Pentecostalism is a diverse and complex movement within Christianity that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of God through the baptism in the Holy Spirit, has an eschatological focus, and is an experiential religion. The term ''Pentecostal'' is derived from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ, as described in the second chapter of the Book of Acts. Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age of the early church. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term ''Apostolic'' or ''full gospel'' to describe their movement.

Pentecostalism is an umbrella term that includes a wide range of different theologies and cultures. For example, many Pentecostals are Trinitarian and others are Nontrinitarian. As a result, there is no single central organization or church that directs the movement. However some Pentecostal denominations are affiliated with the Pentecostal World Conference.

Pentecostalism's emphasis on the spiritual gifts places it within Charismatic Christianity, a broad grouping of Christians which have accepted some Pentecostal teachings on Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts. Pentecostalism is theologically and historically close to the charismatic movement as it significantly influenced that movement, and sometimes the terms ''Pentecostal'' and ''charismatic'' are used interchangeably. Pentecostalism claims more than 250 million adherents worldwide. When charismatics are included with Pentecostals the number increases to nearly a quarter of the world's two billion Christians.

Beliefs and practices

Pentecostals emphasize the teaching of the "full gospel" or "foursquare gospel". The term ''foursquare'' refers to the four fundamental beliefs of Pentecostalism: Jesus saves according to John 3:16, baptizes with the Holy Spirit according to Acts 2:4, heals bodily according to James 5:15, and is coming again to receive those who are saved according to 1 Thessalonians 4:16–17. It is evangelical, emphasizing the reliability of the Bible and the need for the transformation of an individual's life through faith in Jesus.

Pentecostals, like other evangelicals, generally adhere to the Bible's divine inspiration and inerrancy—the belief that the Bible, in the original languages in which it was written, is infallible. However, they differ from other evangelicals by rejecting cessationist teachings. Pentecostals believe that spiritual gifts, such as speaking in tongues and prophecy, did not cease after the closing of the Biblical canon and are still available for modern Christians.

To avoid confusion when studying Pentecostal beliefs, it should be noted that Pentecostals identify three distinct uses of the word "baptism" in the New Testament:

Baptism into the body of Christ: This refers to salvation. Every believer in Christ is made a part of his body, the Church, through baptism. The Holy Spirit is the agent, and the body of Christ is the medium.

Water baptism: Symbolic of dying to the world and living in Christ, water baptism is an outward symbol of that which has already been accomplished by the Holy Spirit, namely baptism into the body of Christ.

Baptism with the Holy Spirit: This is an empowering experience distinct from baptism into the body of Christ. In this baptism, Christ is the agent and the Holy Spirit is the medium. This is the Gospel or "good news". The fundamental requirement of Pentecostalism is that one be born again. The new birth is received by the grace of God through faith in Christ and acceptance of him as personal lord and savior. In being born again, the believer is regenerated, justified, adopted into the family of God, and sanctified. Pentecostal soteriology is generally Arminian rather than Calvinist. The security of the believer is a doctrine held within Pentecostalism; nevertheless, faith and repentance are necessary for salvation and remain necessary for the continuance of that salvation. Pentecostals believe in both a literal heaven and hell, the former for those who have accepted God's gift of salvation and the latter for those who have rejected it.

For most Pentecostals, there is no other requirement to receive salvation. Baptism with the Holy Spirit and speaking in tongues are not generally required; though, Pentecostal converts are usually encouraged to seek these experiences. A notable exception is Oneness Pentecostalism, most adherents of which believe both water baptism and Spirit baptism are integral components of salvation. For a more detailed explanation of Oneness Pentecostal beliefs, see the Oneness Pentecostal section of this article below.

Baptism with the Holy Spirit

While Christ and his redemptive work are at the center of Pentecostal theology, that redemptive work is believed to provide for a fullness of the Holy Spirit of which believers in Christ may or may not take advantage. The majority of Pentecostals believe that at the moment a person is born again, the new believer has the presence (indwelling) of the Holy Spirit. While the Spirit ''dwells'' in every Christian, Pentecostals believe that all Christians should seek to be ''filled'' with him. The Spirit's "filling", "falling upon", "coming upon", or being "poured out upon" believers is called the baptism with the Holy Spirit. Pentecostals define it as a definite experience occurring after salvation whereby the Holy Spirit comes upon the believer to anoint and empower him or her for special service. It has also been described as "a baptism into the love of God".

The primary purpose of the experience is to grant power for Christian service. Other purposes include power for spiritual warfare (the Christian struggles against spiritual enemies and thus requires spiritual power), power for overflow (the believer's experience of the presence and power of God in his or her life flows out into the lives of others), and power for ability (to follow divine direction, to face persecution, to exercise spiritual gifts for the edification of the church, etc.).

Pentecostals believe that the baptism with the Holy Spirit is available to all Christians. Repentance from sin and being born again are fundamental requirements to receive it. There must also be in the believer a deep conviction of needing more of God in his or her life, and a measure of consecration by which the believer yields himself or herself to the will of God. Citing instances in the Book of Acts where believers were Spirit baptized before they were baptized with water, most Pentecostals believe a Christian need not have been baptized in water to receive Spirit baptism. However, Pentecostals do believe that the biblical pattern is "repentance, regeneration, water baptism, and then the baptism with the Holy Ghost". There are Pentecostal believers who have claimed to receive their baptism with the Holy Spirit while being water baptized.

It is received by having faith in God's promise to fill the believer and in yielding the entire being to Christ. Certain conditions, if present in a believer's life, could cause delay in receiving Spirit baptism, such as "weak faith, unholy living, imperfect consecration, and egocentric motives". In the absence of these, Pentecostals teach that seekers should maintain a persistent faith in the knowledge that God will fulfill his promise. For Pentecostals, there is no prescribed manner in which a believer will be filled with the Spirit. It could be expected or unexpected, during public or private prayer.

Pentecostals expect certain results following baptism with the Holy Spirit. Some of these are immediate while others are enduring or permanent. Some Pentecostal denominations teach that speaking in tongues is an immediate or initial physical evidence that one has received the experience. However, not all Pentecostals share this doctrinal position. It is most prominent among white Pentecostal denominations in the United States; elsewhere, beliefs are more varied. Some teach that any of the gifts of the Spirit can be evidence of having received Spirit baptism. Other immediate evidences include giving God praise, having joy, and desiring to testify about Jesus. Enduring or permanent results in the believer's life include Christ glorified and revealed in a greater way, a "deeper passion for souls", greater power to witness to nonbelievers, a more effective prayer life, greater love for and insight into the Bible, and the manifestation of the gifts of the Spirit.

While the baptism with the Holy Spirit is a definite experience in a believer's life, Pentecostals view it as just the beginning of living a Spirit-filled life. Pentecostal teaching stresses the importance of continually being filled with the Spirit. There is only one baptism with the Spirit, but there should be many infillings with the Spirit throughout the believer's life.

Spiritual gifts

Pentecostals are continuationists, meaning they believe that all of the spiritual gifts, including the miraculous or "sign gifts", found in 1 Corinthians 12:4-11, 12:27-31, Romans 12:3-8, and Ephesians 4:7-16 continue to operate within the Church in the present time. Pentecostals place the gifts of the Spirit in context with the fruit of the Spirit. The fruit of the Spirit is the result of the new birth and continuing to abide in Christ. It is by the fruit exhibited that spiritual character is assessed. Spiritual gifts are received as a result of the baptism with the Holy Spirit. As gifts freely given by the Holy Spirit, they cannot be earned or merited, and they are not appropriate criteria with which to evaluate one's spiritual life or maturity. Pentecostals see in the biblical writings of Paul an emphasis on having both character and power, exercising the gifts in love.

Just as fruit should be evident in the life of every Christian, Pentecostals believe that every Spirit-filled believer is given some capacity for the manifestation of the Spirit. It is important to note that the exercise of a gift is a manifestation of the Spirit, not of the gifted person, and though the gifts operate through people, they are primarily gifts given to the Church. They are valuable only when they minister spiritual profit and edification to the body of Christ. Pentecostal writers point out that the lists of spiritual gifts in the New Testament do not seem to be exhaustive. It is generally believed that there are as many gifts as there are useful ministries and functions in the Church. A spiritual gift is often exercised in partnership with another gift. For example, in a Pentecostal church service, the gift of tongues might be exercised followed by the operation of the gift of interpretation.

According to Pentecostals, all manifestations of the Spirit are to be judged by the church. This is made possible, in part, by the gift of discerning of spirits, which is the capacity for discerning the source of a spiritual manifestation—whether from the Holy Spirit, an evil spirit, or from the human spirit. While Pentecostals believe in the current operation of all the spiritual gifts within the church, their teaching on some of these gifts have generated more controversy and interest than others. These can usually be grouped into two categories:the vocal and the power gifts.

Vocal gifts

The gifts of prophecy, tongues, and interpretation of tongues are called the vocal gifts. The word of wisdom and the word of knowledge could also be included as vocal gifts, but a word of wisdom is not necessarily a vocal gift. Pentecostals look to 1 Corinthians 14 for instructions on the proper use of the spiritual gifts, especially the vocal ones. Pentecostals believe that prophecy is the vocal gift of preference, a view derived from 1 Corinthians 14. Some teach that the gift of tongues is equal to the gift of prophecy when tongues are interpreted. Prophetic and glossolalic utterances must be limited to two or three within a single service, and they are not to replace the preaching of the Word of God.

Word of wisdom and word of knowledge

It is important to note that these gifts are not the gifts of "wisdom" and "knowledge", terms which imply "an abiding deposit of supernatural" wisdom or knowledge. They are the gifts of "the word of wisdom" and "the word of knowledge" "which implies a spoken utterance through a direct operation of the Holy Spirit at a given moment". These two gifts, the word of wisdom and the word of knowledge, are not to be confused with natural human wisdom and knowledge. Pentecostals point out that these cannot simply be natural gifts "sanctified by the Holy Spirit and consecrated to the service of God" because they are placed within a list of "manifestations" of the Holy Spirit. The conclusion Pentecostals come to is that these (and all other spiritual gifts) "[involve] some measure of a supernatural operation" of the Spirit. The two gifts are related, but they are different: wisdom is "knowledge rightly applied" and knowledge is the "raw material that wisdom uses".

Prophecy

Pentecostals agree with the Protestant principle of ''sola Scriptura''. The Bible is the "all sufficient rule for faith and practice"; it is "fixed, finished, and objective revelation". Alongside this high regard for the authority of scripture is a belief that the gift of prophecy continues to operate within the Church. "Normally, in the operation of the gift of prophecy, the Spirit heavily anoints the believer to speak forth to the body not premeditated words, but words the Spirit supplies spontaneously in order to uplift and encourage, incite to faithful obedience and service, and to bring comfort and consolation".

Any Spirit-filled Christian, according to Pentecostal theology, has the potential, as with all the gifts, to prophesy. Sometimes, prophecy can overlap with the preaching of the Word "where great unpremeditated truth or application is provided by the Spirit, or where special revelation is given beforehand in prayer and is empowered in the delivery".

While a prophetic utterance at times might foretell future events, this is not the primary purpose of Pentecostal prophecy and is never to be used for personal guidance. For Pentecostals, prophetic utterances are fallible, i.e. subject to error. Pentecostals teach that believers must discern whether the utterance has edifying value for themselves and the local church. Because prophecies are subject to the judgement and discernment of other Christians, most Pentecostals teach that prophetic utterances should never be spoken in the first person (e.g. "I, the Lord") but always in the third person (e.g. "Thus saith the Lord" or "The Lord would have...").

Tongues and interpretation

A Pentecostal believer in a spiritual experience may vocalize fluent, unintelligible utterances (glossolalia) or articulate an alleged natural language previously unknown to them (xenoglossy). Commonly termed "speaking in tongues", this vocal phenomenon is believed by Pentecostals to include an endless variety of languages. According to Pentecostal theology, the language spoken may be an unlearned human language, such as happened on the Day of Pentecost, or it might be of heavenly (angelic) origin. In the first case, tongues could work as a sign by which witness is given to the unsaved. In the second case, tongues are used for praise and prayer when the mind is superseded and "the speaker in tongues speaks to God, speaks mysteries, and ... no one understands him".

Within Pentecostalism, there is a recognition that speaking in tongues serves two functions. Tongues as the ''initial evidence'' of the baptism with the Holy Spirit and in individual prayer serves a different purpose than tongues as a spiritual gift. All Spirit-filled believers, according to initial evidence proponents, will speak in tongues when baptized in the Spirit and, thereafter, will be able to express prayer and praise to God in an unknown tongue. This type of tongue speaking forms an important part of many Pentecostals' personal daily devotions. When used in this way, it is referred to as a "prayer language" as the believer is speaking unknown languages not for the purpose of communicating with others but for "communication between the soul and God". Its purpose is for the spiritual edification of the individual. Pentecostals believe the private use of tongues in prayer (i.e. "prayer in the Spirit") "promotes a deepening of the prayer life and the spiritual development of the personality". From Romans 8:26-27, Pentecostals believe that the Spirit intercedes for believers through tongues; in other words, when a believer prays in an unknown tongue, the Holy Spirit is supernaturally directing the believer's prayer.

Besides acting as a prayer language, tongues also function as the ''gift of tongues''. Not all Spirit-filled believers possess the gift of tongues. Its purpose is for gifted persons to publicly "speak with God in praise, to pray or sing in the Spirit, or to speak forth in the congregation". There is a division among Pentecostals on the relationship between the gifts of tongues and prophecy. One school of thought believes that the gift of tongues is always directed from man to God, in which case it is always prayer or praise spoken to God but in the hearing of the entire congregation for encouragement and consolation. Another school of thought believes that the gift of tongues can be prophetic, in which case the believer delivers a "message in tongues"—a prophetic utterance given under the influence of the Holy Spirit—to a congregation.

Whether prophetic or not, however, Pentecostals are agreed that all public utterances in an unknown tongue must be interpreted in the language of the gathered Christians. This is accomplished by the gift of interpretation, and this gift can be exercised by the same individual who first delivered the message (if he or she possesses the gift of interpretation) or by another individual who possesses the required gift. If a person with the gift of tongues is not sure that a person with the gift of interpretation is present and is unable to interpret the utterance him or herself, then the person should not speak. Pentecostals teach that those with the gift of tongues should pray for the gift of interpretation. Pentecostals do not require that an interpretation be a literal word-for-word translation of a glossolalic utterance. Rather, as the word "interpretation" implies, Pentecostals expect only an accurate explanation of the utterance's meaning.

Besides the gift of tongues, Pentecostals may also use glossolalia as a form of praise and worship in corporate settings. Pentecostals in a church service may pray aloud in tongues while others pray simultaneously in the common language of the gathered Christians. This use of glossolalia is seen as an acceptable form of prayer and therefore requires no interpretation. Congregations may also corporately sing in tongues, a phenomenon known as singing in the Spirit.

Speaking in tongues is not universal among Pentecostal Christians. In 2006, a 10-country survey by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life found that 49 percent of Pentecostals in the United States, 50 percent in Brazil, 41 percent in South Africa, and 54 percent in India said they "never" speak or pray in tongues.

Power gifts

The gifts of power are distinct from the vocal gifts in that they do not involve utterance. Included in this category are the gift of faith, gifts of healing, and the gift of miracles. The gift of faith (sometimes called "special" faith) is different from "saving faith" and normal Christian faith in its degree and application. This type of faith is a manifestation of the Spirit granted only to certain individuals "in times of special crisis or opportunity" and endues them with "a divine certainty ... that triumphs over everything". It is sometimes called the "faith of miracles" and is fundamental to the operation of the other two power gifts.

Divine healing

Pentecostalism is a holistic faith, and the belief that Jesus is Healer is one-fourth of the full gospel. Pentecostals cite four major reasons for believing in divine healing: 1) it is recorded in the Bible, 2) Jesus' healing ministry is included in his atonement (thus divine healing is part of salvation), 3) "the whole gospel is for the whole person"—spirit, soul, and body, 4) sickness is a consequence of the Fall of Man and salvation is ultimately the restoration of the fallen world. In the words of Pentecostal scholar Vernon L. Purdy, "Because sin leads to human suffering, it was only natural for the Early Church to understand the ministry of Christ as the alleviation of human suffering, since he was God's answer to sin ... The restoration of fellowship with God is the most important thing, but this restoration not only results in spiritual healing but many times in physical healing as well".

For Pentecostals, spiritual and physical healing serves as a reminder and testimony to Christ's future return when his people will be completely delivered from all the consequences of the fall. However, not everyone receives healing when they pray. It is God in his sovereign wisdom and will who either grants or withholds healing. Common reasons that are given in answer to the question why are all not healed include: God teaches through suffering, healing is not always immediate, lack of faith on the part of the person needing healing, and personal sin in one's life (however, this does not mean that all illness is caused by personal sin). Regarding healing and prayer Purdy states:

Pentecostals believe that prayer is central in receiving healing. Pentecostals look to scriptures such as James 5:13-16 for direction regarding healing prayer. One can pray for one's own healing (verse 13) and for the healing of others (verse 16); no special gift or clerical status is necessary. Verses 14-16 supply the framework for congregational healing prayer. The sick person expresses his or her faith by calling for the elders of the church who pray over and anoint the sick with olive oil. The oil is a symbol of the Holy Spirit.

Besides prayer, there are other ways in which Pentecostals believe healing can be received. One way is based on Mark 16:17-18 and involves believers laying hands on the sick. This is done in imitation of Jesus who often healed in this manner. Another method common in Pentecostal churches is based on the account in Acts 19:11–12 where people were healed when given handkerchiefs or aprons worn by the Apostle Paul. This practice is described by Duffield and Van Cleave in ''Foundations of Pentecostal Theology'':

Eschatology

The last element of the fourfold gospel is that Jesus is the "Soon Coming King". For Pentecostals, "every moment is eschatological" since at any time Christ may return. This "personal and imminent" Second Coming is for Pentecostals the motivation for practical Christian living including: personal holiness, meeting together for worship, faithful Christian service, and evangelism (both personal and worldwide). Many, if not the majority, of Pentecostals are premillennial dispensationalists believing in a pretribulation rapture.

Ordinances

Like other Christian churches, Pentecostals believe that certain rituals or ceremonies were instituted as a pattern and command by Jesus in the New Testament. Pentecostals commonly call these ceremonies ordinances. Many Christians call these sacraments, but this term is not generally used by Pentecostals as they do not see ordinances as imparting grace. Instead the term sacerdotal ordinance is used to denote the distinctive belief that grace is received directly from God by the congregant with the officiant serving only to facilitate rather than acting as a conduit or vicar.

The ordinance of water baptism is an outward symbol of an inner conversion that has already taken place. Therefore, most Pentecostal groups practice believer's baptism by immersion. The majority of Pentecostals do not view baptism as essential for salvation, and likewise, most Pentecostals are Trinitarian and use the traditional Trinitarian baptismal formula. However, Oneness Pentecostals view baptism as an essential and necessary part of the salvation experience and, as non-Trinitarians, reject the use of the traditional baptismal formula. For more information on Oneness Pentecostal baptismal beliefs, see the Oneness Pentecostal section below.

The ordinance of Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper, is seen as a direct command given by Jesus at the Last Supper, to be done in remembrance of him. Pentecostal denominations reject the use of wine as part of communion, using grape juice instead.

Foot washing is also held as an ordinance by some Pentecostals. It is considered an "ordinance of humility" because Jesus showed humility when washing his disciples' feet in . Other Pentecostals do not consider it an ordinance; however, they may still recognize spiritual value in the practice.

Worship

Traditional Pentecostal worship has been described as a "gestalt made up of prayer, singing, sermon, the operation of the gifts of the Spirit, altar intercession, offering, announcements, testimonies, musical specials, Scripture reading, and occasionally the Lord's supper". Early Pentecostals placed a high emphasis on congregational participation. This meant that anyone could initiate a song or chorus. Public testimony (testifying to what God is doing in one's life) was also an important element. Today, many Pentecostal churches have adopted contemporary worship models (also known as "praise and worship").

A distinctive feature of Pentecostalism has been a "vibrant and kinetic worship style" characterized by "clapping, waving, and raising hands; dancing, marching, and falling in the Spirit, shouting; a call-and-response form of preaching and a general sense of spontaneity". Even as Pentecostalism became more organized and formal, with more control exerted over services, the concept of spontaneity has retained an important place within the movement and continues to inform stereotypical imagery, such as the derogatory "holy roller". The phrase "Quench not the Spirit", derived from 1 Thessalonians 5:19, is used commonly and captures the thought behind Pentecostal spontaneity.

Some Pentecostals believe they experience manifestations (physical responses) of the Holy Spirit's presence. Two of the most well known examples are "dancing in the Spirit" and a form of prostration known as being "slain in the Spirit". Traditionally, dancing in the Spirit has been defined as, "a single participant spontaneously 'dancing' with eyes closed without bumping into nearby persons or objects, obviously under the power and guidance of the Spirit. . . . If the experience happens, it is because the worshipper (sic) has become so enraptured with God's presence that the Spirit takes control of physical motions as well as the spiritual and emotional being". A different, more recent definition of dancing in the Spirit has also developed among some Pentecostals. This understands dancing in the Spirit as an act of congregational worship, similar to corporate singing and prayer. According to this definition, it is "spontaneous dancing by the congregation (usually in place and without partners)". Those who adhere to the traditional definition tend to discourage identifying the latter type with dancing in the Spirit. Slaying or resting in the Spirit (also known as "falling under the power") is a phenomenon in which a person falls (usually) backwards while being prayed over. It is believed by Pentecostals to be caused by "an overwhelming experience of the presence of God".

The "running the aisles" and the "Jericho march" are also traditional Pentecostal practices. The Jericho march, a form of corporate worship, involves a congregation marching with loud shouts of prayer and singing. Another practice in some Pentecostal churches is running the aisles.

While phenomena such as these have been present in Pentecostalism from the beginning, not all Pentecostals agree with the biblical legitimacy and appropriateness of certain or all forms of such practices. . The frequency and prominence of their occurrence in a Pentecostal worship service can vary, from being common in one local church to being nonexistent in another. Slaying and dancing in the Spirit are two such practices originating in classical Pentecostalism but are now more common among independent neo-Pentecostal and charismatic groups.

Types

Classical Pentecostalism

Classical Pentecostalism is the earliest form of Pentecostalism and is divided into three major doctrinal orientations: Wesleyan, Finished Work, and Oneness denominations. Wesleyan Pentecostals are sometimes referred to as the "Methodistic" type Pentecostals while those of the Finished Work persuasion are called the "Baptistic" or "Reformed" type. The difference between Wesleyan and non-Wesleyan Pentecostalism centers around the understanding of sanctification.

Wesleyan Pentecostals believe in the experience of entire sanctification, a definite event that occurs after salvation but before Spirit baptism. This experience cleanses the believer, rooting out the sinful, fallen nature. Two important Wesleyan denominations are the Church of God in Christ and the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee). Finished Work Pentecostals reject entire sanctification as a definite event. They believe that one is initially sanctified at the moment of salvation. After conversion, the believer grows in grace through a life-long process. The Assemblies of God and the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel are examples of the Reformed branch. With the exception of Oneness Pentecostals, classical Pentecostal churches share basic beliefs with the rest of evangelical Christianity.

Oneness Pentecostalism

The Oneness movement, which eventually arose from the Finished Work branch of classic Pentecostals, differs from the rest of Pentecostalism in several significant ways. Oneness Pentecostals reject the doctrine of the Trinity. They do not describe God as three persons but rather as three manifestations of the one living God. Oneness Pentecostals practice Jesus' Name Baptism—water baptisms performed in the name of Jesus Christ, rather than that of the Trinity.

Oneness Pentecostal adherents believe repentance, baptism in Jesus' name, and Spirit baptism are all essential elements of the conversion experience. Oneness Pentecostals hold that repentance is necessary before baptism to make the ordinance valid, and receipt of the Holy Spirit manifested by speaking in other tongues is necessary afterwards, to complete the work of baptism. This differs from other Pentecostals, along with evangelical Christians in general, who see only repentance and faith in Christ as essential to salvation. This has resulted in Oneness believers being accused by some (including other Pentecostals) of a "works-salvation" soteriology, a charge they vehemently deny. Oneness Pentecostals insist that salvation comes by grace through faith in Christ, coupled with obedience to his command to be "born of water and of the Spirit"; hence, no good works or obedience to laws or rules can save anyone. For them, baptism is not seen as a "work" but rather the indispensable means that Jesus himself provided to come into his kingdom.

The major Oneness churches include the United Pentecostal Church International and the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World.

Independent groups

While the classical Pentecostal denominations form a major part of the movement over the years, many smaller independent groups not connected to the historical churches have developed. Often having a charismatic leader, these groups are constantly emerging and forming new groups within the movement. Some of these independent movements may also be considered "Charismatic" rather than Pentecostal and include the followers of Charles Simpson in the Covenant churches movement, the followers of Kenneth Hagin and Kenneth Copeland in the Word of Faith movement, and the followers of Earl Paulk in the Kingdom Now theology. Some of these groups have been successful in utilizing the mass media, especially television and radio, to spread their message.

These new movements are often at odds with the classical Pentecostals over disagreements in doctrine and practice. Many classical Pentecostal leaders seek to distance themselves and their organizations from these newer movements.

Denominations and adherents

Estimated to number around 115 million followers worldwide in 2000, Pentecostalism is sometimes referred to as the "third force of Christianity", the first two being Catholicism and Protestantism. Pentecostal and Charismatic church growth is rapid in many parts of the world. The great majority of Pentecostals are to be found in developing countries although much of their international leadership is still in North America. The movement is enjoying its greatest surge today in the global South, which includes Africa, Latin America, and most of Asia. One reason for this growth is Pentecostalism's appeal to the poor. According to a United Nations report, the movement has "been the most successful at recruiting its members from the poorest of the poor."

In 1998, there were about 11,000 different Pentecostal or charismatic denominations worldwide. The largest Pentecostal denomination in the world, the Assemblies of God, claims approximately 57 million adherents worldwide. It has a significant presence in many countries including Cuba, Egypt, India, Indonesia and Nigeria. The Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) has a membership of over 6 million, the Church of God in Christ has a membership of 5.5 million, the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel has 5 million members, the United Pentecostal Church International has a membership of over 4 million, and the International Pentecostal Holiness Church has over 3 million members.

The largest single Pentecostal church in the world is the Yoido Full Gospel Church in South Korea. Founded and led by David Yonggi Cho since 1958, it has to 1 million members in 2007. Australia's largest church, Hillsong, is an Assemblies of God in Australia church with a membership exceeding 19,000. The largest Malayalam, an Indian language speaking church in the world with over 10,000 communicant members is headed by Rev Dr. M A Varughese in Bangalore India.

History

Background

The charismatic experiences found in Pentecostalism have precedents in earlier movements in Christianity. Church historian Dr. Curtis Ward proposes the existence of an unbroken Pentecostal lineage from the early church to the present, with glossolalia and gifts following. However, early Pentecostals considered the movement a latter day restoration of the church's apostolic power, and most historians of modern Pentecostalism write that the movement emerged from late 19th century radical evangelical revival movements in America and Great Britain.

Within this radical evangelicalism, expressed most strongly in the holiness and higher life movements, themes of restorationism, premillennialism, faith healing, and greater attention on the person and work of the Holy Spirit were central to emerging Pentecostalism. Evangelicals felt that modern Christianity was missing the power and authority of the New Testament church. Believing that the second coming of Christ was imminent, many evangelicals expected an endtime revival that would bring many people to Christ. Many leaders began to speak of an experience available to all Christians which would empower believers to evangelize the world, often termed ''baptism with the Holy Spirit''. The earliest Pentecostals understood their movement historically within the framework of a "Latter Rain motif"—a modified version of dispensationalism in which the return to prominence of the charismata within the church was a sign of the imminence of Christ's Second Coming.

Certain Christian leaders and movements had important influences on early Pentecostals. Albert Benjamin Simpson and his Christian and Missionary Alliance was very influential in the early years of Pentecostalism, especially on the development of the Assemblies of God. Another early influence on Pentecostals was John Alexander Dowie and his Christian Catholic Apostolic Church. The teachings of Simpson, Dowie, Adoniram Judson Gordon and Maria Woodworth-Etter (she later joined the Pentecostal movement) on healing were embraced by Pentecostals. Edward Irving's Catholic Apostolic Church also shared many characteristics later found in the Pentecostal revival.

There was no one founder of modern Pentecostalism. Instead, isolated Christian groups were experiencing charismatic phenemena such as divine healing and speaking in tongues. The Wesleyan holiness movement provided a theological explanation for what was happening to these Christians. They adapted Wesleyan soteriology to accommodate their new understanding.

Early revivals: 1900–1929

Parham and Seymour

Charles Fox Parham, an independent holiness evangelist who believed strongly in divine healing, was an important figure to the emergence of Pentecostalism as a distinct Christian movement. In 1900, he started a school near Topeka, Kansas, which he named Bethel Bible School. There he taught that speaking in tongues was the scriptural evidence for the reception of the baptism with the Holy Spirit. On January 1, 1901, after a watch night service, the students prayed for and received the baptism with the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues. Parham received this same experience sometime later and began preaching it in all his services. Parham believed this was xenoglossia and that missionaries would no longer need to study foreign languages. After 1901, Parham closed his Topeka school and began a four year revival tour throughout Kansas and Missouri. He taught that the baptism with the Holy Spirit was a third experience, subsequent to conversion and sanctification. Sanctification cleansed the believer, but Spirit baptism empowered for service.

At about the same time that Parham was spreading his doctrine of initial evidence in the Midwestern United States, news of the Welsh Revival of 1904-1905 ignited intense speculation among radical evangelicals around the world and particularly in the United States of a coming move of the Spirit which would renew the entire Christian Church. This revival saw thousands of conversions and also exhibited speaking in tongues.

In 1905, Parham moved to Houston, Texas, where he started a Bible training school. One of his students was William J. Seymour, a one-eyed black preacher. Seymour traveled to Los Angeles where his preaching sparked the three-year-long Azusa Street Revival in 1906. Worship at the racially integrated Azusa Mission featured an absence of any order of service. People preached and testified as moved by the Spirit, spoke and sung in tongues, and fell in the Spirit. The revival attracted both religious and secular media attention, and thousands of visitors flocked to the mission, carrying the "fire" back to their home churches. Despite the work of various Wesleyan groups such as Parham's and D. L. Moody's revivals, the beginning of the widespread Pentecostal movement in the United States is generally considered to have begun with Seymour's Azusa Street Revival.

Criticism and spread

The first generation of Pentecostal believers faced immense criticism and ostracism from other Christians, most vehemently from the holiness movement from which they originated. Alma White, leader of the Pillar of Fire Church, wrote a book against the movement titled ''Demons and Tongues'' in 1910. She called Pentecostal tongues "satanic gibberish" and Pentecostal services "the climax of demon worship". Famous holiness preacher W. B. Godbey characterized those at Azusa Street as "Satan's preachers, jugglers, necromancers, enchanters, magicians, and all sorts of mendicants". To Dr. G. Campbell Morgan, Pentecostalism was "the last vomit of Satan", while Dr. R. A. Torrey thought it was "emphatically not of God, and founded by a Sodomite". Ironically, the Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene, one of the largest holiness groups, was strongly opposed to the new Pentecostal movement. To avoid confusion, the church changed its name in 1919 to the Church of the Nazarene. A. B. Simpson's Christian and Missionary Alliance negotiated a compromise position unique for the time. Simpson believed that Pentecostal tongues speaking was a legitimate manifestation of the Holy Spirit, but he did not believe it was a necessary evidence of Spirit baptism. This view on speaking in tongues ultimately led to what became known as the "Alliance position" articulated by A. W. Tozer as "seek not—forbid not".

Azusa participants returned to their homes carrying their new experience with them. In many cases, whole churches were converted to the Pentecostal faith, but many times Pentecostals were forced to establish new religious communities when their experience was rejected by the established churches. Because speaking in tongues was initially believed to always be actual foreign languages, it was believed that missionaries would no longer have to learn the languages of the peoples they evangelized because the Holy Spirit would provide whatever foreign language was required. (When the majority of missionaries, to their disappointment, learned that tongues speech was unintelligible on the mission field, Pentecostal leaders were forced to modify their understanding of tongues.) Thus, as the experience of speaking in tongues spread, a sense of the immediacy of Christ's return took hold and that energy would be directed into missionary and evangelistic activity. Early Pentecostals saw themselves as outsiders from mainstream society, dedicated solely to preparing the way for Christ’s return.

An associate of Seymour's, Florence Crawford, brought the message to the Northwest, forming what would become the Apostolic Faith Church by 1908. After 1907, Azusa participant William Howard Durham, pastor of the North Avenue Mission in Chicago, returned to the Midwest to lay the groundwork for the movement in that region. It was from Durham's church that future leaders of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada would here the Pentecostal message. One of the most well known Pentecostal pioneers was Gaston B. Cashwell (the "Apostle of Pentecost" to the South), whose evangelistic work led three Southeastern holiness denominations into the new movement.

International visitors and Pentecostal missionaries would eventually export the revival to other nations. The first foreign Pentecostal missionaries were A. G. Garr and his wife, who were Spirit baptized at Azusa and traveled to India and later Hong Kong. The Norwegian Methodist pastor T. B. Barratt was influenced by Seymour during a tour of the United States. By December 1906, he had returned to Europe and is credited with beginning the Pentecostal movement in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Germany, France and England. A notable convert of Barratt was Alexander Boddy, the Anglican vicar of All Saints' in Sunderland, England, who became a founder of British Pentecostalism. Other important converts of Barratt were German minister Jonathan Paul who founded the first German Pentecostal denomination (the Mülheim Association) and Lewi Pethrus, the Swedish Baptist minister who founded the Swedish Pentecostal movement.

Through Durham's ministry, Italian immigrant Luigi Francescon received the Pentecostal experience in 1907 and established Italian Pentecostal congregations in the United States, Argentina, and Brazil. In 1908, Giacomo Lombardi led the first Pentecostal services in Italy. In November 1910, two Swedish Pentecostal missionaries arrived in Belem, Brazil and established what would become the Assembleias de Deus (Assemblies of God of Brazil). In 1908, John G. Lake, a follower of Alexander Dowie who had experienced Pentecostal Spirit baptism, traveled to South Africa and founded what would become the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa and the Zion Christian Church. As a result of this missionary zeal, practically all Pentecostal denominations today trace their historical roots to the Azusa Street Revival.

Early controversies

The first Pentecostal converts were mainly derived from the holiness movement and adhered to a Wesleyan understanding of sanctification as a definite, instantaneous experience and "second work of grace". Problems with this view arose when large numbers of converts entered the movement from non-Wesleyan backgrounds, especially from Baptist churches. In 1910, William Durham of Chicago first articulated the Finished Work, a doctrine which located sanctification at the moment of salvation and held that after conversion the Christian would progressively grow in grace in a lifelong process. This teaching polarized the Pentecostal movement into two factions. The Wesleyan doctrine was strongest in the Southern denominations, such as the Church of God (Cleveland), Church of God in Christ, and the Pentecostal Holiness Church. The Finished Work, however, would ultimately gain ascendancy among Pentecostals. After 1911, most new Pentecostal denominations would adhere to Finished Work sanctification.

In 1914, a group of 300 white Pentecostal ministers and laymen from all regions of the United States gathered in Hot Springs, Arkansas, to create a new, national Pentecostal fellowship—the General Council of the Assemblies of God. These white ministers had been nominally affiliated with C. H. Mason's African-American Church of God in Christ, but by 1911, many had become dissatisfied with the existing arrangement. It adopted a congregational polity (whereas the COGIC and other Southern groups were largely episcopal) and a Finished Work understanding of sanctification. Thus, the creation of the Assemblies of God marked an official end of Pentecostal doctrinal unity. It was also the end of the early Pentecostal experiment with racial integration.

The new Assemblies of God would soon face a "new issue" which first emerged at a 1913 camp meeting. During a baptism service, the speaker, R. E. McAlister, mentioned that the Apostles baptized converts once in the name of Jesus Christ, and the words "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" were never used in baptism. This inspired Frank Ewart who claimed to have received as a divine prophecy revealing a nontrinitarian conception of God. Ewart believed that there was only one personality in the Godhead—Jesus Christ. The terms "Father" and "Holy Ghost" were titles designating different aspects of Christ. Those who had been baptized in the Trinitarian fashion needed to submit to rebaptism in Jesus' name. Furthermore, Ewart believed that Jesus' name baptism and the gift of tongues were essential for salvation. Ewart and those who adopted his belief called themselves "oneness" or "Jesus' Name" Pentecostals, but their opponents called them "Jesus Only".

Amid great controversy, the Assemblies of God rejected the Oneness teaching, and a large amount of its churches and pastors were forced to withdraw from the denomination in 1916. They organized their own Oneness groups. Most of these joined Garfield T. Haywood, an African-American preacher from Indianapolis, to form the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World. This church maintained an interracial identity until 1924 when the white ministers withdrew to form the Pentecostal Church, Incorporated. This church later merged with another group forming the United Pentecostal Church International.

Characteristics

Racial integration

The crowds of blacks and whites worshiping together at Seymour's Azusa Street Mission set the tone for much of the early Pentecostal movement. During the period of 1906-1924, Pentecostals defied social norms of the time that called for racial segregation and the enactment of Jim Crow laws. The Church of God in Christ, the Church of God (Cleveland), the Pentecostal Holiness Church, and the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World were all interracial denominations before the 1920s. These groups, especially in the South, were under great pressure to conform to segregation. Ultimately, North American Pentecostalism would divide into white and black branches. Though it never entirely disappeared, interracial worship within Pentecostalism would not reemerge as a widespread practice until after the Civil Rights Movement.

Attitudes toward women

Given the emphasis on spreading the gospel, Spirit baptized women felt a sense of empowerment and justification to engage in activities traditionally denied them. Whoever was blessed with the Pentecostal experience had the responsibility to use it towards the preparation for Christ’s second coming. Thus, the focus on spiritual gifts, the nature of the worship environment, and dispensationalist thinking all encouraged women to participate in all areas of worship.

Women were the catalyst of the early Pentecostal movement. Agnes Ozman was the first person at Parham’s Bible college to speak in tongues. Florence Crawford was active in the Azusa Street Mission's ''The Apostolic Faith'' newspaper and later founded the Apostolic Faith Church. Women wrote religious songs, edited Pentecostal papers, and taught and ran Bible schools. In addition, evidence from three of the oldest Pentecostal groups—Assemblies of God, the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) and the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel—shows a number of women serving as clergy and missionaries. The unconventionally intense and emotional environment generated in Pentecostal meetings dually promoted, and was itself created by, other forms of participation such as personal testimony and spontaneous prayer and singing. Women did not shy away from engaging in this forum, and in the early movement the majority of converts and church-goers were female.

While the immediacy and the fervor of the initial revival atmosphere were subsiding, questions of authority and the organization of churches arose. Institutionalism took root. While it was clear that both men and women spoke in tongues, many started to see this gift as a non-intellectual one, holding that more intellectual acts, such as preaching, should be undertaken by women only in conditions controlled by male leaders. The subsiding of the early Pentecostal movement allowed a socially more conservative approach to women to settle in, and as a result female participation was channeled into more supportive and traditionally more accepted roles. Institutionalism brought gender segregation, and the Assemblies of God along with other Pentecostal groups created auxiliary women’s organizations. At this time, women became much more likely to be evangelists and missionaries than pastors; when they were pastors, they often co-pastored with their husbands. It also became the norm for men to hold all official positions: board members, college presidents, and national administrators. While the early movement eschewed denominationalism because of the dead spirituality they saw in other Protestant sects, later Pentecostal churches began to mirror the more-traditional evangelical community. However, while the number of female pastors declined, most Pentecostal denominations continued to ordain women.

Pacifism

The majority of early Pentecostal denominations taught pacifism and adopted military service articles that advocated conscientious objection.

Latter Rain Movement

The Latter Rain Movement began out of an independent Bible school in Saskatchewan, Canada, and spread among many Pentecostal groups in the 1940s. Latter Rain leaders taught "an extreme congregationalism" where local authority was exercised by a restored fivefold ministry, led by apostles who through the laying on of hands could impart spiritual gifts. Many traditional Pentecostal bodies, such as the Assemblies of God and the Pentecostal Fellowship of North America, were critical of the movement and condemned many of its practices as unscriptural. One reason for the conflict between the traditional denominations and the "New Order", as the movement was also called, was the tendency of Latter Rain leaders to label existing groups as "apostasized [sic]" and "the old apostate Church of England". The Latter Rain Movement was the most important controversy to affect Pentecostalism since World War II.

Charismatic movement

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Christians from mainline churches in the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world began to accept the Pentecostal idea that the baptism of the Holy Spirit is available for Christians today, even if they did not accept other tenets of formal Pentecostalism. Charismatic movements began to grow in mainline denominations. Charismatic Episcopalians, Lutherans, Catholics, and Methodists emerged, and during that time period, ''Charismatic'' was used to refer to similar movements that existed within mainline denominations. ''Pentecostal,'' on the other hand, was used to refer to those who were a part of the churches and denominations that grew out of the earlier Azusa Street revival. Unlike classic Pentecostals, who formed strictly Pentecostal congregations or denominations, charismatics adopted as their motto, "Bloom where God planted you."

In recent decades many independent charismatic churches and ministries have formed, or have developed their own denominations and church associations, such as the Vineyard Movement. In the 1960s and still today, many Pentecostal churches were still strict with dress codes and forbidding certain forms of entertainment, creating a cultural distinction between Charismatics and Pentecostals. There is a great deal of overlap now between the charismatic and Pentecostal movements, though some Pentecostals still retain a strict understanding of "holiness living" principles.

Neo-charismatic movement

The "neocharismatic" movement is a broad collection of post-denominational and independent charismatic groups. It is the most recent movement of charismatic Christianity, and also the most numerous.

This movement incorporates what has been called the "third wave", a term coined by C. Peter Wagner. Wagner described Pentecostalism as the "first wave", and the charismatic movement as the "second wave". The editors of the 2002 work ''The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements'' "broadened and relabeled" the term "third wave" to "neocharismatic". "Third wave" has more of a Western focus.

People

Forerunners

William Boardman

John Alexander Dowie (1848–1907)

Edward Irving

Albert Benjamin Simpson (1843–1919)

Leaders

A. A. Allen (1911–70) Healing Tent Evangelist of the 1950s and 1960s

Joseph Ayo Babalola (1904–59) Oke – Ooye, Ilesa revivalist in 1930. Also, spiritual founder of Christ Apostolic Church

William M. Branham (1909–65) Healing Evangelists of the mid 20th century

Jack Coe (1918–56) Healing Tent Evangelist of the 1950s

Rex Humbard (1919–2007) The first successful TV evangelist of the 1950s, 1960s, and the 1970s and at one time had the largest television audience of any televangelist in the United States

George Jeffreys (1889–1962) Founder of the Elim Foursquare Gospel Alliance and the Bible-Pattern Church Fellowship in the UK

Bishop R.A.R. Johnson (1876–1940) Founder of the House of God, Holy Church of the Living God, The Pillar and the Ground of the Truth, The House of Prayer for All People. A Commandment (Sabbath) keeping Pentecostal organization.

Kathryn Kuhlman (1907–76) American female evangelist who brought Pentecostalism into the mainstream denominations

Gerald Archie Mangun (1919–2010) American evangelist/pastor who built one of the largest churches within the United Pentecostal Church International organization.

Charles Harrison Mason (1866–1961) The Founder of the Church of God In Christ

Aimee Semple McPherson (1890–1944) American Female Evangelist, pastor, and organizer of the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel

Charles Fox Parham (1873–1929) Father of Modern Pentecostalism

David du Plessis (1905–87) South-African Pentecostal church leader, one of the founders of the Charismatic movement

Oral Roberts (1918–2009) Healing Tent Evangelist who made the transition to televangelism

William J. Seymour (1870–1922) Azusa Street Mission Founder (Azusa Street Revival)

Mary Magdalena Lewis Tate (1871–1930) – Mother of Holiness. Founder of the ''Church of the Living God, the Pillar and Ground of the Truth, Inc.'' and its dominion churches.

Smith Wigglesworth (1859–1947)

Maria Woodworth-Etter (1844–1924)

Bishop Ida Robinson (August 3, 1891 – April 20, 1946), Founder of the Mount Sinai Holy Church of America

Jimmy Swaggart

See also

By country

Pentecostalism in China

Pentecostalism in Norway

Pentecostalism in Romania

References

Further reading

Alexander, Paul. ''Peace to War: Shifting Allegiances in the Assemblies of God''. Telford, Pennsylvania: Cascadia Publishing/Herald Press, 2009.

Alexander, Paul. ''Signs and Wonders: Why Pentecostalism is the World's Fastest Growing Faith''. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Clifton, Shane Jack. "An Analysis of the Developing Ecclesiology of the Assemblies of God in Australia". PhD thesis, Australian Catholic University, 2005.

Cruz, Samuel. ''Masked Africanisms: Puerto Rican Pentecostalism''. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 2005. ISBN 0-7575-2181-9.

Hollenweger, Walter. ''The Pentecostals: The Charismatic Movement in the Churches''. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1972. ISBN 0-8066-1210-X.

Hollenweger, Walter. ''Pentecostalism : Origins and Developments Worldwide''. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0-943575-36-2.

Lewis, Meharry H. ''Mary Lena Lewis Tate: Vision!, A Biography of the Founder and History of the Church of the Living God, the Pillar and Ground of the Truth, Inc''. Nashville, Tennessee: The New and Living Way Publishing Company, 2005. ISBN 0-910003-08-4.

Malcomson, Keith. ''Pentecostal Pioneers Remembered: British and Irish Pioneers of Pentecost''. 2008.

Mendiola, Kelly Willis. OCLC 56818195 ''The Hand of a Woman: Four Holiness-Pentecostal Evangelists and American Culture, 1840–1930''. PhD thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 2002.

Olowe, Abi Olowe. ''Great Revivals, Great Revivalist – Joseph Ayo Babalola''. Omega Publishers, 2007.

Robins, R. G. ''A. J. Tomlinson: Plainfolk Modernist''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Robins, R. G. ''Pentecostalism in America''. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/ABC-CLIO, 2010.

Steel, Matthew. "Pentecostalism in Zambia: Power, Authority and the Overcomers". MSc dissertation, University of Wales, 2005.

Wacker, Grant. ''Heaven Below: Early Pentecostals and American Culture''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001.

Woodberry, Robert. "Pentecostalism and Economic Development", in ''Markets, Morals and Religion'', ed. Jonathan B. Imber, 157–177. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2008.

Miller, Donald E. and Tetsunao Yamamori. ''Global Pentecostalism: The New Face of Christian Social Engagement''. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2007.

External links

Australasian Pentecostal Studies journal

Cyberjournal for Pentecostal Charismatic Research

European Research Network on Global Pentecostalism (GloPent)

Flower Pentecostal Heritage Center

North European Pentecostal Church Finland

Hollenweger Center

Journal of Pentecostal Theology

Map showing Percentage of Pentecostal Population in USA by county from Valparaiso University

Pentecostal Pioneers

News from the world of Pentecost

PentecoStudies

Kuwait Pentecostal Church

Pew Religious Forum Pentecostal Hub

Search Engine for Pentecostal Studies

REFLEKS journal

Independent Pentecostal Preaching

The Rise of Pentecostalism", ''Christian History'' 58 (1998) special issue. As of 1998, two special issues of this magazine had addressed Pentecostalism's roots: "Spiritual Awakenings in North America" (issue 23, 1989) and "Camp Meetings & Circuit Riders: Frontier Revivals" (issue 45, 1995)

Category:Christian evangelicalism Category:Pentecostalism Category:20th-century Christianity Category:Christian terms

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Coordinates	33°51′35.9″N151°12′40″N
Name	Kenneth E. Hagin
Birth place	McKinney, Texas, U.S.
Death date	(age 86)
Death place	Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.
death cause	old age
nationality	American
known for	Pioneer of the "Word of Faith" movement
education	some college
occupation	preacher
religion	Pentecostal Christianity
spouse	Oretha Rooker
children	Kenneth Wayne Hagin, Patricia Harrison
parents	Lillie Viola Drake Hagin and Jess Hagin }}

Kenneth Erwin Hagin (August 20, 1917 - September 19, 2003) was an influential American Pentecostal preacher. He is often referred to as the "father" (or "granddaddy") of the "Word of Faith" movement. Many of his followers often refer to him affectionately as "Dad Hagin", "Pappa Hagin" and more commonly "Brother Hagin".

Biography

Personal life

Kenneth E. Hagin was born in McKinney, Texas, the son of Lillie Viola Drake Hagin and Jess Hagin. He was married to Oretha Rooker. They had two children, a son named Kenneth Wayne Hagin, who is presently the pastor of Rhema Bible Church and President of Kenneth Hagin Ministries, and a daughter named Patricia Harrison.

His most quoted scripture was Mark 11:23:

Beginning to preach

According to Hagin's testimony, he was sickly as a child, suffering from a deformed heart and what was believed to be an incurable blood disease. He related that he was not expected to live and became bedfast at age 16. In April 1933 during a dramatic conversion experience, he reported dying three times in 10 minutes, each time seeing the horrors of hell and then returning to life. He also claimed that he was raised from a deathbed in 1934 by "the revelation of faith in God's Word" (Kenneth Hagin, ''I Went to Hell'' and ''What Faith Is'').

Two years later he preached his first sermon as the pastor of a small community church in Roland, Texas, from McKinney. During the next twelve years he pastored five Assemblies of God churches in Texas: in the cities of Tom Bean, Farmersville (twice), Talco, Greggton, and Van.

Establishing a faith-based organization

In 1949, he began an itinerant ministry as a Bible teacher and evangelist. Hagin was at this time also given full admission to the Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International (FGBMFI) which had been established in 1951. He was also a part of the Voice of Healing Revival in the U.S. in the 40s and 50s together with Oral Roberts, Gordon Lindsay and T. L. Osborn. In 1963, Kenneth E. Hagin Evangelistic Association was incorporated, and the offices of the ministry moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma in 1966. That same year, he taught for the first time on radio — on KSKY in Dallas. In 1967, he began a regular radio broadcast that continues today as Faith Seminar of the Air. Teaching by his son, Rev. Kenneth Wayne Hagin, is also heard on the program.

Since its inception in 1963, his organization grew to include numerous media outreaches and ministries. These are:

Faith Library Publications – with 65 million book copies in circulation

"RHEMA Praise" – a weekly television program on the Trinity Broadcasting Network

"Faith Seminar of the Air" – a radio program heard on many stations nationwide and on the Internet

"The Word of Faith" – a free monthly magazine with roughly 600,000 subscribers

crusades conducted throughout the nation

RHEMA Correspondence Bible School

the RHEMA Prayer and Healing Center, located on the Rhema campus in Broken Arrow, Oklahoma

In 1974, Hagin founded RHEMA Bible Training Center USA, which now has training centers in fourteen countries and has 30,000 alumni. In 1979, he founded the Prayer and Healing Center there to provide a place for the sick to come to "have the opportunity to build their faith",. Its Healing School continues to be held free of charge twice daily on the RHEMA campus.

Theology

The Statement of faith of Hagin's Rhema Bible Training Center is identical to that of the Assemblies of God and most other major Pentecostal denominations. (''Rhema Bible Training Center Information Pamphlet''; ''16 Fundamental Truths of the Assemblies of God'') Additionally, as mentioned above, some of Hagin's theological beliefs and teachings were similar to those of E.W. Kenyon. For example:

Physical Healing: It is always God's will that a believer be physically healed of any sickness or infirmity. (; ). Hagin based the belief of healing for all on the understanding that healing for the physical body was included in redemption. If redemption was available to all, then healing would also be available to all. (''Word of Faith'' magazine, 6/90; 7/92; 8/92; 12/92, Kenneth Hagin, ''Redeemed from Poverty, Sickness and Death'' and ''Healing Belongs to Us'').

Material Wealth: It is always God's will that every believer be 'financially blessed' through faith. Although Hagin emphasized that material prosperity was a redemptive blessing, he never taught that living by faith excluded hard work and wise business practices. In his later years he wrote a book entitled, "The Midas Touch" in which he wrote sharply and correctively about the so-called prosperity gospel and many of the extreme teachings that were being circulated under this heading. He warned the body of Christ of the dangers of greed and explained that the purpose of financial blessing is for the furtherance of the work of the gospel. (Kenneth Hagin, ''How God Taught Me About Prosperity'' and ''The Midas Touch'').

Faith and Authority: Hagin believed that the believer through his position in Christ had authority over elements of this world and elements of the satanic world. By faith the believer can exercise the authority of God to change impossible situations into possibilities (1:37) (). Faith, to Hagin, is a matter of belief in God's word which also entails a vocal expression of God's Will or confession thereof. According to Hagin, God has promised to answer believing prayer and respond positively to the believer's exercise of faith (Kenneth Hagin, ''I Believe in Visions'', ''What Faith Is'', ''Bible Faith; A Study Guide'').

Salvation: Hagin claimed in several of his books that he physically died three times as a child. Each time he descended to hell but was brought back to life when a voice spoke. On the third trip to hell, Hagin claims to have asked Jesus for forgiveness and salvation. Crying, 'God! I belong to the church! I've been baptized in water' twice, to no avail, he cried out a third time. It is at that point, he claims, that he was saved and brought back to life a final time. Hagin goes on to say that he was praying so loud when he arrived back in his body that "traffic was lined up for two blocks on either side of our house!" After this dramatic experience, Hagin came to believe that church membership and water baptism were not sufficient to save but rather the 'new birth worked by the power of the Holy Spirit' in response to a personal confession of faith in the Lordship and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Even though it seems that this new birth could apparently be had even after death, it is only through that he was already 'coming back to life' that he was saved.' (ibid., ''Word of Faith'' magazine, 10/01, Kenneth Hagin, ''The New Birth''; ''I Went to Hell'').

Substitutionary Act: Hagin spoke of Jesus' death in substituionary terms. The doctrine of 'Substitution' as taught by Hagin differs widely from the same doctrine as taught by many other branches of Christianity. The normal theory of Substitutionary atonement is that the son Jesus paid our debts, previous, current and future to the Father within the Godhead. Hagin claimed that Jesus died as the substitute for all of humanity, as do most Christians (Bible, ), but also believes that Jesus suffered the torments of hell for three days and that He 'defeated the devil', stripped him of all authority and was resurrected after being 'quickened in spirit' or 'born again'. Hagin held that those who received Christ were born again and shared in the benefits of Christ's resurrection and power through their identification with His death, burial and resurrection. (Kenneth Hagin,''The Name of Jesus''; ''The Triumphant Church'').

Sacred Scriptures: Hagin's beliefs followed in the reformed tradition in that the Bible is viewed to be the literally true, inerrant word of God as written by men under the guidance of the Spirit of God. Although Hagin often spoke of the dramatic spiritual encounters he claimed to have had, he always insisted that faith was to be established upon the word of God alone and not upon the experiences of man. Many times in his ministry he made the statement, "Don't believe anything because I said it. Search the scriptures and prove it out for yourself" (Kenneth Hagin, ''How You Can Know the Will of God'' and ''The Believer's Authority'').

RHEMA Bible Training Center

Hagin founded RHEMA Bible Training Center (RBTC) in 1974. RBTC is an unaccredited Bible institute located on in Broken Arrow, a suburb of Tulsa, Oklahoma (USA). The curriculum is taught from a Charismatic/Pentecostal heritage. There are seven ministry concentrations specializing in Children's Ministry, Youth Ministry, Evangelism, Pastoral Care, Missions, Biblical Studies, and Supportive Ministry. RBTC has also established training centers in Austria, Brazil, Colombia, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Romania, Singapore, South Africa, the South Pacific, Thailand, Nigeria, Zambia, and Egypt.

After Hagin's death in 2003, his son Kenneth W. Hagin continued to run the institution. RBTC has trained approximately 30,000 graduates who reside and minister in more than 100 countries.

References

External links

Official Website of Kenneth Hagin Ministries

Rhema Bible Training Center

E.W. Kenyon society response stating Kenneth Hagin did not plagiarize Kenyon

Category:1917 births Category:2003 deaths Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity Category:American Pentecostals Category:Cardiovascular disease deaths in Oklahoma Category:People from the Dallas – Fort Worth Metroplex Category:People from Broken Arrow, Oklahoma Category:Education in Tulsa, Oklahoma Category:Place of death missing

de:Kenneth E. Hagin el:Κέννεθ Χάγκιν nl:Kenneth Hagin no:Kenneth E. Hagin pl:Kenneth E. Hagin pt:Kenneth Hagin ro:Kenneth Hagin ru:Хейгин, Кеннет fi:Kenneth E. Hagin sv:Kenneth E. Hagin

Coordinates	33°51′35.9″N151°12′40″N
name	Kenneth Copeland
residence	Fort Worth, Texas
birth date	December 06, 1936
birth place	Lubbock, Texas, United States
occupation	Author Speaker Televangelist
nationality	American
religion	Word of Faith, Pentecostal
spouse	Gloria Copeland
children	John Copeland, Kellie Copeland, Terri Pearsons
website	www.kcm.org
weight	}}

Kenneth Copeland (born December 6, 1936 in Lubbock, Texas) is an American author, public speaker, and televangelist. He is the founder of Kenneth Copeland Ministries, which preaches a “prosperity gospel”: "Prosperity gospel assures followers that the more they give, including in the form of tithes to the church, the more they will receive from God."

Early life and education

Prior to his conversion to Christianity in November 1962, Copeland was a recording artist on the Imperial Records label, having one ''Billboard'' Top 40 hit ("Pledge of Love", which charted in the Top 40 on April 20, 1957, stayed on the charts for eight weeks, and peaked at #12).

Following his religious conversion, Copeland turned the rest of his life over to the gospel and ministry work. In the 1960s, he was a pilot and chauffeur for Oral Roberts. In the fall of 1967, he enrolled in Oral Roberts University in Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Kenneth is married to Gloria Copeland. His children are John Copeland, Kellie Copeland and Terri Pearsons.

He was a member of the Oral Roberts University Board of Regents until it was replaced in 2008 with a new board that promised to hold to higher standards of financial accountability. In October 2007 a lawsuit against the university was presented for financial and political wrong doing. Copeland's oldest daughter, Terri, is married to pastor George Pearsons, who served until January 2008 as the ORU Board chairman.

Kenneth Copeland Ministries, programming and theology

In late November 2007, Mike Huckabee, a 2008 Republican presidential primary candidate, made six appearances on Copeland's daily television program ''Believer's Voice of Victory'', discussing "Integrity of Character". Subsequently, in January 2008, the Huckabee campaign paid for use of Kenneth Copeland Ministries' facilities for a fundraiser. Copeland also claimed that he had had a phone call with Huckabee in which Huckabee allegedly vowed support despite a pending investigation by the U.S. Senate into Copeland's finances if he was elected. The fundraising at the church was criticized by the Trinity Foundation.

In September 2010, the Ten Network in Australia dropped the ''Believer's Voice of Victory'' program from their capital city stations after the network claimed that the 2 June 2010 broadcast contained material relating to homosexuals that breached the Australian Commercial Television Industry Code of Practice. Some of Kenneth Copeland’s prophecies can be read online.

Airport and ministry jets

The Kenneth Copeland Airport is a private airport established by Kenneth Copeland Ministries to serve the area of Fort Worth, Texas.

In 2007 Copeland was accused of using his $20 million Cessna Citation X jet for personal vacations and friends. The Copelands' financial records are not publicly available, and a list of the Board of Directors is not accessible as these details are protected and known confidentially by the Internal Revenue Service. Responding to media questions, Copeland pointed to an accounting firm's declaration that all jet travel complies with federal tax laws.

In December 2008, Copeland's 1998 Cessna Bravo 550, his second jet, valued at $3.6 million, was denied tax exemption after Copeland refused to submit to disclosure laws for the state of Texas.

Senate investigation

On November 6, 2007, United States Senator Chuck Grassley, Republican of Iowa, announced an investigation of Copeland's ministry by the United States Senate Committee on Finance. The Associated Press reported that Grassley said the investigation was a response to complaints from the public and news media. Grassley stated, "The allegations involve governing boards that aren't independent and allow generous salaries and housing allowances and amenities such as private jets and Rolls Royces." IRS guidelines require that pastors' compensation be "reasonable" and net earnings may not benefit any private individual. Grassley asked for the ministry to divulge financial information (Grassley's letter) to the committee to determine if Copeland made any personal profit from financial donations, and requested that Copeland's ministry make the information available by December 6, 2007. The Copelands responded with a "Financial report from Kenneth Copeland Ministries." KCM created a website to help explain their side of the inquiry.

Publications

''Load Up Pocket Devotional: 31 Devotions to Revolutionize Your Future'' (Harrison House, July 2004) ISBN 1577943996 ISBN 978-1577943990

''You Are Healed'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, July 1999) ISBN 0881147338 ISBN 978-0881147339

''A Ceremony of Marriage'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, December 1996) ISBN 0938458159 ISBN 978-0938458159

''Prayer: Your Foundation for Success'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, June 1999) ISBN 1577941551 ISBN 978-1577941552

''Kenneth Copeland Reference Bible – Leather Bound'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, December 1996) ISBN 0881142964 ISBN 978-0881142969

''Becoming Subject to the Authority of Jesus'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, 2001) ISBN 0881149721 ISBN 978-0881149722

''How to Discipline Your Flesh'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, June 1999) ISBN 1575621169 ISBN 978-1575621166

''From Faith to Faith: A Daily Guide to Victory'' (Harrison House, May 2000) ISBN 1577942256 ISBN 978-1577942252

''Pursuit of His Presence: Daily Devotional'' (Harrison House, September 1998) ISBN 1577941373 ISBN 978-1577941378

''The Wake-up Call'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, 2002) ISBN 1575627922 ISBN 978-1575627922

''Classic Redemption'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, 2001) ISBN 0938458582 ISBN 978-0938458586

''The Laws of Prosperity'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, December 1995) ISBN 0881149527 ISBN 978-0881149524

''Prosperity: The Choice Is Yours'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, June 1992) ISBN 0881147281 ISBN 978-0881147285

''Healing Promises'' (Kenneth Copeland Publications, August 1994) ISBN 0881149497 ISBN 978-0881149494

''Over the Edge: Youth Devotional'' (Harrison House, September 1998) ISBN 1577941381 ISBN 978-1577941385

''Big Band Gospel'' (KCP Records, 2003) ASIN B000A7WLEQ

See also

Glossolalia

Pentecostalism

Charismatic movement

Word of Faith

Prosperity Gospel

Notes and references

External links

Kenneth Copeland Ministries USA

Eagle Mountain International Church AKA Kenneth Copeland Ministries

Believer's Voice of Victory Live Stream and On Demand website

Believers Stand United for Religious Freedom in America

Trinity Foundation (Opposing Viewpoint)

MinistryWatch.com's Kenneth Copeland Ministries Profile

Category:1936 births Category:Living people Category:American Pentecostals Category:American television evangelists Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity Category:Imperial Records artists Category:Oral Roberts University people Category:People from Fort Worth, Texas Category:People from Lubbock, Texas Category:Pentecostal writers Category:Oral Roberts University alumni Category:Converts to Christianity from Judaism

es:Kenneth Copeland ko:케네스 코플랜드 pt:Kenneth Copeland fi:Kenneth Copeland sv:Kenneth Copeland

:''This article is about human hair. For other uses, see Longhair (disambiguation) or Hair'' Long hair is a hairstyle. Exactly what constitutes long hair can change from culture to culture, or even within cultures. For example, a woman with chin-length hair in some cultures may be said to have short hair, while a man with the same length of hair in some of the same cultures would be said to have long hair.

Scientists view long hair as playing a large part in natural selection among many species, since long, thick and healthy hair or fur is frequently a sign of fertility and youth. As hair grows slowly, long hair reveals several years of a person's health status and reproductive fitness. Hair length is significantly correlated with female attractiveness, as rated by men as well as women. Hair length and quality can act as a cue to especially a woman's youth and health, signifying reproductive potential. The prevalence of trichophilia (hair partialism or fetischism) is 7% in the population, and very long hair is a common subject of devotion in this group.

In the context of cultural and social norms, hair can signal gender differences as well as ideological differences. Opposite sexes and opposite ideologies tend to have opposite styles of hair, for example hair lengths.

Ways of life often viewed as more rigid, such as soldiers and religious cultures, often have explicit rules regarding hair length. For example, Buddhist monks shave their heads as part of their order of worship. Even outside religious structures, cultures often associate male long hair with ways of life outside of what is culturally accepted. Subservient cultures, for example, are sometimes detected by their rulers through hair length, as was the case with the Irish under English rule and the Moors under Spanish rule in Medieval Spain.

Again, though, there are exceptions to these rules, notably among the long-haired and religiously devoted Nazarites of the Hebrew Bible (Samson being a famous example) and among the Sikhs.

East Asian cultures have traditionally seen long, unkempt hair in a woman as a sign of sexual intent or a recent sexual encounter, as usually their hair is tied up in styles such as the ponytail, plait, or any bun.

Transferred meaning

The traditional connotation of "long hair" in English meant, roughly, someone artistically knowledgeable or wise, an aesthete. As a descriptive term, it has been applied to Merovingians and classical music enthusiasts, as well as hippies and aesthetes.

Hair lengths

{| | | | | | | |} Hair length is measured (in centimeters or inches) from the line of the scalp on the forehead up over the highest point of the skull to its termination. In cosmetology, hair lengths longer than what is usually considered short are categorized according to the following:

''Chin level'' is considered long for men in some cultures, but usually not for women.

''Shoulder-length'' is hair reaching the shoulders; hair usually takes about 3 years to reach this point.

''Mid-back level'' is hair falling to the widest part of the chest.

''Waist-length'' hair falls to the smallest part of one's waist; for most people approximately 80–90 cm (32–36 inches) long, and taking about 7 years to grow, including occasional trims.

''Hip-length'' hair stretches to the hip.

''Classic length'' extends to almost upper thigh-length, where the legs meet the buttocks.

''Thigh-length'' reaches to the thigh.

''Knee-length'' reaches to the knee.

''Ankle/floor length'' comes to the ankle or beyond.

Maximum hair length

The maximum hair length that is possible to reach is about 15 cm for infants (below the age of 1), about 60 cm for children (below the age of 13), and generally 100 cm for adults. Documentation for decrease of the maximum length with age cannot be found in the literature. Some individuals can reach excessive lengths. Lengths greater than 150 cm are frequently observed in long hair contests. Xie Qiuping had the longest documented hair in the world, measuring 5.627 m (18 ft 5.54 in) in May 2004.

The maximum terminal hair length depends on the length of the anagen (period of hair growth) for the individual. Waist-length hair or longer is only possible to reach for people with long anagen. The anagen lasts between 2 and 7 years, for some individuals even longer, and follows by shorter catagen (transition) and telogen (resting) periods. Between 85% and 90% of the hair strains are in anagen.

Psychological significance

Anthropologists speculate that the functional significance of long head hair may be adornment, a by-product of secondary natural selection once other androgenic/somatic hair (body hair) had largely been lost. Another possibility is that long head hair is a result of Fisherian runaway sexual selection, where long lustrous hair is a visible marker for a healthy individual. For some groups or individuals, however, short hair is the selected trait.

By seven to nine months, infants can tell the sexes apart based on hair length, voice pitch and faces.

Cultural history

Hair is one of the most important ways humans have of presenting themselves, being one of the parts of their body which is easiest to manipulate. Also, having short, cut hair (or a shaven head) is often viewed as being under society's control, such as while in prison or as punishment for a crime, while males having long hair signifies being outside of the mainstream.

In Jewish and Christian scriptures

In the Old Testament, the Nazirites would go for long periods of time without cutting their hair to show devotion to God. Samson is one example; his strength depended upon his refraining from cutting his hair. The New Testament says, "Doth not even nature itself teach you, that, if a man have long hair, it is a shame unto him? But if a woman has long hair, it is a glory to her: for her hair is given her for a covering," something followed by women in some apostolic pentecostal denomitations in some countries as an act of holiness.

Western culture

Classical period

In ancient Greece, long male hair was a symbol of wealth and power, while a shaven head was appropriate for a slave. The ancient Greeks had several Gods and heroes who wore their hair long, including Zeus, Achilles, Apollo, and Poseidon. Greek soldiers are said to have worn their hair long in battle. Such warriors considered it a sign of aristocracy and are said to have combed it openly in order to show off. Also, in order to keep enemies from getting a hold of it in battle, they were known to cut the front short, but leave it long in the back, where it was more out of reach. A widely held alternative interpretation of the conventional belief that they cut it short in the front in order to keep their enemies from getting a hold of it during battle is that, they did not in fact cut it in the front, but rather tied it back in a style known as a pony tail in order to keep it out of their enemies' reach. The pony tail method allowed warriors, who often traveled to battle with a minimal amount of equipment in order to avoid excessively heavy loads over long marches, to keep their hair manageable with a small piece of string to hold their pony tail in place and a knife to cut the back to length with one simple slice. Around the sixth century, however, the Greek men shifted to shorter hairstyles, with the exception of the Spartans. Women in the culture remained with the longer style, which for them showed freedom, health, and wealth, as well as good behavior. In men, it was considered a sign of false pride by this time. Women in Roman times valued long hair, usually with a center part. Men's hair was usually shorter than women's, (but in the early times, the custom was quite the same as in Greece) although other cultures of the time, such as Greeks in the east, considered long hair to be typical of philosophers, who were thought to be too engrossed in learning to bother with hair. Strictly in the province of Rome, however the shorter hairstyle was especially popular. When Julius Caesar conquered the Gauls, who favored long hair, he ordered it to be cut short.

Up to the seventeenth century

In the European middle ages, shorter hair often signified servitude and peasantry, while long hair was often attributed to freemen, such as the Germanic Goths and Merovingians. In Ireland, English colonists who wore their hair long in the back were considered to be rejecting their role as English subjects and giving in to the Irish life. Irishmen, in turn, scolded others of their race who moved into English culture by cutting their hair. Thus, hair length was one of the most common ways of judging a true Englishman in this period. Muslims in Christian areas were ordered to keep their hair short and parted, as their longer style was considered rebellious and barbaric. thumb|right|200px|Empress Elisabeth of Austria wearing thigh-length hair in 1865. A long hair fad was widespread among English and French men in the 11th and 12th centuries, though otherwise it was considered, mostly because of endorsement of the Roman Catholic Church, proper for men to have shorter, and women, longer hair. The fad was largely brought about by monarchs who rejected the shorter hairstyle, causing the people to follow. Wulfstan, a religious leader, worried that those with longer hair would fight like women, and be unable to protect England from foreign invasion. (This idea can be found in later military leaders as well, such as those of the American Confederacy.) Knights and rulers would also sometimes cut or pull out their hair in order to show penitence and mourning, and a squire's hair was generally shorter than a knight's. Married women who let their hair flow out were frowned upon, as this was normally reserved for the unwed, although they were allowed to let it out in mourning, to show their distressed state. Through these centuries it was expected of Eastern Christians to wear long hair as well as long beards, which was especially expected from clergy and monks.

In England, during the English Civil War times of 1642 to 1651, male hair length was emblematic of the disputes between Cavaliers and Roundheads (Puritans). Cavaliers wore longer hair, and were less religious minded, thought of by the Roundheads as lecherous. The more devout Roundheads had short hair, although there were exceptions.

Recent meanings

Before World War One men generally had longer hair and beards. However, short hair on men has often been enforced as a mean of control, in police, military and other forces that require obedience and discipline. Slaves and defeated armies were often required to shave their heads. The trench warfare in 1914 to 1918 exposed men to flea and lice infestations, which prompted the order to cut short hair, establishing a norm that has persisted.

Beat poets during the 1950s wore longer hairstyles, as did many of the urban gay culture, although long hair was far from popular. However, the 1960s introduced The Beatles, who started a widespread longer hair fad. The social revolution of the 1960s led to a renaissance of unchecked hair growth, and long hair, especially on men, was worn as a political or countercultural symbol or protest. This cultural symbol extended to several Western countries in the Americas, Western Europe, South Africa, and Australia. Specific long hairstyles such as dreadlocks have been part of counterculture movements seeking to define other alternative cultures and lifestyles since this time. Longer hair in general remained popular among the youth rebellion throughout the liberal decade of the 1960s. Homosexual men, many of whom had adopted a long hairstyle in the early 1950s, have largely abandoned this trend. Some people saw the long hair fad as a threat to gender identity, cultural, and religious norms as it grew with the spread of the hippie movement in the 1960s. Notably, some country-and-western performers during this period (and many fans) also sported longer hair.

In the 1970s, the popularity of Jamaica's reggae music and musician Bob Marley prompted interest in dreadlocks internationally. The anti-establishment philosophy of Rastafari, echoed in much of the reggae of the time, resonated with left-leaning youth of all ethnicities — especially and primarily among African Americans and other Blacks, but among counterculture whites as well. The Eastern Christians are encouraged to wear long hair with long beard. In the 1980s the view of long hair as a solitary signifier of political or counter-cultural identity was countered and parodied in films such as Rambo and many other militaristic heroes of media which challenged then-contemporary views of what was masculine. Today, longer hairstyles remain popular among rock enthusiasts. Long hair may be grown for the purpose of being donated to an organization, such as Locks of Love, for hairpieces to help those who could not have hair otherwise, such as those who are diagnosed with alopecia areata.

Women

Women often have a stronger inclination towards long hair than men do. Younger women tend to have longer hair than older women. Hair length and quality can act as a cue to a woman's youth and health, signifying reproductive potential. Growing and wearing long hair was almost universal among women in the western world until World War One. Some feminists have declared long hair as "irrefutably feminine," while others argue for short hair.

Sikhism

The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh at the Baisakhi Amrit Sanchar in 1699 to wear long uncut hair called Kesh at all times. This was one of the 'five requisites of faith', collectively called Kakars that form the external visible identifiers to clearly affirm a Sikh's commitment and dedication to the order (Hukam) of the tenth master and made one a member of the Khalsa. The Khalsa is the "Saint-Soldier" of Guru Gobind Singh who stated the following: "He does not recognize anyone else except One Lord, not even the bestowal of charities, performance of merciful acts, austerities and restraint on pilgrim-stations; the perfect light of the Lord illuminates his heart, then consider him as the immaculate Khalsa." (Guru Gobind Singh in the Dasam Granth page 1350)

The Kesh or unshorn long hair is an indispensable part of the human body as created by Vaheguru that is the mainstay of the 'Jivan Jaach' and the Rehni that was prescribed by Guru Gobind Singh Sahib by which a Sikh is clearly and quickly identified, Kesh. The kanga, another requisite of faith is usually tucked behind the "Rishi Knot" and tied under the turban. The uncut long head hair and the beard in the case of men forms the main kakar for the Sikhs.

KESADHARI, a term defining a Sikh as one who carries on his head the full growth of his kes (hair) which he never trims or cuts for any reason. Anyone, Sikh or non-Sikh, may keep the hair unshorn, but for the Sikh kes, unshorn hair, is an requisite of faith and an inviolable vow. The Sikh Rahit Maryada published by the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, statutory body for the control and management of Sikh shrines and by extension for laying down rules about Sikh beliefs and practices, issued in 1945, after long and minute deliberations among Sikh scholars and theologians, defines a Sikh thus: Every Sikh who has been admitted to the rites of amrit, i.e. who has been initiated as a Sikh, must allow his hair to grow to its full length. This also applies to those born of Sikh families but [who] have not yet received the rites of amrit of the tenth master, Guru Gobind Singh. ".

Islam

In the Muslim world, it seems the trend of hair styles is now favouring short over long in men. In the past, Bedouin Muslims often wore their hair in long braids, but western influences brought on the view that such styles were feminine in nature. Now, Bedouins are much less likely to have long hair. Islamic countries in North Africa such as Egypt view long hair in men as homosexual and in one case the Egyptian police viewed it as satanic and a sign of an infidel, although Western rock music, especially heavy metal, may have contributed to this view.

Muslims regard Prophet Muhammad as the best example to live by, and try to emulate him whenever possible. The Islamic Prophet Muhammad reportedly in Sahih Muslim had hair that "hung over his shoulders and earlobes". Sahih Bukhari, regarded the most authentic of hadith, also supports this. The Prophet Muhammad has also described Jesus as "having long hair reaching his ear lobes."

With regards to women, neither Qur'an nor Sunnah explicitly state that women cannot cut their hair. Hadith does mention that women should not imitate men, and vice versa, and hence many scholars on this assumption, decree that women should let their hair grow longer than the hair of the Prophet, reaching beyond their shoulders, as hadith mentions that the Prophet had his hair between his shoulder and his earlobes. (He described Jesus's hair, which hung to his earlobes, as long.)

However culturally, some Muslims are opposed to men having long hair as it is also important in Islam to have clear differences (in appearance) between sexes. And generally these cultures encourage women to have long hair and men to have short hair. The Taliban viewed long hair for men as a western influence, and punished it by arrest and forced haircuts, albeit this would be a direct contradiction of the sunnah of the Prophet. Similar measures have been taken by Islamists in Iraq. In spite of this, several Taleban affiliated members of the Mehsud clan are recognisable by their long hair. The Saudi Islamist fighter Amir Khattab was also notable for his long hair. Dervishes of some Sufi orders, such as the Kasnazani, often have long hair and whirl it around during rituals.

Native Americans

Many Native American men wore long hair before the arrival of western influences on their culture. (In Cherokee legends, for example, males said to be handsome were often described as having "long hair almost to the ground" or similar formulas.). Both men and women of these cultures have frequently struggled to maintain their tradition, but have faced heavy opposition. Many consider it a sign of giving in to western influences to have their hair cut. Early American settlers saw long-haired, native men as rebelling against their civilized society. Mountain men and trappers who adopted the customs were also considered amoral, and often identified by their long hair. Since the cultural movements of the sixties and seventies, however, Native Americans have felt less pressure to have short hair, as different movements have defended their cultural rights. For example, several states have loosened prison regulations, allowing Native Americans to wear long hair during incarceration, along with other cultural allowances. There has been resistance to these changes, however, as long hair is sometimes used to hide drugs, as well as to identify with a gang.

Sub-Saharan Africans

In West African cultures, women with long hair were highly valued. Long, thick hair was seen as a sign of health, strength, and capability to bear many children. In keeping with this general theme, women who were too young for marriage would shave a portion of their heads to signal so. This tradition, however, did not extend to every African tribe, as several valued shorter hair.

African Americans

When black slaves were freed in the Americas, they struggled to reach the social status of whites. Many former slaves tried to conform their hairstyles as part of this struggle. African-American women felt pressured to make their hair straight like white women, rather than keeping the shorter, curlier style they had known. However, during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s, African-Americans such as Malcolm X advocated hairstyles such as afros and dreadlocks. Social pressures at the time were heavily influencing African-American females to have long, straight hair, like many Caucasians did. Recently, scholars have observed continued pressure on blacks to have long, straight hair. Amelian Jones believes that dolls marketed towards children add to this pressure, citing as an example a new black Barbie with long hair. Jones believes that African-American females should maintain their "African" cultural norms without feeling pressured to "tame" their hair.

Asia

Historically, East Asian cultures viewed long hair as a sign of youth and aesthetic beauty. Long hair is associated with private life and sexuality. East Asian cultures see long, unkempt hair in a woman as a sign of sexual intent or a recent sexual encounter, as usually their hair is tied up. Lay Buddhists have long hair, while Buddhist monks have shaved heads. For Sikhs, Kesh is the practice of allowing one's hair to grow naturally as a symbol of devotion to God and lack of worldliness. In Jewish and other cultures, shortening hair signifies mourning and sadness.

Around the seventeenth century, the Manchu people forced all men in China to adopt a hairstyle called a queue, which was basically a long braid down the back with the hair on the front part of the head shaved. This style lasted well into the nineteenth century, when the Chinese began immigrating to America. Americans at first judged them to be poor workers because their long hair brought an association with women. Both Islamic and Christian missionaries to the Chinese were strong advocates of shorter hair for their converts, but this was a small group. Around the Destruction of Four Olds period in 1964, almost anything seen as part of Traditional Chinese culture would lead to problems with the Communist Red Guards. Items that attracted dangerous attention if caught in the public included jewelry and long hair. These things were regarded as symbols of bourgeois lifestyle, that represented wealth. People had to avoid them or suffer serious consequences such as tortures and beatings by the guards. More recently, long hair was ridiculed in China from October 1983 to February 1984, as part of the Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign. Li Yang, an unorthodox Chinese English teacher who brands the popular Crazy English, claims the following on his website:

What [America, England and Japan] want most is for China’s youth to have long hair, wear bizarre clothes, drink soda, listen to Western music, have no fighting spirit, love pleasure and comfort!

In Southeast Asia and Indonesia, male long hair was valued in until the seventeenth century, when the area adopted outside influences including Islam and Christianity. Invading cultures enforced shorter hairstyles on men as a sign of servitude, as well. They were also confused at the short hairstyles among women in certain areas, such as Thailand, and struggled to explain why women in the area had such short hair. They came up with several mythical stories, one of which involved a king who found a long hair in his rice and, in a rage, demanded that all women keep their hair short.

In rural areas in certain Asian countries, for example India, girls still usually let their hair grow long, and knee-length hair is not unusual.

See also

Grooming

Haircut

Hair extensions

Hairstick

Lady Godiva

Long hair fetishism, a form of ''Trichophilia''

Rapunzel

Images

Female long hair in art (Gallery at Wikimedia commons)

Female long hair photos (Gallery at Wikimedia commons)

Male long hair in art (Gallery at Wikimedia commons)

Male long hair photos (Gallery at Wikimedia commons)

References

Category:Hairstyles Category:Pejorative terms for people Category:Heavy metal fashion

de:Langes Haar fr:Cheveux longs it:Capelli lunghi ja:ロングヘア uk:Довге волосся