitar; ''From W12 to Wittering'' (2009): piano on five tracks, co-composer of "Real Botticelli"

Johnnie Johnson: ''Johnnie B. Bad'' (1991): co-producer, guitar and vocals on "Key to the Highway", co-composer and guitar on "Tanqueray"

John Lee Hooker: ''Mr. Lucky'' (1991): guitar on "Crawling King Snake", guitar and backing vocals on "Whiskey and Wimmen"

The Neville Brothers: ''Uptown'' (1991): guitar

''Weird Nightmare: Meditations on Mingus'' (1992): guitar and vocals on "Oh Lord Don't Let Them Drop That Atomic Bomb on Me"

George Jones: ''Bradley Barn Sessions'' (1994): guitar and vocals on "Say It's Not You"; ''Burn Your Playhouse Down – The Unreleased Duets'' (2008): vocals on "Burn Your Playhouse Down" (recorded in 1994)

Bernie Worrell: ''Funk of Ages'' (1994): guitar

Bobby Womack: ''Resurrection'' (1994): guitar

Marianne Faithfull: ''A Collection'' (1994): co-producer and guitar on "Ghost Dance"; ''Easy Come, Easy Go'' (2008): guitar and harmony vocals on "Sing Me Back Home"

The Chieftains: ''Long Black Veil'' (1995): guitar on "The Rocky Road to Dublin"

Ivan Neville: ''Thanks'' (1995): guitar; ''Scrape'' (2004): guitar

Bo Diddley: ''A Man Amongst Men'' (1996): guitar on "Bo Diddley Is Crazy"

B.B. King: ''Deuces Wild'' (1997): guitar on "Paying the Cost to Be the Boss"

''Wingless Angels'' (1997): co-producer, guitar, backing vocals

Scotty Moore: ''All the King's Men'' (1997): guitar and vocals on "Deuce and a Quarter"

Jimmy Rogers All-Stars: ''Blues Blues Blues'' (1999): guitar on "Trouble No More", "Don't Start Me Talkin'" and "Goin' Away"

Sheryl Crow: ''Sheryl Crow & Friends: Live From Central Park'' (1999): guitar and vocals on "Happy"

Charlie Watts: ''Charlie Watts – Jim Keltner Project'' (2000): guitar on "The Elvin Suite"

''Timeless: Tribute to Hank Williams'' (2001): guitar and vocals on "You Win Again"

Peter Wolf: ''Sleepless'' (2002): guitar and vocals on "Too Close Together"

Willie Nelson & Friends: ''Stars & Guitars'' (2002): guitar and vocals on "Dead Flowers"; ''Outlaws & Angels'' (2004): guitar and vocals on "We Had It All", guitar on "Trouble in Mind" and "Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin On"

Hubert Sumlin: ''About Them Shoes'' (2004): guitar and vocals on "Still a Fool", guitar on "I Love the Life I Lead" and "Little Girl"

Toots & the Maytals: ''True Love'' (2004): guitar and vocals on "Careless Ethiopians"; guitar and backing vocals on "Pressure Drop" (released 2007)

''Return to Sin City: A Tribute to Gram Parsons'' (2004): guitar and vocals on "Love Hurts", "Hickory Wind" and "Wild Horses"

''Make It Funky'' (2005): guitar and vocals on "I'm Ready"

Les Paul & Friends: ''American Made World Played'' (2005): guitar on "Good Morning Little Schoolgirl"

Buddy Guy: ''Bring 'Em In'' (2005): guitar on "The Price You Gotta Pay"

Jerry Lee Lewis: ''Last Man Standing: The Duets'' (2006): guitar and vocals on "That Kind of Fool"

Ronnie Spector: ''Last of the Rock Stars'' (2006): guitar and vocals on "It's Gonna Work Out Fine", guitar on "All I Want"

Lee "Scratch" Perry: ''Scratch Came Scratch Saw Scratch Conquered'' (2008): guitar on "Heavy Voodoo" and "Once There's a Will There's a Way"

''Little Steven's Underground Garage'': ''Christmas a Go-Go'' (2008): This compilation album starts with Richards' "Run Rudolph Run", which the liner notes state is now "available for the first time on CD"

Richards also appeared on ''The Simpsons'' episode, "How I Spent My Strummer Vacation"

Lead vocals on Rolling Stones tracks

Below is a list of the officially released Rolling Stones tracks on which Richards sings lead vocals or shares lead-vocal duties:

"Something Happened to Me Yesterday" (alternates with Jagger), "Connection" (co-lead with Jagger) – ''Between the Buttons'' (1967)

"Salt of the Earth" (first verse) – ''Beggars Banquet'' (1968)

"You Got the Silver" – ''Let It Bleed'' (1969)

"Happy" – ''Exile On Main St.'' (1972)

"Coming Down Again" – ''Goats Head Soup'' (1973)

"Memory Motel" (alternates with Jagger) – ''Black and Blue'' (1976)

"Happy" (live) – ''Love You Live'' (1977)

"Before They Make Me Run" – ''Some Girls'' (1978)

"All About You" – ''Emotional Rescue'' (1980)

"Little T&A;" – ''Tattoo You'' (1981)

"Wanna Hold You" – ''Undercover'' (1983)

"Too Rude", "Sleep Tonight" – '' Dirty Work'' (1986)

"Can't Be Seen", "Slipping Away" – ''Steel Wheels'' (1989)

"Can't Be Seen" (live) – ''Flashpoint'' (1991)

"The Worst", "Thru and Thru" – ''Voodoo Lounge'' (1994)

"Slipping Away" (acoustic studio rehearsal) – ''Stripped'' (1995)

"You Don't Have to Mean It", "Thief in the Night", "How Can I Stop" – ''Bridges to Babylon'' (1997)

"Thief in the Night" (live) – ''No Security'' (1999)

"Losing My Touch" – ''Forty Licks'' (2002)

"Happy" (live), "The Nearness of You" (live), "You Don't Have to Mean It" (live) – ''Live Licks'' (2004)

"This Place Is Empty", "Infamy" – ''A Bigger Bang'' (2005)

"Hurricane" – CD single (free at US Rolling Stones concerts in 2005 with donation to Hurricane Katrina fund)

"Thru and Thru" (live) – ''Rarities 1971-2003'' (2005)

"You Got the Silver" (live), "Connection" (live), "Little T&A;" (live) – ''Shine a Light'' (2008)

Filmography

+Film	! Year	! Title	! Role
2007	''Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End''	Captain Teague
2011	''Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides''	Captain Teague

References

External links

(requires Flash) in 2010

CBC Archives Richards's trial and sentencing in 24 Oct. 1978 and 16 April 1979

}}

Category:1943 births Category:Living people Category:English expatriates in the United States Category:English blues guitarists Category:English-language singers Category:English male singers Category:English rock musicians Category:English people of Welsh descent Category:English rock guitarists Category:English singer-songwriters Category:Ivor Novello Award winners Category:Lead guitarists Category:People convicted of drug offenses Category:People from Dartford Category:People from Fairfield County, Connecticut Category:People from Staten Island Category:People self-identifying as substance abusers Category:Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons Category:Songwriters Hall of Fame inductees Category:Rhythm guitarists Category:The Dirty Mac Category:The Rolling Stones members Category:British rhythm and blues boom musicians

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playername	Ali Shah
country	Zimbabwe
batting	Left-hand bat
bowling	Right-arm medium
deliveries	balls
columns	2
column1	Tests
matches1	3
runs1	122
bat avg1	24.39
100s/50s1	0/1
top score1	62
deliveries1	186
wickets1	1
bowl avg1	125.00
fivefor1	0
tenfor1	0
best bowling1	1/46
catches/stumpings1	0/-
column2	ODIs
matches2	28
runs2	437
bat avg2	16.80
100s/50s2	0/1
top score2	60*
deliveries2	1077
wickets2	18
bowl avg2	45.11
fivefor2	0
tenfor2	n/a
best bowling2	3/33
catches/stumpings2	6/-
date	11 February
year	2006
source	http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/55680.html Cricinfo }}

Ali Hassimshah Omarshah, (known as Ali Shah, born August 7, 1959 in Salisbury - now Harare) is a former Zimbabwean cricketer who played in 3 Tests and 28 ODIs from 1993 to 1996. Ali is currently living in Harare with his wife Aisha Omarshah, son Zain Omarhshah and daughter Fariyah Omarshah. He is currently in business trading in various commodities from around the world.

Category:1959 births Category:Living people Category:Mashonaland cricketers Category:Zimbabwe Test cricketers Category:Zimbabwe One Day International cricketers Category:Zimbabwean cricketers Category:Cricketers at the 1983 Cricket World Cup Category:Cricketers at the 1987 Cricket World Cup Category:Cricketers at the 1992 Cricket World Cup

mr:अली शाह