Grumblemon is a fictional character from the Digimon Frontier series. He was voiced by Tomohiro Nishimura (Japan) and Derek Stephen Prince (US). In the English version he can't form sentences properly, while in the Japanese version he is portrayed as a street-smart thug, speaking in an old downtown Tokyo accent.

Description

Grumblemon is the Legendary Warrior of Earth, using the power of AncientVolcamon. His Beast Hybrid form is Gigasmon.

Grumblemon is a proud figure who hates to be bossed around. He has an overconfident personality and insults his enemies at any chance he gets. First appeared on ''"A Molehill out of a Mountain"'', he was the first of the Evil Warriors to surface, Slide Evolving to Gigasmon. He managed to take Tommy and Zoe's spirits. However, when Takuya first became BurningGreymon, Grumblemon lost his Beast Spirit to Takuya and Tommy regained his spirit.

In the episode ''"No Whamon"'', he was eventually defeated by J.P. as MetalKabuterimon, who scanned his spirit as Zoe regained hers. Later, both of Grumblemon's spirits were transferred into Takuya's D-Tector, so that Takuya could Hyper Spirit Evolve to EmperorGreymon.

A purified Grumblemon later appeared at The Village Of Beginnings to help the other legendary warriors fight Crusadermon and Dynasmon. His spirit also appeared with the other Legendary Warriors and later like them had a chance to slash Lucemon Larva with a sword, finally destroying him.

Abilities

Grumblemon wears his handmade "Rot Armor" on his person and wields the "Grotto Hammer". He can also dig through solid rock and open a bottle that releases smoke that can summon Golemon to his command.

''Gigasmon''

As Gigasmon, he is a giant whose skin possesses a firmness that is above ceramics.

Category:Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength Category:Fictional mass murderers Category:Fictional trolls

it:Grumblemon pt:Grumblemon

Name	S-300 FamilyNATO reporting name:SA-10 Grumble, SA-12 Giant/Gladiator, SA-20 Gargoyle
Origin
Type	long-range SAM system
Is vehicle	yes
Is uk	yes
Service	1978-present
Used by	See list of operators
Wars
Designer	Almaz-Antey: : NPO Almaz (lead designer) : NIIP (radars) : MKB Fakel (missile designer) : MNIIRE Altair (naval version designer)
Design date	1967-2005
Manufacturer	MZiK
Production date	1978-2011
Variants	see variants }}

The S-300 is a series of Russian long range surface-to-air missile systems produced by NPO Almaz, all based on the initial S-300P version. The S-300 system was developed to defend against aircraft and cruise missiles for the Soviet Air Defence Forces. Subsequent variations were developed to intercept ballistic missiles. The S-300 was jointly produced by Almaz with Samsung Group of South Korea since 1993.

The S-300 system was first deployed by the Soviet Union in 1979, designed for the air defense of large industrial and administrative facilities, military bases, and control of airspace against enemy strike aircraft.

The project-managing developer of the S-300 is Russian Almaz corporation (government owned, aka "KB-1") which is currently a part of "Almaz-Antei" Air Defense Concern. S-300 uses missiles developed by MKB "Fakel" design bureau (a separate government corporation, aka "OKB-2").

The S-300 is regarded as one of the most potent anti-aircraft missile systems currently fielded. Its radars have the ability to simultaneously track up to 100 targets while engaging up to 12. S-300 deployment time is five minutes. The S-300 missiles are sealed rounds and require no maintenance over their lifetime. An evolved version of the S-300 system is the S-400 (NATO reporting name SA-21), entering limited service in 2004.

Variations and upgrades

Numerous versions have since emerged with different missiles, improved radars, better resistance to countermeasures, longer range and better capability against short-range ballistic missiles or targets flying at very low altitude. There are currently three main variations.

S-300 system family tree

S-300P

Land-based S-300P (SA-10)

The S-300P (transliterated from Russian С-300П, NATO reporting name SA-10 ''Grumble'') is the original version of the S-300 system which became operational in 1978. In 1987 over 80 of these sites were active, mainly in the area around Moscow. The ''P'' suffix stand for ''PVO-Strany'' (country air defence system). An S-300PT unit consists of a 36D6 (NATO reporting name ''TIN SHIELD'') surveillance radar, a 30N6 (''FLAP LID'') fire control system and 5P85-1 launch vehicles. The 5P85-1 vehicle is a semi-trailer truck. Usually a 76N6 (''CLAM SHELL'') low altitude detection radar is also a part of the unit.

This system broke substantial new ground, including the use of a phased array radar and multiple engagements on the same Fire-control system (FCS). Nevertheless, it had some limitations. It took over one hour to set up this semi-mobile system for firing and the hot vertical launch method employed scorched the TEL.

It was originally intended to fit the Track Via Missile (TVM) guidance system onto this model. However, the TVM system had problems tracking targets below 500 m. Rather than accept the limitation, the Soviets decided that the tracking of low altitude targets was a must and decided to use a pure command-guidance system until the TVM head was ready. This allowed the minimum engagement altitude to be set at 25 m.

Improvements to the S-300P have resulted in several major subversions for both the internal and the export market. The S-300PT-1 and S-300PT-1A (SA-10b/c) are incremental upgrades of the original S300PT system. They introduce the 5V55KD missile and the cold launch method thereafter employed. Time to readiness was reduced to 30 minutes (broadly comparable to Patriot) and trajectory optimizations allowed the 5V55KD to reach a range of 75 km.

The S-300PS/S-300PM (Russian С-300ПC/С-300ПМ, NATO reporting name SA-10d/e) was introduced in 1985 and is the only version thought to have been fitted with a nuclear warhead. This model saw the introduction of the modern TEL and mobile radar and command-post vehicles that were all based on the MAZ-7910 8x8 truck. This model also featured the new 5V55R missiles which increased maximum engagement range to 90 km (56 mi) and introduced a terminal semi-active radar homing (SARH) guidance mode. The surveillance radar of these systems was designated 30N6. Also introduced with this version was the distinction between self propelled and towed TELs. The towed TEL is designated 5P85T. Mobile TELs were the 5P85S and 5P85D. The 5P85D was a "slave" TEL, being controlled by a 5P85S "master" TEL. The "master" TEL is identifiable thanks to the large equipment container behind the cabin; in the "slave" TEL this area is not enclosed and is used for cable or spare tyre storage.

The next modernisation, called the S-300PMU (Russian С-300ПМУ, US DoD designation SA-10f) was introduced in 1992 for the export market and featured the upgraded 5V55U missile which still utilised the intermediate SARH terminal guidance method and smaller warhead of the 5V55R but increased the engagement envelope to give this missile roughly the same range and altitude capabilities as the newer 48N6 missile (max. range 150 km/93 mi). The radars were also upgraded, with the surveillance radar for the S-300PMU being designated 64N6 (BIG BIRD) and the illumination and guidance radar being designated 30N6-1 in the GRAU index.

S-300F

Sea-based S-300F (SA-N-6)

The S-300F ''Fort'' (Russian С-300Ф ''Форт'', DoD designation SA-N-6, ''F'' suffix for ''Flot'', Russian for ''fleet'') was introduced in 1984 as the original ship-based (naval) version of the S-300P system developed by ''Altair'' with the new 5V55RM missile with range extended to 7–90 km (4-56 mi, equal to 3.8-50 nautical miles) and maximum target speed up to Mach 4 while engagement altitude was reduced to 25-25,000 m (100-82,000 ft). The naval version utilises the TOP SAIL or TOP STEER, TOP PAIR and 3R41 Volna (TOP DOME) radar and utilises command guidance with a terminal semi-active radar homing (SARH) mode. Its first installation and sea trials were on a Kara class cruiser and it is also installed on Slava class cruisers and Kirov class battlecruisers. It is stored in eight (Slava) or twelve (Kirov) 8-missile rotary launchers below decks. The export version of this system is known as ''Rif'' (Russian ''Риф'' — ''reef''). The NATO name, found also in colloquial use, is "Grumble".

Sea-based S-300FM (SA-N-20)

The S-300FM ''Fort-M (Russian С-300ФМ, DoD designation SA-N-20'') is another naval version of the system, installed only on the Kirov class cruiser RFS Pyotr Velikiy, and introduced the new 48N6 missile. It was introduced in 1990 and increased missile speed to approximately Mach 6 for a maximum target engagement speed of up to Mach 8.5, increased the warhead size to 150 kg (330 lb) and increased the maximum engagement range yet again to 5–150 km (3-93 mi) as well as opening the altitude envelope to 10m-27 km (33–88500 ft). The new missiles also introduced the ultimate track-via-missile guidance method and brought with it the ability to intercept short-range ballistic missiles. This system makes use of the TOMB STONE MOD rather than TOP DOME radar. The export version is called the ''Rif-M''. Two Rif-M systems were purchased by China in 2002 and installed on the Type 051C air-defence guided missile destroyers.

Both naval versions are believed to include a secondary infrared terminal seeker, similar to the newer US Standard missile system, probably to reduce the system's vulnerability to saturation. This also allows the missile to engage contacts over the radar horizon, such as warships or sea-skimming anti-ship missiles.

S-300V (SA-12)

The 9K81 S-300V ''Antey-300'' (Russian 9К81 С-300В ''Антей-300'' - named after ''Antaeus'', NATO reporting name SA-12 ''Gladiator/Giant'') is a bit different from the other versions. It was built by Antey as opposed to Almaz. The ''V'' suffix stands for ''Voyska'' (ground forces). It was designed to act as the top tier army air defence system, providing a defence against ballistic missiles, cruise missiles and aircraft, replacing the SA-4 'Ganef'. The "GLADIATOR" missiles have a maximum engagement range of around 75 km (47 miles) while the "GIANT" missiles can engage targets out to 100 km (62 miles) and up to altitudes of around 32 km (100,000 ft). In both cases the warhead is around 150 kg (331 lb).

While it was created from the same project (hence the common S-300 designation) different priorities resulted in a design quite different from the other versions. The S-300V system is carried on tracked MT-T transporters, which gives it better cross-country mobility than even the S-300Ps on 8x8 wheeled transporters. It is also somewhat more distributed than the S-300P's. For example, while both have mechanically-scanned radar for target acquisition (9S15 ''BILL BOARD A''), the battery level 9S32 ''GRILL PAN'' has autonomous search ability and SARH delegated to illumination radar on TELARs. The early 30N6 ''FLAP LID'' on the S-300P handles tracking and illumination, but is not equipped with autonomous search (later upgraded).

The S-300V places a greater emphasis on ABM, with the dedicated 9M83 (SA-12B ''Giant''). This missile is larger and only two can be held on each TELAR. It also has a dedicated ABM radar - the 9S19 ''HIGH SCREEN'' phased array radar at battalion level. A typical S-300V battalion is made up out of a target detection and designation unit, a guidance radar and up to 6 TELARs. The detection and designation unit consists of the 9S457-1 command post, a 9S15MV or 9S15MT ''BILL BOARD'' all-round surveillance radar and 9S19M2 ''HIGH SCREEN'' sector surveillance radar. The S-300V uses the 9S32-1 ''GRILL PAN'' multi-channel guidance radar. Four types of TELARs can be used with the system. The 9A83-1 which holds 4 9M83 ''GLADIATOR'' missiles and the 9A82 which holds 2 9M82 ''GIANT'' missiles are pure launchers, while the 9A84 (4× 9M83 GLADIATOR missile) and 9A85 (2× 9M82 GIANT missile) are loaders/launchers.

S-300V system may be controlled by a upper level command post system 9S52 Polyana-D4 integrating it with Buk missile system into a brigade.

S-300PMU-1/2 (SA-20)

The S-300PMU-1 (Russian С-300ПМУ-1,US DoD designation SA-20A, NATO reporting name SA-20 ''Gargoyle'') was also introduced in 1992 with the new and larger 48N6 missiles for the first time in a land-based system and introduced all the same performance improvements from the S300FM version including the increased speed, range, TVM guidance and ABM capability. The warhead is slightly smaller than the naval version at 143 kg (315 lb). This version also saw the introduction of the new and more capable 30N6E TOMB STONE radar.

The S-300PMU-1 was introduced in 1999 and for the first time introduces several different kinds of missiles in a single system. In addition to the 5V55R, 48N6E and 48N6E2 missiles the S-300PMU-1 can utilise two new missiles, the 9M96E1 and 9M96E2. Both are significantly smaller than the previous missiles at 330 and 420 kg (728 and 926 lb respectively) and carry smaller 24 kg (53 lb) warhead. The 9M96E1 has an engagement range of 1–40 km (1-25 mi) and the 9M96E2 of 1–120 km (1-75 mi). They are still carried 4 per TEL. Rather than just relying on aerodynamic fins for manoeuvring, they use a gas-dynamic system which allows them to have an excellent probability of kill (P_k) despite the much smaller warhead. The P_k is estimated at 0.7 against a tactical ballistic missile for either missile. The S-300PMU-1 typically uses the 83M6E command and control system, although it is also compatible with the older Baikal-1E and Senezh-M1E CCS command and control systems. The 83M6E system incorporates the 64N6E (BIG BIRD) surveillance/detection radar. The fire control/illumination and guidance radar used is the 30N6E(1), optionally matched with a 76N6 low altitude detection radar and a 96L6E all altitude detection radar. The 83M6E command and control system can control up to 12 TELs, both the self propelled 5P85SE vehicle and the 5P85TE towed launchers. Generally support vehicles are also included, such as the 40V6M tow vehicle, intended for lifting of the antenna post.

The S-300PMU-2 ''Favorite'' (Russian С-300ПМУ-2 ''Фаворит'' – ''Favourite'', DoD designation SA-20B), introduced in 1997, is an upgrade to the S-300PMU-1 with range extended once again to 195 km (121 mi) with the introduction of the 48N6E2 missile. This system is apparently capable against not just short range ballistic missiles, but now also medium range tactical ballistic missiles. It uses the 83M6E2 command and control system, consisting of the 54K6E2 command post vehicle and the 64N6E2 surveillance/detection radar. It employs the 30N6E2 fire control/illumination and guidance radar. Like the S-300PMU-1, 12 TELs can be controlled, with any mix of 5P85SE2 self propelled and 5P85TE2 trailer launchers. Optionally it can make use of the 96L6E all altitude detection radar and 76N6 low altitude detection radar, just like the S-300PMU-1.

S-400 (SA-21)

The S-400 ''Triumf'' (Russian С-400 ''«Триумф»'', formerly known as the S-300PMU-3/С-300ПМУ-3, NATO reporting name SA-21 ''Growler'') was introduced in 1999 and features a new, much larger missile with 2 per TEL. The project has been encountering delays since its original announcement and deployment has only begun on a small scale in 2006. With an engagement range of up to 400 km (250 mi), depending on the missile variant used, and specifically designed to counter stealth it is by far the most advanced version. Little else is known about this version.

S-300VM (SA-X-23)

The S-300VM (Antey 2500) is an upgrade to the S-300V. It consists of a new command post vehicle, the 9S457ME and a selection of new radars. As all-round surveillance radar the 9S15M2, 9S15MT2E or 9S15MV2E are possible, and the sector surveillance radar was upgraded to 9S19ME. The upgraded guidance radar has Grau index 9S32ME. The system can still employ up to 6 TELARs, the 9A84ME launchers (up to 4 × 9M83ME missile) and up to 6 launcher/loader vehicles assigned to each launcher (2 × 9M83ME missile each). An upgraded version, dubbed S-300V4 will be delivered to Russian army in 2011.

Operators and other versions

The S-300 is mainly used in Eastern Europe and Asia although sources are inconsistent about the exact countries possessing the system. bought 2 battalions of S-300PMU2 in 2009 worth at least $300 million. - S-300PS systems delivered from Russia in 2007 to replace older S-300 model in Belarussian inventory. Older S-300V sold to Turkey for testing and using on Anatolian Eagle exercises. has ten S-300 launchers, divided into two units with five launchers each. : China has bought the S-300PMU-1 and are licensed to manufacture it under the name Hongqi-10 (HQ-10). China is also the first customer of S-300PMU-2 and may be using the S-300V under the name Hongqi HQ-18. China also built an upgraded version of the HQ-10 labelled the HQ-15 with the maximum range upgraded from 150 km (93 mi) to 200 km (124 mi). There are unconfirmed reports that claim this version is the Chinese manufactured S-300PMU-2. The total number of the S-300PMU/1/2 and HQ-15/18 batteries in PLA are approximately 40 and 60 respectively, in the year 2008. The total number of the missiles is well above 1,600, with about 300 launcher platforms. Five such SAM battalions are deployed and in active duty around Beijing region, six battalions in Taiwan strait region and rest battalions in other major cities like Shanghai, Chengdu and Dalian. Two Rif (SA-N-6) systems were purchased in 2002 for the Chinese Navy for the Type 051C Destroyers. & : Cyprus signed an agreement to buy S-300 systems in 1996. Eventually bought the S-300PMU-1 version, but due to political tension between Cyprus and Turkey and intense Turkish pressure (see Cyprus Missile Crisis), the system was transferred to the Greek Island of Crete. Later, Cyprus acquired the Tor-M1 system and the Buk-M1 system. Finally, on 19/12/07 the missiles passed officially to Greek government in return for more Tor-M1 systems and Buk-M1 systems. - Inherited from Czechoslovakia. Slovakian proposal to equip another battalion in mid '90 was canceled. announced an intention to buy the S-300P in 1991 and now seems to possess the system. : Has used all of the S-300 variations. The Russian Air Defense Forces, which are part of the Air Force, currently operates 768 S-300PMUs and 185 S-300Vs, meaning they operate 953 in total. In addition Russian armed forces also operates 32 S-400 systems by 2011 with more on order. - S-300PS, S-300PMU, S-300V and others. Venezuela has ordered S-300VM "Antey-2500" to equip 12 Regiments. Deliveries are expected to be completed by 2010-2011. has bought two S-300PMU-1 batteries (12 launchers) for nearly $300 million. In early year 2010, addendum to the order of the jet fighter, the Department of Air Defense (binh chung phong khong) has present a purchase order to Rosoboronexport for 6 additional S-300 PMU-2 batteries; 4 systems were delivered in Q1 2011, with 2 systems deliver in Q4 2011. On the 10 October 2010 military parade a new SAM system, complete with Flap Lid radars, was displayed. North Korea announced it to be "an anti-ballistic defense system", capable of shooting down aircraft at distances of 90 kilometers and at altitudes of up to 30 kilometers. Japanese media reported the system to be a locally designed S-300 derivative, a fact that is corraberated by the presence of Flap Lid radars. However this and the origin of the Missles (Locally Produced?) has yet to be confirmed.

Former operators

: Croatia no longer maintains an S-300 system. It was acquired from Ukraine in 1995 and was never complete and in operational state, but served the role of a psychological weapon. After much controversy, as of 2004 the system is no longer in Croatia and was presumably sold. According to some sources, including the court testimony of arms dealer Zvonko Zubak, the system was indeed shipped to the United States in 2004. - One battalion created in 1990. Passed on to Slovakia in 1993.

Possible future operators

- 4 S-300PMU2 were ordered in 2006. 's status regarding the S-300 system remains controversial. Iran claimed to have signed a contract with Russia on 25 December 2007 on the sales of the S-300PMU-1 missile system. Russian officials have denied this. It has also been claimed that Croatia sold their S-300s to Iran. Later, another claim was made saying Libya transferred S-300s to Iran. On December 21, according to a senior Iranian lawmaker, Russia has started the supply of components for S-300 air defense systems to Iran. Esmaeil Kosari, deputy chairman of the parliamentary commission on national security and foreign policy, told the Iranian news agency IRNA that Iran and Russia had held negotiations for several years on the purchase of S-300 air defense systems and had finalized a deal. Kosari said the Islamic Republic would deploy S-300 surface-to-air missile systems to strengthen national defense on border areas. On 28 October 2009, if asked when Russia would deliver the systems to Iran, Ivanov said: "There have been no such deliveries to date." Yet on 23 December 2009, Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Alexei Borodavkin said Russia sees no reason to cancel a deal to provide S-300s to Iran. He said ""Exports of such weapons is subject to no UN treaty or other bilateral agreements, This is why we see no essential reason to make any change in the deal," indicating that there is a deal. On 8 February 2010, Iran announced that it had a "domestically-made" system with the same capabilities as the S-300. Alexander Fumin has said that the delay in the delivery is due to a technical problem with the radiowave system. In 19 April 2010, Asr Iran (Iran's Era) website said that Iran could develop a similar air missiles system On 11 June 2010 Russia has stopped sale of the S-300 air defense system to Iran in lieu of U.N. sanctions against Iran stating that the "S-300s fall under these sanctions". On 4 August 2010 Iran claimed it has obtained two S-300PT (SA-10) from Belarus and two others from another unspecified source despite Russian refusal to deliver them. The Belarusian government has denied rumors that Minsk had allegedly sold S-300 air defense systems to Iran. "The State Military-Industrial Committee can officially state that Belarus has never held talks with Iran on the deliveries of the S-300 air defense systems", said committee's spokesman Vladimir Lavrenyuk. "Belarus has never supplied S-300 systems or their components to Iran," he said, adding that Minsk strictly complied with international arms control regulations. On 22 September 2010 Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed a decree banning the sale of the S-300 and other military equipment to Iran. The sale was canceled because of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1929 sanctions on Iran. On 10 November 2010 Iran announced that it had developed a version of the S-300 missile. However Pieter Wezeman of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute has questioned Iran's ability to duplicate the Russian missile system. Russia has offered the S-300VM to Turkey. Venezuela Venezuelan government has recently confirmed a contract with the Russian government to buy one S-300 missile system.

Combat history

Although none of the S-300 versions have ever fired a missile in a real conflict, it is considered a very capable SAM system. In April 2005, NATO had a combat exercise in France and Germany called ''Trial Hammer 05'' to practice Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses missions. Participating countries were pleased that the Slovak Air Force brought a S-300PMU along, providing a unique opportunity for NATO to become familiar with the system.

Israel's purchase of F-35 Lightning II fighters was allegedly motivated in part to nullify the threat of S-300 missiles that were, at the time the fighters were initially sought, subject to a potential arms sale to Iran.

Specifications

Missiles are guided by the 30N6 FLAP LID or naval 3R41 Volna (TOP DOME) radar using command guidance with terminal semi-active radar homing. Later versions use the 30N6 FLAP LID B or TOMB STONE radar to guide the missiles via command guidance/seeker-aided ground guidance (SAGG). SAGG is similar to the Patriot's TVM guidance scheme. The earlier 30N6 FLAP LID A can guide up to four missiles at a time to up to four targets, and can track up to 24 targets at once. The 30N6E FLAP LID B can guide up to two missiles per target to up to six targets simultaneously. Targets flying at up to Mach 2.5 can be successfully engaged or around Mach 8.5 for later models. One missile can be launched every three seconds. The mobile control centre is able to manage up to 12 TELs simultaneously.

The original warhead weighed 100 kg (220 lb), intermediate warheads weighed 133 kg (293 lb) and the latest warhead weighs 143 kg (315 lb). All are equipped with a proximity fuze and contact fuze. The missiles themselves weigh between 1,450 kg (3,200 lb) and 1,800 kg (3,970 lb). Missiles are catapulted clear of the launching tubes before their rocket motor fires, which can accelerate at up to 100 ''g'' (1 km/s²). They launch straight upwards and then tip over towards their target, removing the need to aim the missiles before launch. The missiles are steered with a combination of control fins and through thrust vectoring vanes. The sections below give exact specifications of the radar and missiles in the different S-300 versions. It should be noted that since the S-300PM most vehicles are interchangeable across variations.

Radar

The 30N6 FLAP LID A is mounted on a small trailer. The 64N6 BIG BIRD is mounted on a large trailer along with a generator and typically towed with the now familiar 8-wheeled truck. The 76N6 CLAM SHELL is mounted on a large trailer with a mast which is between 24 and 39 m (79 and 128 ft) tall.

The original S-300P utilises a combination of the 76N6 CLAM SHELL continuous-wave Doppler radar for target acquisition and the 30N6 FLAP LID A I/J-band phased array digitally steered tracking and engagement radar. Both are mounted on trailers. In addition there is a trailer-mounted command centre and up to twelve trailer-mounted erector/launchers with four missiles each. The S-300PS/PM is similar but uses an upgraded 30N6 tracking and engagement radar with the command post integrated and has truck-mounted TELs.

If employed in an anti-ballistic missile or anti-cruise missile role, the 64N6 BIG BIRD E/F-band radar would also be included with the battery. It is capable of detecting ballistic missile class targets up to 1000 km (620 mi) away travelling at up to 10000 km/h (6200 mph) and cruise missile class targets up to 300 km (185 mi) away. It also employs electronic beam steering and performs a scan once every twelve seconds.

The 36D6 TIN SHIELD radar can also be used to augment the S-300 system to provide earlier target detection than the FLAP LID radar allows. It can detect a missile-sized target flying at an altitude of 60 meters (200 ft) at least 20 km (12.5 mi) away, at an altitude of 100 meters (330 ft) at least 30 km (19 mi) away, and at high altitude up to 175 km (108 mi) away. In addition a 64N6 BIG BIRD E/F band target acquisition radar can be used which has a maximum detection range of 300 km (186 mi).

The S-300 FC Radar Flap Lid can be mounted on a standard pylon.

- CLAM SHELL CLAM SHELL BIG BIRD CHEESE BOARD BILL BOARD HIGH SCREEN TOP STEER TOP PAIR

+ Surveillance radar	Main Agency of Missiles and Artillery of the Ministry of Defence of the Soviet Union	GRAU index !! NATO reporting name !! Specialisation !! Target detection range !! Simultaneously detected targets !! NATO frequency band !! First used with !! Notes
36D6	TIN SHIELD	|	180–360 km (112-224mile)	120	E/F	S-300P	Industrial designation: ST-68UM350 kW to 1.23 MW signal strength
76N6	|	Low altitude detection			I	S-300P
76N6	|	Low altitude detection	120 km (75mile)	300	I	S-300PMU	1.4 kW FM continuous wave
64N6	|	-	300 km (186mile)		C	S-300PMU-1
96L6E	|	All altitude detection	300 km (186mile)	300		S-300PMU-1
9S15	|	-	250 km (155mile)	200		S-300V
9S19	|	Sector tracking		16		S-300V
MR-75	|	Naval	300 km (186mile)		D/E	S-300F
MR-800 Voskhod	|	Naval	200 km (124mile)		C/D/E/F	S-300F

Simultaneously engaged targets ! I/J FLAP LID B FLAP LID B GRILL PAN TOP DOME

+ Target tracking/missile guidance	GRAU index !! NATO reporting name !! NATO frequency band !! Target detection range !! Simultaneously tracked targets	First used with !! Notes
30N6	FLAP LID A	|		4	4	S-300P
30N6E(1)	|	H-J	200 km (124mile)	12	6	S-300PMU	Phased array
30N6E2	|	I/J	200 km (124mile)	72	36	S-300PMU-2
9S32-1	|	Multi-band	140–150 km (90mile)	12	6	S-300V
3R41 Volna	|	I/J	100 km (62mile)			S-300F

Missiles

47 km (29mile) 1984 1992 1992 1992 1984 1984 1990 1999 1999 2000

+ Missile specifications	GRAU index !! Year !! Range !! Maximum velocity !!Maximum target Speed!! Length !! Diameter !! Weight !! Warhead !! Guidance !! First used with
5V55K/KD	1978	|	1,700 m/s (3,800 mph)	1,150 m/s (2572 mph)	7 m (23 ft)	450mm	1,450 kg (3,200 lb)	100 kg (220 lb)	Command
5V55R/RM	|	90 km (56mile)	1,700 m/s (3,800 mph)	1,150 m/s (2572 mph)	7 m (23 ft)	450mm	1,450 kg (3,200 lb)	133 kg (293 lb)	SARH
5V55U	|	150 km (93mile)	2,000 m/s (4,470 mph)		7 m (23 ft)	450mm	1,470 kg (3,240 lb)	133 kg (293 lb)	SARH
48N6/E	|	150 km (93mile)	2,000 m/s (4,470 mph)	2,800 m/s (6,415 mph)	7.5 m (25 ft)	500mm	1,780 kg (3,920 lb)	~150 kg (~330 lb)	TVM
48N6E2	|	195 km (121mile)	2,000 m/s (4,470 mph)	2,800 m/s (6,415 mph)	7.5 m (25 ft)	500mm	1,800 kg (3,970 lb)	150 kg (330 lb)	TVM
9M82	|	40 km (25mile)	2,500 m/s (5,600 mph)					150 kg (330 lb)	SARH by TELAR	S-300V
9M83	|	100 km (60mile)	1,800 m/s (4,030 mph)				420 kg (926 lb)	150 kg (330 lb)	SARH by TELAR	S-300V
9M83ME	|	200 km (120mile)							SARH by TELAR	S-300VM
9M96E1	|	40 km (25mile)	900 m/s (2,010 mph)	4,800-5,000 m/s (10,737-11,185 mph)			330 kg (728 lb)	24 kg (53 lb)	Active Radar Homing	S-400
9M96E2	|	120 km (75mile)	1,000 m/s (2,240 mph)	4,800-5,000 m/s (10,737-11,185 mph)			420 kg (926 lb)	24 kg (53 lb)	Active Radar Homing	S-400
40N6	|	400 km (250mile)							Active Radar Homing	S-400

Comparable SAMs

MIM-104 Patriot

Type 3 Chū-SAM

Akash missile

KS-1

HQ-9

NASAMS

References

External links

http://www.almaz-antey.ru/ in Russian

http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-Asia-Sams-Pt1.pdf and http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-Asia-Sams-Pt2.pdf , a two-part piece from Australian Air Power.

www.dtig.org detailed overview of the S-300P & S-300V family.

Almaz S-300 – China's "Offensive" Air Defense

Soviet/Russian Missile Designations

S-300PMU2 Favorit EnemyForces.com

Almaz S-300P/PT/PS/PMU/PMU-1/PMU-2

76N6 Clam Shell Acquisition Radar

Antey 9K81 S-300V - SA-12A/B Gladiator/Giant

Category:Article Feedback Pilot Category:Cold War surface-to-air missiles of the Soviet Union Category:Surface-to-air missiles of Russia Category:Surface-to-air missiles of the People's Republic of China Category:Missile defense Category:Anti-ballistic missiles Category:Naval surface-to-air missiles

ar:أس - 300 az:S-300 bg:С-300 cs:S-300 de:S-300 (Flugabwehrrakete) et:S-300 es:S-300 fa:اس-۳۰۰ fr:S-300 ko:S-300 hr:S-300 it:S-300 he:S-300 hu:SZ–300 ja:S-300 (ミサイル) ps:اس ـ ۳۰۰ pl:S-300W ro:S-300 ru:С-300 fi:S-300 sv:S-300 tr:S-300 vi:Tổ hợp tên lửa S-300 zh:S-300导弹

name	Mark Twain
birth name	Samuel Langhorne Clemens
pseudonym	Mark Twain
birth date	November 30, 1835
birth place	Florida, Missouri, U.S.
death date	April 21, 1910
death place	Redding, Connecticut, U.S.
occupation	Writer, lecturer
nationality	American
genre	Fiction, historical fiction, children's literature, non-fiction, travel literature, satire, essay, philosophical literature, social commentary, literary criticism
signature	Mark Twain Signatures-2.svg
notableworks	''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer''
spouse
children	Langdon, Susy, Clara, Jean }}

thumb|right|265px|~ Mark Twain ~~ aka ~~ Samuel Clemens ~[[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States#Famous Americans Series of 1940|National Honor given to TwainUS Commemorative Issue of 1940]]

Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), better known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American author and humorist. He is most noted for his novels, ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' (1876), and its sequel, ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1885), the latter often called "the Great American Novel."

Twain grew up in Hannibal, Missouri, which would later provide the setting for ''Huckleberry Finn'' and ''Tom Sawyer''. He apprenticed with a printer. He also worked as a typesetter and contributed articles to his older brother Orion's newspaper. After toiling as a printer in various cities, he became a master riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River, before heading west to join Orion. He was a failure at gold mining, so he next turned to journalism. While a reporter, he wrote a humorous story, ''The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County'', which became very popular and brought nationwide attention. His travelogues were also well-received. Twain had found his calling.

He achieved great success as a writer and public speaker. His wit and satire earned praise from critics and peers, and he was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty.

However, he lacked financial acumen. Though he made a great deal of money from his writings and lectures, he squandered it on various ventures, in particular the Paige Compositor, and was forced to declare bankruptcy. With the help of Henry Huttleston Rogers, however, he eventually overcame his financial troubles. Twain worked hard to ensure that all of his creditors were paid in full, even though his bankruptcy had relieved him of the legal responsibility.

Twain was born during a visit by Halley's Comet, and predicted that he would "go out with it" as well. He died the day following the comet's subsequent return. He was lauded as the "greatest American humorist of his age," and William Faulkner called Twain "the father of American literature."

Early life

Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born in Florida, Missouri, on November 30, 1835, to a Tennessee country merchant, John Marshall Clemens (August 11, 1798 – March 24, 1847), and Jane Lampton Clemens (June 18, 1803 – October 27, 1890).

Twain was the sixth of seven children. Only three of his siblings survived childhood: his brother Orion (July 17, 1825 – December 11, 1897); Henry, who died in a riverboat explosion (July 13, 1838 – June 21, 1858); and Pamela (September 19, 1827 – August 31, 1904). His sister Margaret (May 31, 1830 – August 17, 1839) died when Twain was three, and his brother Benjamin (June 8, 1832 – May 12, 1842) died three years later. Another brother, Pleasant (1828–1829), died at six months. Twain was born two weeks after the closest approach to Earth of Halley's Comet. On December 4, 1985, the United States Postal Service issued a stamped envelope for "Mark Twain and Halley's Comet."

When Twain was four, his family moved to Hannibal, Missouri, a port town on the Mississippi River that inspired the fictional town of St. Petersburg in ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' and ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''. Missouri was a slave state and young Twain became familiar with the institution of slavery, a theme he would later explore in his writing.

Twain’s father was an attorney and a local judge. The Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad was organized in his office in 1846. The railroad connected the second and third largest cities in the state and was the westernmost United States railroad until the Transcontinental Railroad. It delivered mail to and from the Pony Express.

In March 1847, when Twain was 11, his father died of pneumonia. The next year, he became a printer's apprentice. In 1851, he began working as a typesetter and contributor of articles and humorous sketches for the ''Hannibal Journal'', a newspaper owned by his brother Orion. When he was 18, he left Hannibal and worked as a printer in New York City, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. He joined the union and educated himself in public libraries in the evenings, finding wider information than at a conventional school. At 22, Twain returned to Missouri.

On a voyage to New Orleans down the Mississippi, steamboat pilot Horace E. Bixby inspired Twain to become a pilot himself. As Twain observed in ''Life on the Mississippi'', the pilot surpassed a steamboat's captain in prestige and authority; it was a rewarding occupation with wages set at $250 per month, roughly equivalent to $}} a year today. A steamboat pilot needed to know the ever-changing river to be able to stop at the hundreds of ports and wood-lots. Twain studied 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of the Mississippi for more than two years before he received his steamboat pilot license in 1859.

While training, Samuel convinced his younger brother Henry to work with him. Henry was killed on June 21, 1858, when the steamboat he was working on, the ''Pennsylvania'', exploded. Twain had foreseen this death in a dream a month earlier, which inspired his interest in parapsychology; he was an early member of the Society for Psychical Research. Twain was guilt-stricken and held himself responsible for the rest of his life. He continued to work on the river and was a river pilot until the American Civil War broke out in 1861 and traffic along the Mississippi was curtailed.

Missouri was considered by many to be part of the South, and was represented in both the Confederate and Federal governments during the Civil War. Twain wrote a sketch, "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed," which claimed he and his friends had been Confederate volunteers for two weeks before disbanding their company.

Travels

Twain joined Orion, who in 1861 became secretary to James W. Nye, the governor of Nevada Territory, and headed west. Twain and his brother traveled more than two weeks on a stagecoach across the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, visiting the Mormon community in Salt Lake City. The experiences inspired ''Roughing It'' and provided material for ''The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County''. Twain's journey ended in the silver-mining town of Virginia City, Nevada, where he became a miner. Twain failed as a miner and worked at a Virginia City newspaper, the ''Territorial Enterprise''. Here he first used his pen name. On February 3, 1863, he signed a humorous travel account ''"Letter From Carson – re: Joe Goodman; party at Gov. Johnson's; music"'' with "Mark Twain."

Twain moved to San Francisco, California in 1864, still as a journalist. He met writers such as Bret Harte, Artemus Ward, and Dan DeQuille. The young poet Ina Coolbrith may have romanced him.

His first success as a writer came when his humorous tall tale, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County," was published in a New York weekly, ''The Saturday Press'', on November 18, 1865. It brought him national attention. A year later, he traveled to the Sandwich Islands (present-day Hawaii) as a reporter for the ''Sacramento Union''. His travelogues were popular and became the basis for his first lectures.

In 1867, a local newspaper funded a trip to the Mediterranean. During his tour of Europe and the Middle East, he wrote a popular collection of travel letters, which were later compiled as ''The Innocents Abroad'' in 1869. It was on this trip that he met his future brother-in-law.

Upon returning to the United States, Twain was offered honorary membership in the secret society Scroll and Key of Yale University in 1868. Its devotion to "fellowship, moral and literary self-improvement, and charity" suited him well.

Marriage and children

Charles Langdon showed a picture of his sister, Olivia, to Twain; Twain claimed to have fallen in love at first sight. The two corresponded throughout 1868, but Olivia rejected his first marriage proposal. Two months later, they were engaged and a year later married in February 1870 in Elmira, New York, where he had courted her. She came from a "wealthy but liberal family," and through her he met abolitionists, "socialists, principled atheists and activists for women's rights and social equality," including Harriet Beecher Stowe (his next door neighbor in Hartford, Connecticut), Frederick Douglass, and the writer and utopian socialist William Dean Howells, who became a longtime friend.

The couple lived in Buffalo, New York from 1869 to 1871. Twain owned a stake in the ''Buffalo Express'' newspaper, and worked as an editor and writer. While living in Buffalo, their son Langdon died of diphtheria at 19 months.

Olivia gave birth to three daughters: Susy (1872–1896), Clara (1874–1962) and Jean (1880–1909). The couple's marriage lasted 34 years, until Olivia's death in 1904. All of the Clemens family are buried in Elmira's Woodlawn Cemetery.

Twain moved his family to Hartford, Connecticut, where starting in 1873, he arranged the building of a home (local admirers saved it from demolition in 1927 and eventually turned it into a museum focused on him). In the 1870s and 1880s, Twain and his family summered at Quarry Farm, the home of Olivia' sister, Susan Crane. In 1874, Susan had a study built apart from the main house so that her brother-in-law would have a quiet place in which to write. Also, Twain smoked pipes constantly, and Susan Crane did not wish him to do so in her house. During his seventeen years in Hartford (1874–1891) and over twenty summers at Quarry Farm, Twain wrote many of his classic novels, among them ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' (1876), ''The Prince and the Pauper'' (1881), ''Life on the Mississippi'' (1883), ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1885) and ''A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court'' (1889).

Twain made a second tour of Europe, described in the 1880 book ''A Tramp Abroad''. His tour included a stay in Heidelberg from May 6 until July 23, 1878, and a visit to London.

Love of science and technology

Twain was fascinated with science and scientific inquiry. He developed a close and lasting friendship with Nikola Tesla, and the two spent much time together in Tesla's laboratory.

Twain patented three inventions, including an "Improvement in Adjustable and Detachable Straps for Garments" (to replace suspenders) and a history trivia game. Most commercially successful was a self-pasting scrapbook; a dried adhesive on the pages only needed to be moistened before use.

His book ''A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court'' features a time traveler from contemporary America, using his knowledge of science to introduce modern technology to Arthurian England. This type of storyline would later become a common feature of a science fiction sub-genre, alternate history.

In 1909, Thomas Edison visited Twain at his home in Redding, Connecticut and filmed him. Part of the footage was used in ''The Prince and the Pauper'' (1909), a two-reel short film.

Financial troubles

Twain made a substantial amount of money through his writing, but he lost a great deal through investments, mostly in new inventions and technology, particularly the Paige typesetting machine. It was a beautifully engineered mechanical marvel that amazed viewers when it worked, but was prone to breakdowns. Twain spent $300,000 (equal to $}} today) on it between 1880 and 1894, but before it could be perfected, it was made obsolete by the Linotype. He lost not only the bulk of his book profits but also a substantial portion of his wife's inheritance.

Twain also lost money through his publishing house, which enjoyed initial success selling the memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant, but went broke soon after, losing money on a biography of Pope Leo XIII; fewer than two hundred copies were sold.

Twain's writings and lectures, combined with the help of a new friend, enabled him to recover financially. In 1893, he began a 15-year-long friendship with financier Henry Huttleston Rogers, a principal of Standard Oil. Rogers first made Twain file for bankruptcy. Then Rogers had Twain transfer the copyrights on his written works to his wife, Olivia, to prevent creditors from gaining possession of them. Finally, Rogers took absolute charge of Twain's money until all the creditors were paid.

Twain embarked on an around-the-world lecture tour in 1894 to pay off his creditors in full, although he was no longer under any legal obligation to do so. In mid-1900, he was the guest of newspaper proprietor Hugh Gilzean-Reid at Dollis Hill House. Twain wrote of Dollis Hill that he had "never seen any place that was so satisfactorily situated, with its noble trees and stretch of country, and everything that went to make life delightful, and all within a biscuit's throw of the metropolis of the world." He then returned to America in 1900, having earned enough to pay off his debts.

Speaking engagements

Twain was in demand as a featured speaker, and appeared before many men's clubs, including the Authors' Club, Beefsteak Club, Vagabonds, White Friars, and Monday Evening Club of Hartford. He was made an honorary member of the Bohemian Club in San Francisco. In the late 1890s, he spoke to the Savage Club in London and was elected honorary member. When told that only three men had been so honored, including the Prince of Wales, he replied "Well, it must make the Prince feel mighty fine." In 1897, Twain spoke to the Concordia Press Club in Vienna as a special guest, following diplomat Charlemagne Tower, Jr.. In German, to the great amusement of the assemblage, Twain delivered the speech "''Die Schrecken der deutschen Sprache''" ("The Horrors of the German Language").

Later life and death

Twain passed through a period of deep depression, which began in 1896 when his daughter Susy died of meningitis. Olivia's death in 1904 and Jean's on December 24, 1909, deepened his gloom. On May 20, 1909, his close friend Henry Rogers died suddenly. In 1906, Twain began his autobiography in the ''North American Review''. In April, Twain heard that his friend Ina Coolbrith had lost nearly all she owned in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, and he volunteered a few autographed portrait photographs to be sold for her benefit. To further aid Coolbrith, George Wharton James visited Twain in New York and arranged for a new portrait session. Initially resistant, Twain admitted that four of the resulting images were the finest ones ever taken of him.

Twain formed a club in 1906 for girls he viewed as surrogate granddaughters, the Angel Fish and Aquarium Club. The dozen or so members ranged in age from 10 to 16. Twain exchanged letters with his "Angel Fish" girls and invited them to concerts and the theatre and to play games. Twain wrote in 1908 that the club was his "life's chief delight."

Oxford University awarded Twain an honorary doctorate in letters (D.Litt.) in 1907.

In 1909, Twain is quoted as saying:

His prediction was accurate – Twain died of a heart attack on April 21, 1910, in Redding, Connecticut, one day after the comet's closest approach to Earth.

Upon hearing of Twain's death, President William Howard Taft said:

"Mark Twain gave pleasure – real intellectual enjoyment – to millions, and his works will continue to give such pleasure to millions yet to come... His humor was American, but he was nearly as much appreciated by Englishmen and people of other countries as by his own countrymen. He has made an enduring part of American literature."

Twain's funeral was at the "Old Brick" Presbyterian Church in New York. He is buried in his wife's family plot at Woodlawn Cemetery in Elmira, New York. His grave is marked by a 12-foot (i.e., two fathoms, or "mark twain") monument, placed there by his surviving daughter, Clara. There is also a smaller headstone.

Writing

Overview

Twain began his career writing light, humorous verse, but evolved into a chronicler of the vanities, hypocrisies and murderous acts of mankind. At mid-career, with ''Huckleberry Finn'', he combined rich humor, sturdy narrative and social criticism. Twain was a master at rendering colloquial speech and helped to create and popularize a distinctive American literature built on American themes and language. Many of Twain's works have been suppressed at times for various reasons. ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' has been repeatedly restricted in American high schools, not least for its frequent use of the word "nigger," which was in common usage in the pre-Civil War period in which the novel was set.

A complete bibliography of his works is nearly impossible to compile because of the vast number of pieces written by Twain (often in obscure newspapers) and his use of several different pen names. Additionally, a large portion of his speeches and lectures have been lost or were not written down; thus, the collection of Twain's works is an ongoing process. Researchers rediscovered published material by Twain as recently as 1995.

Early journalism and travelogues

While writing for the Virginia City newspaper, the ''Territorial Enterprise'' in 1863, Clemens met lawyer Tom Fitch, editor of the competing newspaper ''Virginia Daily Union'' and known as the "silver-tongued orator of the Pacific." He credited Fitch with giving him his "first really profitable lesson" in writing. In 1866, Clemens presented his lecture on the Sandwich Islands to a crowd in Washoe City, Nevada. Clemens commented that, "When I first began to lecture, and in my earlier writings, my sole idea was to make comic capital out of everything I saw and heard." Fitch told him, "Clemens, your lecture was magnificent. It was eloquent, moving, sincere. Never in my entire life have I listened to such a magnificent piece of descriptive narration. But you committed one unpardonable sin—the unpardonable sin. It is a sin you must never commit again. You closed a most eloquent description, by which you had keyed your audience up to a pitch of the intensest interest, with a piece of atrocious anti-climax which nullified all the really fine effect you had produced."

Twain's first important work, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County," was first published in the ''New York Saturday Press'' on November 18, 1865. The only reason it was published there was that his story arrived too late to be included in a book Artemus Ward was compiling featuring sketches of the wild American West.

After this burst of popularity, the ''Sacramento Union'' commissioned Twain to write letters about his travel experiences. The first journey he took for this job was to ride the steamer ''Ajax'' in its maiden voyage to Hawaii, referred to at the time as the Sandwich Islands. These humorous letters proved the genesis to his work with the San Francisco ''Alta California'' newspaper, which designated him a traveling correspondent for a trip from San Francisco to New York City via the Panama isthmus. All the while, Twain was writing letters meant for publishing back and forth, chronicling his experiences with his burlesque humor. On June 8, 1867, Twain set sail on the pleasure cruiser ''Quaker City'' for five months. This trip resulted in ''The Innocents Abroad or The New Pilgrims' Progress.''

In 1872, Twain published a second piece of travel literature, ''Roughing It'', as a semi-sequel to ''Innocents''. ''Roughing It'' is a semi-autobiographical account of Twain's journey to Nevada and his subsequent life in the American West. The book lampoons American and Western society in the same way that ''Innocents'' critiqued the various countries of Europe and the Middle East. Twain's next work kept ''Roughing It'''s focus on American society but focused more on the events of the day. Entitled ''The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today'', it was not a travel piece, as his previous two books had been, and it was his first attempt at writing a novel. The book is also notable because it is Twain's only collaboration; it was written with his neighbor Charles Dudley Warner.

Twain's next two works drew on his experiences on the Mississippi River. ''Old Times on the Mississippi'', a series of sketches published in the ''Atlantic Monthly'' in 1875, featured Twain’s disillusionment with Romanticism. ''Old Times'' eventually became the starting point for ''Life on the Mississippi.''

''Tom Sawyer'' and ''Huckleberry Finn''

Twain's next major publication was ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'', which drew on his youth in Hannibal. Tom Sawyer was modeled on Twain as a child, with traces of two schoolmates, John Briggs and Will Bowen. The book also introduced in a supporting role Huckleberry Finn, based on Twain's boyhood friend Tom Blankenship.

''The Prince and the Pauper'', despite a storyline that is omnipresent in film and literature today, was not as well received. Telling the story of two boys born on the same day who are physically identical, the book acts as a social commentary as the prince and pauper switch places. ''Pauper'' was Twain's first attempt at historical fiction, and blame for its shortcomings is usually put on Twain for having not been experienced enough in English society, and also on the fact that it was produced after a massive hit. In between the writing of ''Pauper,'' Twain had started ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (which he consistently had problems completing) and started and completed another travel book, ''A Tramp Abroad'', which follows Twain as he traveled through central and southern Europe.

Twain's next major published work, ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', solidified him as a noteworthy American writer. Some have called it the first Great American Novel, and the book has become required reading in many schools throughout the United States. ''Huckleberry Finn'' was an offshoot from ''Tom Sawyer'' and had a more serious tone than its predecessor. The main premise behind ''Huckleberry Finn'' is the young boy's belief in the right thing to do though most believed that it was wrong. Four hundred manuscript pages of ''Huckleberry Finn'' were written in mid-1876, right after the publication of ''Tom Sawyer.'' Some accounts have Twain taking seven years off after his first burst of creativity, eventually finishing the book in 1883. Other accounts have Twain working on ''Huckleberry Finn'' in tandem with ''The Prince and the Pauper'' and other works in 1880 and other years. The last fifth of ''Huckleberry Finn'' is subject to much controversy. Some say that Twain experienced, as critic Leo Marx puts it, a "failure of nerve." Ernest Hemingway once said of ''Huckleberry Finn'':

If you read it, you must stop where the Nigger Jim is stolen from the boys. That is the real end. The rest is just cheating.

Hemingway also wrote in the same essay:

All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

Near the completion of ''Huckleberry Finn,'' Twain wrote ''Life on the Mississippi,'' which is said to have heavily influenced the former book. The work recounts Twain's memories and new experiences after a 22-year absence from the Mississippi. In it, he also states that "Mark Twain" was the call made when the boat was in safe water – two fathoms ().

Later writing

After his great work, Twain began turning to his business endeavors to keep them afloat and to stave off the increasing difficulties he had been having from his writing projects. Twain focused on President Ulysses S. Grant's ''Memoirs'' for his fledgling publishing company, finding time in between to write "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed" for ''The Century Magazine''. This piece detailed his two-week stint in a Confederate militia during the Civil War. The name of his publishing company was ''Charles L. Webster & Company,'' which he owned with Charles L. Webster, his nephew by marriage.

Twain next focused on ''A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court'', which featured him making his first big pronouncement of disappointment with politics. Written with the same "historical fiction" style of ''The Prince and the Pauper'', ''A Connecticut Yankee'' showed the absurdities of political and social norms by setting them in the court of King Arthur. The book was started in December 1885, then shelved a few months later until the summer of 1887, and eventually finished in the spring of 1889.

Twain had begun to furiously write articles and commentary with diminishing returns to pay the bills and keep his business projects afloat, but it was not enough. He filed for bankruptcy in 1894.

His next large-scale work, ''Pudd'nhead Wilson'', was written rapidly, as Twain was desperately trying to stave off the bankruptcy. From November 12 to December 14, 1893, Twain wrote 60,000 words for the novel. Critics have pointed to this rushed completion as the cause of the novel's rough organization and constant disruption of continuous plot. There were parallels between this work and Twain's financial failings, notably his desire to escape his current constraints and become a different person.

Like ''The Prince and the Pauper'', this novel also contains the tale of two boys born on the same day who switch positions in life. Considering the circumstances of Twain's birth and Halley's Comet, and his strong belief in the paranormal, it is not surprising that these "mystic" connections recur throughout his writing.

The actual title is not clearly established. It was first published serially in ''Century Magazine'', and when it was finally published in book form, ''Pudd'nhead Wilson'' appeared as the main title; however, the disputed "subtitles" make the entire title read: ''The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson and the Comedy of The Extraordinary Twins''.

Twain's next venture was a work of straight fiction that he called ''Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc'' and dedicated to his wife. Twain had long said that this was the work he was most proud of, despite the criticism he received for it. The book had been a dream of his since childhood. He claimed he had found a manuscript detailing the life of Joan of Arc when he was an adolescent. This was another piece Twain was convinced would save his publishing company. His financial adviser, Henry Huttleston Rogers, quashed that idea and got Twain out of that business altogether, but the book was published nonetheless.

During this time of dire financial straits, Twain published several literary reviews in newspapers to help make ends meet. He famously derided James Fenimore Cooper in his article detailing Cooper's "Literary Offenses." He became an extremely outspoken critic not only of other authors, but also of other critics, suggesting that before praising Cooper's work, Professors Loundsbury, Brander Matthes, and Wilkie Collins "ought to have read some of it."

Other authors to fall under Twain's attack during this time period (beginning around 1890 until his death) were George Eliot, Jane Austen, and Robert Louis Stevenson. In addition to providing a source for the "tooth and claw" style of literary criticism, Twain outlines in several letters and essays what he considers to be "quality writing." He places emphasis on concision, utility of word choice, and realism (he complains that Cooper's ''Deerslayer'' purports to be realistic but has several shortcomings). Ironically, several of his works were later criticized for lack of continuity (''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'') and organization (''Pudd'nhead Wilson'').

Twain's wife died in 1904 while the couple were staying at the Villa di Quarto in Florence, and after an appropriate time Twain allowed himself to publish some works that his wife, a ''de facto'' editor and censor throughout his life, had looked down upon. Of these works, ''The Mysterious Stranger'', depicting various visits of Satan to the Earth, is perhaps the best known. This particular work was not published in Twain's lifetime. There were three versions found in his manuscripts made between 1897 and 1905: the Hannibal, Eseldorf, and Print Shop versions. Confusion between the versions led to an extensive publication of a jumbled version, and only recently have the original versions as Twain wrote them become available.

Twain's last work was his autobiography, which he dictated and thought would be most entertaining if he went off on whims and tangents in non-chronological order. Some archivists and compilers have rearranged the biography into more conventional forms, thereby eliminating some of Twain's humor and the flow of the book. The first volume of autobiography, over 736 pages, was published by the University of California in November 2010, 100 years after his death as Twain wished. It soon became an unexpected best selling book, making Twain one of very few authors publishing new best-selling volumes in all 3 of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries.

Friendship with Henry H. Rogers

While Twain credited Henry H. Rogers, a Standard Oil executive, with saving him from financial ruin, their close friendship in their later years was mutually beneficial. When Twain lost three of his four children and his beloved wife, the Rogers family increasingly became a surrogate family for him. He became a frequent guest at their townhouse in New York City, their 48-room summer home in Fairhaven, Massachusetts, and aboard their steam yacht, the ''Kanawha''.

The two men introduced each other to their acquaintances. Twain was an admirer of the remarkable deafblind girl Helen Keller. He first met Keller and her teacher Anne Sullivan at a party in the home of Laurence Hutton in New York City in the winter of 1894. Twain introduced them to Rogers, who, with his wife, paid for Keller's education at Radcliffe College. Twain is credited with labeling Sullivan, Keller's governess and companion, a "miracle worker." His choice of words later became inspiration for the title of William Gibson's play and film adaptation, ''The Miracle Worker''. Twain also introduced Rogers to journalist Ida M. Tarbell, who interviewed him for a muckraking expose that led indirectly to the breakup of the Standard Oil Trust. On cruises aboard the ''Kanawha'', Twain and Rogers were joined at frequent intervals by Booker T. Washington, the famed former slave who had become a leading educator.

While the two famous old men were widely regarded as drinking and poker buddies, they also exchanged letters when apart, and this was often since each traveled a great deal. Unlike Rogers' personal files, which have never become public, these insightful letters were published. The written exchanges between the two men demonstrate Twain's well-known sense of humor and, more surprisingly, Rogers' sense of fun, providing a rare insight into the private side of the robber baron.

In April 1907, Twain and Rogers cruised to the opening of the Jamestown Exposition in Virginia. Twain's public popularity was such that many fans took boats out to the ''Kanawha'' at anchor in hopes of getting a glimpse of him. As the gathering of boats around the yacht became a safety hazard, he finally obliged by coming on deck and waving to the crowds.

Because of poor weather conditions, the steam yacht was delayed for several days from venturing into the Atlantic Ocean. Rogers and some of the others in his party returned to New York by rail; Twain disliked train travel and so elected to wait and return on the ''Kanawha''. However, reporters lost track of his whereabouts; when he failed to return to New York City as scheduled, ''The New York Times'' speculated that he might have been "lost at sea." Upon arriving safely in New York and learning of this, the humorist wrote a satirical article about the episode, offering to "...make an exhaustive investigation of this report that I have been lost at sea. If there is any foundation for the report, I will at once apprise the anxious public." This bore similarities to an earlier event in 1897 when he made his famous remark "The report of my death was an exaggeration," after a reporter was sent to investigate whether he had died. In fact, it was his cousin who was seriously ill.

Later that year, Twain and Rogers's son, Henry Jr., returned to the Jamestown Exposition aboard the ''Kanawha''. The humorist helped host Robert Fulton Day on September 23, 1907, celebrating the centennial of Fulton's invention of the steamboat. Twain, filling in for ailing former U.S. President Grover Cleveland, introduced Rear Admiral Purnell Harrington. Twain was met with a five-minute standing ovation; members of the audience cheered and waved their hats and umbrellas. Deeply touched, Twain said, "When you appeal to my head, I don't feel it; but when you appeal to my heart, I do feel it."

In April 1909, the two old friends returned to Norfolk, Virginia for the banquet in honor of Rogers and his newly completed Virginian Railway. Twain was the keynote speaker in one of his last public appearances, and was widely quoted in newspapers across the country.

A month later, Twain was ''en route'' from Connecticut to visit his friend in New York City when Rogers died suddenly on May 20, 1909. Twain arrived at Grand Central Station to be met by his daughter with the news. Stricken with grief, he uncustomarily avoided news reporters who had gathered, saying only "This is terrible...I cannot talk about it." Two days later, he served as an honorary pallbearer at the funeral in New York City. However, he declined to join the funeral party on the train ride for the interment at Fairhaven. He said "I cannot bear to travel with my friend and not converse."

Views

Twain's views became more radical as he grew older. He acknowledged that his views changed and developed over his life, referring to one of his favorite works:

Anti-imperialist

In the ''New York Herald'', October 15, 1900, he describes his transformation and political awakening, in the context of the Philippine-American War, from being "a red-hot imperialist":

Before 1899 Twain was an ardent imperialist. In the late 1860s and early 1870s he spoke out strongly in favor of American interests in the Hawaiian Islands. In the mid-1890s he explained later, he was "a red-hot imperialist. I wanted the American eagle to go screaming over the Pacific." He said the war with Spain in 1898 was "the worthiest" war ever fought. In 1899 he reversed course, and from 1901, soon after his return from Europe, until his death in 1910, Twain was vice-president of the American Anti-Imperialist League, which opposed the annexation of the Philippines by the United States and had "tens of thousands of members." He wrote many political pamphlets for the organization. The ''Incident in the Philippines'', posthumously published in 1924, was in response to the Moro Crater Massacre, in which six hundred Moros were killed. Many of his neglected and previously uncollected writings on anti-imperialism appeared for the first time in book form in 1992.

Twain was critical of imperialism in other countries as well. In ''Following the Equator'', Twain expresses "hatred and condemnation of imperialism of all stripes." He was highly critical of European imperialism, notably of Cecil Rhodes, who greatly expanded the British Empire, and of Leopold II, King of the Belgians. ''King Leopold's Soliloquy'' is a stinging political satire about his private colony, the Congo Free State. Reports of outrageous exploitation and grotesque abuses led to widespread international protest in the early 1900s, arguably the first large-scale human rights movement. In the soliloquy, the King argues that bringing Christianity to the country outweighs a little starvation. Leopold's rubber gatherers were tortured, maimed and slaughtered until the turn of the century, when the conscience of the Western world forced Brussels to call a halt.

During the Philippine-American War, Twain wrote a short pacifist story entitled ''The War Prayer'', which makes the point that humanism and Christianity's preaching of love are incompatible with the conduct of war. It was submitted to ''Harper's Bazaar'' for publication, but on March 22, 1905 the magazine rejected the story as "not quite suited to a woman's magazine." Eight days later, Twain wrote to his friend Daniel Carter Beard, to whom he had read the story, "I don't think the prayer will be published in my time. None but the dead are permitted to tell the truth." Because he had an exclusive contract with Harper & Brothers, Twain could not publish ''The War Prayer'' elsewhere; it remained unpublished until 1923. It was republished as campaigning material by Vietnam War protesters.

Twain acknowledged he originally sympathized with the more moderate Girondins of the French Revolution and then shifted his sympathies to the more radical Sansculottes, indeed identifying as "a Marat." Twain supported the revolutionaries in Russia against the reformists, arguing that the Tsar must be got rid of, by violent means, because peaceful ones would not work. He summed up his views of revolutions in the following statement:

Civil rights

Twain was an adamant supporter of abolition and emancipation, even going so far to say “Lincoln's Proclamation ... not only set the black slaves free, but set the white man free also.” He argued that non-whites did not receive justice in the United States, once saying “I have seen Chinamen abused and maltreated in all the mean, cowardly ways possible to the invention of a degraded nature....but I never saw a Chinaman righted in a court of justice for wrongs thus done to him.” He paid for at least one black person to attend Yale University Law School and for another black person to attend a southern university to become a minister.

Mark Twain was a staunch supporter of women's rights and an active campaigner for women's suffrage. His "Votes for Women" speech, in which he pressed for the granting of voting rights to women, is considered one of the most famous in history.

Helen Keller benefited from Twain's support, as she pursued her college education and publishing, despite her disabilities and financial limitations.

Twain's views on race were not reflected in his early sketches of Native Americans. Of them, Twain wrote in 1870:

As counterpoint, Twain's essay on "The Literary Offenses of Fenimore Cooper" offers a much kinder view of Indians. "No, other Indians would have noticed these things, but Cooper's Indians never notice anything. Cooper thinks they are marvelous creatures for noticing, but he was almost always in error about his Indians. There was seldom a sane one among them." In his later travelogue ''Following the Equator'' (1897), Twain observes that in colonized lands all over the world, "savages" have always been wronged by "whites" in the most merciless ways, such as "robbery, humiliation, and slow, slow murder, through poverty and the white man's whiskey"; his conclusion is that "there are many humorous things in this world; among them the white man's notion that he is less savage than the other savages."

Labor

Twain wrote glowingly about unions in the riverboating industry in ''Life on the Mississippi'', which was read in union halls decades later. He supported the labor movement, especially one of the most important unions, the Knights of Labor. In a speech to them, he said:

Vivisection

Twain was opposed to the vivisection practices of his day. His objection was not on a scientific basis but rather an ethical one. He specifically cited the pain caused to the animal as his basis of his opposition.

I am not interested to know whether vivisection produces results that are profitable to the human race or doesn't. ... The pain which it inflicts upon unconsenting animals is the basis of my enmity toward it, and it is to me sufficient justification of the enmity without looking further.

Religion

Although Twain was a Presbyterian, he was sometimes critical of organized religion and certain elements of Christianity through his later life. He wrote, for example, "Faith is believing what you know ain't so," and "If Christ were here now there is one thing he would not be – a Christian." Nonetheless, as a mature adult he engaged in religious discussions and attended services, his theology developing as he wrestled with the deaths of loved ones and his own mortality. His own experiences and suffering of his family made him particularly critical of "faith healing," such as espoused by Mary Baker Eddy and Christian Science. His more inflammatory work on religion require a nuanced understanding of his theological arguments and criticism.

Twain generally avoided publishing his most heretical opinions on religion in his lifetime, and they are known from essays and stories that were published later. In the essay ''Three Statements of the Eighties'' in the 1880s, Twain stated that he believed in an almighty God, but not in any messages, revelations, holy scriptures such as the Bible, Providence, or retribution in the afterlife. He did state that "the goodness, the justice, and the mercy of God are manifested in His works," but also that "the universe is governed by strict and immutable laws," which determine "small matters," such as who dies in a pestilence. At other times he wrote or spoke in ways that contradicted a strict deist view, for example, plainly professing a belief in Providence. In some later writings in the 1890s, he was less optimistic about the goodness of God, observing that "if our Maker ''is'' all-powerful for good or evil, He is not in His right mind." At other times, he conjectured sardonically that perhaps God had created the world with all its tortures for some purpose of His own, but was otherwise indifferent to humanity, which was too petty and insignificant to deserve His attention anyway.

In 1901 Twain criticized the actions of missionary Dr. William Scott Ament (1851–1909) because Ament and other missionaries had collected indemnities from Chinese subjects in the aftermath of the Boxer Uprising of 1900. Twain's response to hearing of Ament's methods was published in the ''North American Review'' in February 1901: ''To the Person Sitting in Darkness'', and deals with examples of imperialism in China, South Africa, and with the U.S. occupation of the Philippines. A subsequent article, "To My Missionary Critics" published in ''The North American Review'' in April 1901, unapologetically continues his attack, but with the focus shifted from Ament to his missionary superiors, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.

After his death, Twain's family suppressed some of his work that was especially irreverent toward conventional religion, notably ''Letters from the Earth'', which was not published until his daughter Clara reversed her position in 1962 in response to Soviet propaganda about the withholding. The anti-religious ''The Mysterious Stranger'' was published in 1916. ''Little Bessie'', a story ridiculing Christianity, was first published in the 1972 collection ''Mark Twain's Fables of Man''.

Despite these views, he raised money to build a Presbyterian Church in Nevada in 1864, although it has been argued that it was only by his association with his Presbyterian brother that he did that.

Twain created a reverent portrayal of Joan of Arc, a subject over which he had obsessed for forty years, studied for a dozen years and spent two years writing. In 1900 and again in 1908, he stated, "I like ''Joan of Arc'' best of all my books, it is the best."

Those who knew Twain well late in life recount that he dwelt on the subject of the afterlife, his daughter Clara saying: "Sometimes he believed death ended everything, but most of the time he felt sure of a life beyond."

Mark Twain's frankest views on religion appeared in his final Autobiography, which was published 100 years after his death, in November 2010. In it, he said,

Twain was a Freemason. He belonged to Polar Star Lodge No. 79 A.F.&A.M.;, based in St. Louis. He was initiated an Entered Apprentice on May 22, 1861, passed to the degree of Fellow Craft on June 12, and raised to the degree of Master Mason on July 10.

Legacy

Twain's legacy lives on today as his namesakes continue to multiply. Several schools are named after him, including Mark Twain Elementary School in Houston, Texas, which has a statue of Twain sitting on a bench, and Mark Twain Intermediate School in New York. There are several schools named Mark Twain Middle School in different states, as well as Samuel Clemens High School in Schertz, near San Antonio, Texas. There are also other structures, such as the Mark Twain Memorial Bridge.

Mark Twain Village is a United States Army installation located in the Südstadt district of Heidelberg, Germany. It is one of two American bases in the United States Army Garrison Heidelberg that house American soldiers and their families (the other being Patrick Henry Village).

Awards in his name proliferate. In 1998, The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts created the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor, awarded annually. The Mark Twain Award is an award given annually to a book for children in grades four through eight by the Missouri Association of School Librarians. Stetson University in DeLand, Florida sponsors the Mark Twain Young Authors' Workshop each summer in collaboration with the Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum in Hannibal. The program is open to young authors in grades five through eight. The museum sponsors the Mark Twain Creative Teaching Award.

Buildings associated with Twain, including some of his many homes, have been preserved as museums. His birthplace is preserved in Florida, Missouri. The Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum in Hannibal, Missouri preserves the setting for some of the author's best known work. The home of childhood friend Laura Hawkins, said to be the inspiration for his fictional character Becky Thatcher, is preserved as the "Thatcher House." In May 2007, a painstaking reconstruction of the home of Tom Blankenship, the inspiration for Huckleberry Finn, was opened to the public. The family home he had built in Hartford, Connecticut, where he and his wife raised their three daughters, is preserved and open to visitors as the Mark Twain House.

Actor Hal Holbrook created a one-man show called ''Mark Twain Tonight'', which he has performed regularly for about years. The broadcast by CBS in 1967 won him an Emmy Award. Of the three runs on Broadway (1966, 1977, and 2005), the first won him a Tony Award.

Additionally, like many influential individuals, Twain was honored by having an asteroid, 2362 Mark Twain, named after him.

Often, Twain is depicted in pop culture as wearing a white suit. While there is evidence that suggests that, after Livy's death in 1904, Twain began wearing white suits on the lecture circuit, modern representations suggesting that he wore them throughout his life are unfounded. However, there is evidence of him wearing a white suit before 1904. In 1882, he sent a photograph of himself in a white suit to 18-year-old Edward W. Bok, later publisher of the "Ladies Home Journal," with a handwritten dated note on verso. It did eventually become his trademark, as illustrated in anecdotes about this eccentricity (such as the time he wore a white summer suit to a Congressional hearing during the winter). McMasters' "Mark Twain Encyclopedia" states that Twain did not wear a white suit in his last three years, except at one banquet speech. In 2011, the US Postal Service plans to release another stamp in his honor.

Pen names

Twain used different pen names before deciding on ''Mark Twain''. He signed humorous and imaginative sketches ''Josh'' until 1863. Additionally, he used the pen name ''Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass'' for a series of humorous letters.

He maintained that his primary pen name came from his years working on Mississippi riverboats, where two fathoms, a depth indicating safe water for passage of boat, was measured on the sounding line. A fathom is a maritime unit of depth, equivalent to two yards (1.8 m); ''twain'' is an archaic term for "two." The riverboatman's cry was ''mark twain'' or, more fully, ''by the mark twain'', meaning "according to the mark [on the line], [the depth is] two [fathoms]," that is, "The water is deep and it is safe to pass."

Twain claimed that his famous pen name was not entirely his invention. In ''Life on the Mississippi'', he wrote:

Captain Isaiah Sellers was not of literary turn or capacity, but he used to jot down brief paragraphs of plain practical information about the river, and sign them "MARK TWAIN," and give them to the ''New Orleans Picayune''. They related to the stage and condition of the river, and were accurate and valuable; ... At the time that the telegraph brought the news of his death, I was on the Pacific coast. I was a fresh new journalist, and needed a nom de guerre; so I confiscated the ancient mariner's discarded one, and have done my best to make it remain what it was in his hands – a sign and symbol and warrant that whatever is found in its company may be gambled on as being the petrified truth; how I have succeeded, it would not be modest in me to say.

Twain's version of the story about his pen name has been questioned by biographer George Williams III, the ''Territorial Enterprise'' newspaper, and Purdue University's Paul Fatout. which claim that ''mark twain'' refers to a running bar tab that Twain would regularly incur while drinking at John Piper's saloon in Virginia City, Nevada.

Bibliography

See also

American realism

''Christian Science (essay)

Bernard DeVoto (historian)

List of premature obituaries

''Mark Twain's Library of Humor'' (anthology)

Regionalism (literature)

''Warsaw Signal'' (newspaper)

References

Further reading

Lucius Beebe. ''Comstock Commotion: The Story of the Territorial Enterprise and Virginia City News.'' Stanford University Press, 1954 ISBN 112218798X

Louis J. Budd, ed. ''Mark Twain, Collected Tales, Sketches, Speeches & Essays 1891–1910'' (Library of America, 1992) (ISBN 978-0-94045073-8)

Ken Burns, Dayton Duncan, and Geoffrey C. Ward, ''Mark Twain: An Illustrated Biography.'' New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001 (ISBN 0-3754-0561-5)

Gregg Camfield. ''The Oxford Companion to Mark Twain.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-1951-0710-1)

Guy Cardwell, ed. ''Mark Twain, Mississippi Writings'' (Library of America, 1982) (ISBN 978-0-94045007-3)

Guy Cardwell, ed. ''Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad & Roughing It'' (Library of America, 1984) ISBN 978-0-94045025-7

James M. Cox. ''Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor.'' Princeton University Press, 1966 (ISBN 0-8262-1428-2)

Everett Emerson. ''Mark Twain: A Literary Life.'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-8122-3516-9)

Shelley Fisher Fishkin, ed. ''A Historical Guide to Mark Twain.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-1951-3293-9)

Susan K. Harris, ed. ''Mark Twain, Historical Romances'' (Library of America, 1994) (ISBN 978-0-94045082-0)

Hamlin L. Hill, ed. ''Mark Twain, The Gilded Age and Later Novels'' (Library of America, 2002) ISBN 978-1-93108210-5

Jason Gary Horn. ''Mark Twain: A Descriptive Guide to Biographical Sources.'' Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1999 (ISBN 0-8108-3630-0)

William Dean Howells. ''My Mark Twain.'' Mineloa, New York: Dover Publications, 1997 (ISBN 0-486-29640-7)

Fred Kaplan. ''The Singular Mark Twain: A Biography.'' New York: Doubleday, 2003 (ISBN 0-3854-7715-5)

Justin Kaplan. ''Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain: A Biography.'' New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966 (ISBN 0-6717-4807-6)

J. R. LeMaster and James D. Wilson, eds. ''The Mark Twain Encyclopedia.'' New York: Garland, 1993 (ISBN 0-8240-7212-X)

Jerome Loving, ''Mark Twain: The Adventures of Samuel L. Clemens'' (University of California Press; 2010) 491 pages, ISBN 9780520252578; Draws on newly discovered archival materials in a detailed biography

Bruce Michelson. ''Mark Twain on the Loose.'' Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1995 (ISBN 0-8702-3967-8)

K. Patrick Ober. ''Mark Twain and Medicine: "Any Mummery Will Cure."'' Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-8262-1502-5)

Albert Bigelow Paine. ''Mark Twain, A Biography: The Personal and Literary Life of Samuel Langhorne Clemens.'' Harper & Bros., 1912. ISBN 1847029833

Ron Powers. ''Dangerous Water: A Biography of the Boy Who Became Mark Twain.'' New York: Da Capo Press, 1999. ISBN 0306810867

Ron Powers. ''Mark Twain: A Life.'' New York: Random House, 2005. (0-7432-4899-6)

R. Kent Rasmussen. ''Critical Companion to Mark Twain: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work.'' Facts On File, 2007. Revised edition of ''Mark Twain A to Z'' ISBN 0816062250

R. Kent Rasmussen, ed. ''The Quotable Mark Twain: His Essential Aphorisms, Witticisms and Concise Opinions.'' Contemporary Books, 1997 ISBN 0809229870

External links

;Works by Mark Twain

Mark Twain Classics - Twain's Speeches, Essays, Stories, and Quotes.

Mark Twain Project Online

38 Facsimile copies of 1st editions

. More than 60 texts are freely available.

''Mark Twain's letters'' ed. by Albert Bigelow Paine (2 vol 1917) vol 2 online

Mark Twain Library, University of California Press. This series re-prints texts from the Papers and Works for students and the general reader.

The Works of Mark Twain, University of California Press. This series prints authoritative critical editions of Mark Twain's published works.

Mark Twain Papers, University of California Press. This series publishes Mark Twain's private papers–his letters, notebooks, unpublished literary works, and autobiography.

Jumping Frogs: Undiscovered, Rediscovered, and Celebrated Writings of Mark Twain, University of California Press. The Jumping Frogs series of books brings neglected Mark Twain treasures—stories, tall tales, novels, travelogues, plays, imaginative journalism, speeches, sketches, satires, burlesques, and much more—to readers.

A True Story, Repeated Word for Word As I Heard It. From The Atlantic Monthly. Nov. 1874: 591–594. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Co., November 1874. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Co., November 1874.

;Academic studies

The Mark Twain Papers and Project of the Bancroft Library, University of California Berkeley. Home to the largest archive of Mark Twain's papers and the editors of a critical edition of all of his writings.

Buffalo Library Mark Twain Room, which houses the manuscript of ''Huckleberry Finn''

Mark Twain Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin

;Life

Full text of the biography ''Mark Twain'' by Archibald Henderson

Obituary in San Francisco Call

Mark Twain's Mississippi at Northern Illinois University Libraries

;Other

Literary Pilgrimages – Mark Twain sites

PBS Twain Interactive Scrapbook and San Francisco Chronicle article documenting that Clemens did not say "The coldest winter I ever spent was summer in San Francisco."

The Fountain Pens used by Mark Twain

Images of First Appearances of Mark Twain Works

article and rare pictures of Mark Twain and photographer Napoleon Sarony

Google map with placemarks for places in America associated with Twain

Category:1835 births Category:1910 deaths Category:American humorists Category:American memoirists Category:American novelists Category:American satirists Category:American short story writers Category:American travel writers Category:Alternate history writers Category:American autobiographers Category:Writers from Connecticut Category:Writers from Missouri Category:Writers from Nevada Category:Holy Land travellers Category:People of the Philippine–American War Category:People of the California Gold Rush Category:People from Elmira, New York Category:People from Hannibal, Missouri Category:People from St. Louis, Missouri Category:People from Monroe County, Missouri Category:Lecturers Category:Critics of Christian Science Category:Pseudonymous writers Category:American Presbyterians

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name	H. G. Wells
birth name	Herbert George Wells
birth date	September 21, 1866
birth place	Bromley, Kent, England, United Kingdom
death date	August 13, 1946
death place	London, England, United Kingdom
occupation	Novelist, teacher, historian, journalist
nationality	British
alma mater	Royal College of Science (Imperial College London)
genre	Science fiction (notably social science fiction)
influences	Thomas Henry Huxley, Plato, Jonathan Swift
influenced	Kevin J. Anderson, Isaac Asimov, Stephen Baxter, Ray Bradbury, Edgar Rice Burroughs, Arthur C. Clarke, Joseph Conrad, Robert H. Goddard, Robert A. Heinlein, Aldous Huxley, Stan Lee, C. S. Lewis, John Wyndham, H. P. Lovecraft, Alan Moore, George Orwell, Frank R. Paul, Carl Sagan, Olaf Stapledon, Stanley G. Weinbaum, Jack Williamson
notableworks	''The Time Machine'', ''The Invisible Man'', ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'', ''The War of the Worlds'', ''The First Men in the Moon'', ''The Shape of Things to Come'' }}

Herbert George Wells (21 September 1866 – 13 August 1946) was an English author, now best known for his work in the science fiction genre. He was also a prolific writer in many other genres, including contemporary novels, history, politics and social commentary, even writing text books. Together with Jules Verne and Hugo Gernsback, Wells has been referred to as "The Father of Science Fiction".

Wells was an outspoken socialist and sympathetic to pacifist views, although he supported the First World War once it was under way, and his later works became increasingly political and didactic. His middle-period novels (1900–1920) were less science-fictional; they covered lower-middle class life (''The History of Mr Polly'') and the "New Woman" and the Suffragettes (''Ann Veronica'').

Early life

Herbert George Wells was born at Atlas House, 47 High Street, Bromley, in the county of Kent, a small market town, on 21 September 1866. Called "Bertie" in the family, he was the fourth and last child of Joseph Wells (a former domestic gardener, and at the time a shopkeeper and professional cricketer) and his wife Sarah Neal (a former domestic servant). The family was of the impoverished lower middle class. An inheritance had allowed the family to acquire a shop in which they sold china and sporting goods, although it failed to prosper: the stock was old and worn out, and the location was poor. Joseph Wells managed to earn a meagre income, but little of it came from the shop; Joseph received an unsteady amount of money from playing professional cricket for the Kent county team. Payment for skilled bowlers and batsmen came from voluntary donations afterwards, or from small payments from the clubs where matches were played.

A defining incident of young Wells's life was an accident he had in 1874, which left him bedridden with a broken leg. To pass the time he started reading books from the local library, brought to him by his father. He soon became devoted to the other worlds and lives to which books gave him access; they also stimulated his desire to write. Later that year he entered Thomas Morley's Commercial Academy, a private school founded in 1849 following the bankruptcy of Morley's earlier school. The teaching was erratic, the curriculum mostly focused, Wells later said, on producing copperplate handwriting and doing the sort of sums useful to tradesmen. Wells continued at Morley's Academy until 1880. In 1877, his father, Joseph Wells, fractured his thigh. The accident effectively put an end to Joseph's career as a cricketer, and his subsequent earnings as a shopkeeper were not enough to compensate for the loss of the primary source of family income.

No longer able to support themselves financially, the family instead sought to place their sons as apprentices in various occupations. From 1880 to 1883, Wells had an unhappy apprenticeship as a draper at the Southsea Drapery Emporium, Hyde's. His experiences at Hyde's, where he worked a thirteen hour day and slept in a dormitory with other apprentices, were later used as inspiration for some of his novel material ''The Wheels of Chance'' and ''Kipps'', which delve into the life of a draper's apprentice as well as providing a critique of the world's distribution of wealth.

Herbert's parents' marriage was a turbulent relationship: due primarily to his mother being a Protestant and his father a self-confessed freethinker. When his mother returned to work as a lady's maid (at Uppark, a country house in Sussex), one of the conditions of work was that she would not be permitted to have living space for her husband and children. Thereafter, she and Joseph lived separate lives: though they never divorced and neither ever developed extramarital liaisons. As a consequence, Herbert's personal troubles increased as he subsequently failed as a draper and also, later, as a chemist's assistant. After each failure, he would arrive at Uppark"the bad shilling back again!" as he saidand stay there until a fresh start could be arranged for him. Fortunately for Herbert, Uppark had a magnificent library in which he immersed himself, reading many classic works, including Plato's ''Republic'', and More's ''Utopia''. This would be the beginning of Herbert George Wells's venture into literature.

Teacher

In October 1879 Wells's mother arranged through a distant relative, Arthur Williams, for him to join the National School at Wookey in Somerset as a pupil-teacher, a senior pupil who acted as a teacher of younger children. In December that year, however, Williams was dismissed for irregularities in his qualifications and Wells was returned to Uppark. After a short apprenticeship at a chemist in nearby Midhurst, and an even shorter stay as a boarder at Midhurst Grammar School, he signed his apprenticeship papers at Hyde's. In 1883 Wells persuaded his parents to release him from the apprenticeship, taking an opportunity offered by Midhurst Grammar School again to become a pupil-teacher; his proficiency in Latin and science during his previous, short stay had been remembered.

The years he spent in Southsea had been the most miserable of his life to that point, but his good fortune at securing a position at Midhurst Grammar School meant that Wells could continue his self-education in earnest. The following year, Wells won a scholarship to the Normal School of Science (later the Royal College of Science in South Kensington, now part of Imperial College London) in London, studying biology under Thomas Henry Huxley. As an alumnus, he later helped to set up the Royal College of Science Association, of which he became the first president in 1909. Wells studied in his new school until 1887 with a weekly allowance of twenty-one shillings (a guinea) thanks to his scholarship. This ought to have been a comfortable sum of money (at the time many working class families had "round about a pound a week" as their entire household income) yet in his ''Experiment in Autobiography'', Wells speaks of constantly being hungry, and indeed, photographs of him at the time show a youth very thin and malnourished.

He soon entered the Debating Society of the school. These years mark the beginning of his interest in a possible reformation of society. At first approaching the subject through ''The Republic'' by Plato, he soon turned to contemporary ideas of socialism as expressed by the recently formed Fabian Society and free lectures delivered at Kelmscott House, the home of William Morris. He was also among the founders of ''The Science School Journal'', a school magazine which allowed him to express his views on literature and society, as well as trying his hand at fiction: the first version of his novel ''The Time Machine'' was published in the journal under the title, ''The Chronic Argonauts''. The school year 1886–1887 was the last year of his studies. In spite of having previously successfully passed his exams in both biology and physics, his lack of interest in geology resulted in his failure to pass and the subsequent loss of his scholarship.

It was not until 1890 that Wells earned a Bachelor of Science degree in zoology from the University of London External Programme. In 1889–90 he managed to find a post as a teacher at Henley House School where he taught and admired A. A. Milne.

Upon leaving the Normal School of Science, Wells was left without a source of income. His aunt Mary—his father's sister-in-law—invited him to stay with her for a while, which solved his immediate problem of accommodation. During his stay at his aunt's residence, he grew increasingly interested in her daughter, Isabel. He would later go on to court her.

Personal life

In 1891 Wells, married his cousin Isabel Mary Wells, but left her in 1894 for one of his students, Amy Catherine Robbins (known as Jane), whom he married in 1895. Poor health took him to Sandgate, near Folkestone, where in 1901 he constructed a large family home—Spade House. He had two sons with Amy Catherine: George Philip (known as "Gip") in 1901 (d.1985) and Frank Richard in 1903.

During his marriage to Amy Robbins, Wells had affairs with a number of women, including the American birth-control activist Margaret Sanger and novelist Elizabeth von Arnim. In 1909 he had a daughter, Anna-Jane, with the writer Amber Reeves, whose parents, William and Maud Pember Reeves, he had met through the Fabian Society; and in 1914, a son, Anthony West (1914–1987), by the novelist and feminist Rebecca West, twenty-six years his junior. Despite Amy Catherine's knowledge of some of these affairs, she remained married to Wells until her death in 1927. Wells also had affairs with Odette Keun and Moura Budberg.

"I was never a great amorist", Wells wrote in ''Experiment in Autobiography'' (1934), "though I have loved several people very deeply".

Artist

As one method of self-expression, Wells tended to sketch a lot. One common location for these sketches was the endpapers and title pages of his own diaries, and they covered a wide variety of topics, from political commentary to his feelings toward his literary contemporaries and his current romantic interests. During his marriage to Amy Catherine, whom he nicknamed Jane, he sketched a considerable number of pictures, many of them being overt comments on their marriage. It was during this period, and this period only, that he called his sketches "picshuas". These picshuas have been the topic of study by Wells scholars for many years, and recently a book was published on the subject.

Writer

Wells's first non-fiction bestseller was ''Anticipations of the Reaction of Mechanical and Scientific Progress Upon Human Life and Thought'' (1901). When originally serialised in a magazine it was subtitled, "An Experiment in Prophecy", and is considered his most explicitly futuristic work. Anticipating what the world would be like in the year 2000, the book is interesting both for its hits (trains and cars resulting in the dispersion of population from cities to suburbs; moral restrictions declining as men and women seek greater sexual freedom; the defeat of German militarism, and the existence of a European Union) and its misses (he did not expect successful aircraft before 1950, and averred that "my imagination refuses to see any sort of submarine doing anything but suffocate its crew and founder at sea").

His early novels, called "scientific romances", invented a number of themes now classic in science fiction in such works as ''The Time Machine'', ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'', ''The Invisible Man'', ''The War of the Worlds'', ''When the Sleeper Wakes'', and ''The First Men in the Moon''. He also wrote other, non-fantastic novels that have received critical acclaim including ''Kipps'' and the satire on Edwardian advertising, ''Tono-Bungay''.

Wells wrote several dozen short stories and novellas, the best known of which is "The Country of the Blind" (1904). His short story "The New Accelerator" was the inspiration for the ''Star Trek'' episode ''Wink of an Eye''.

Though ''Tono-Bungay'' was not a science-fiction novel, radioactive decay plays a small but consequential role in it. Radioactive decay plays a much larger role in ''The World Set Free'' (1914). This book contains what is surely his biggest prophetic "hit". Scientists of the day were well aware that the natural decay of radium releases energy at a slow rate over thousands of years. The ''rate'' of release is too slow to have practical utility, but the ''total amount'' released is huge. Wells's novel revolves around an (unspecified) invention that accelerates the process of radioactive decay, producing bombs that explode with no more than the force of ordinary high explosive—but which "continue to explode" for days on end. "Nothing could have been more obvious to the people of the earlier twentieth century", he wrote, "than the rapidity with which war was becoming impossible... [but] they did not see it until the atomic bombs burst in their fumbling hands". Leó Szilárd acknowledged that the book inspired him to theorise the nuclear chain reaction.

Wells also wrote nonfiction. His bestselling three-volume work, ''The Outline of History'' (1920), began a new era of popularised world history. It received a mixed critical response from professional historians. Many other authors followed with "Outlines" of their own in other subjects. Wells reprised his ''Outline'' in 1922 with a much shorter popular work, ''A Short History of the World'', and two long efforts, ''The Science of Life'' (1930) and ''The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind'' (1931). The "Outlines" became sufficiently common for James Thurber to parody the trend in his humorous essay, "An Outline of Scientists"—indeed, Wells's ''Outline of History'' remains in print with a new 2005 edition, while ''A Short History of the World'' has been recently reedited (2006).

From quite early in his career, he sought a better way to organise society, and wrote a number of Utopian novels. The first of these was ''A Modern Utopia'' (1905), which shows a worldwide utopia with "no imports but meteorites, and no exports at all"; two travellers from our world fall into its alternate history. The others usually begin with the world rushing to catastrophe, until people realise a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a comet causing people to behave rationally and abandoning a European war (''In the Days of the Comet'' (1906)), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in ''The Shape of Things to Come'' (1933, which he later adapted for the 1936 Alexander Korda film, ''Things to Come''). This depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombs. He also portrayed the rise of fascist dictators in ''The Autocracy of Mr Parham'' (1930) and ''The Holy Terror'' (1939), though in the former novel, the tale is revealed at the end to have been Mr Parham's dream vision.

Wells contemplates the ideas of nature versus nurture and questions humanity in books such as ''The Island of Doctor Moreau''. Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, and in fact, Wells also wrote the first dystopia novel, ''When the Sleeper Wakes'' (1899, rewritten as ''The Sleeper Awakes'', 1910), which pictures a future society where the classes have become more and more separated, leading to a revolt of the masses against the rulers. ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'' is even darker. The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the Houyhnhnms, he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting to their animal natures.

Wells also wrote the preface for the first edition of W. N. P. Barbellion's diaries, ''The Journal of a Disappointed Man'', published in 1919. Since "Barbellion" was the real author's pen name, many reviewers believed Wells to have been the true author of the ''Journal''; Wells always denied this, despite being full of praise for the diaries, but the rumours persisted until Barbellion's death later that year.

In 1927, Florence Deeks sued Wells for plagiarism, claiming that he had stolen much of the content of ''The Outline of History'' from a work, ''The Web'', she had submitted to the Canadian Macmillan Company, but who held onto the manuscript for eight months before rejecting it. Despite numerous similarities in phrasing and factual errors, the court found the evidence inadequate and dismissed the case. A Privy Council report added that, as Deek's work had not been printed, there were no legal grounds at all for the action.

In 1933 Wells predicted in ''The Shape of Things to Come'' that the world war he feared would begin January 1940, a prediction which ultimately came true just four months early, when the Second World War broke out in September 1939.

In 1936, before the Royal Institution, Wells called for the compilation of a constantly growing and changing World Encyclopedia, to be reviewed by outstanding authorities and made accessible to every human being. In 1938, he published a collection of essays on the future organisation of knowledge and education, ''World Brain'', including the essay, "The Idea of a Permanent World Encyclopaedia".

Near the end of the Second World War, Allied forces discovered that the SS had compiled lists of people slated for immediate arrest during the invasion of Britain in the abandoned Operation Sea Lion, and Wells was included in the alphabetical list on the same page of "The Black Book" as Rebecca West. Wells, as president of the International PEN (Poets, Essayists, Novelists), had already angered the Nazis by overseeing the expulsion of the German PEN club from the international body in 1934 following the German PEN's refusal to admit non-Aryan writers to its membership.

Seeking a more structured way to play war games, Wells also wrote ''Floor Games'' (1911) followed by ''Little Wars'' (1913). ''Little Wars'' is recognised today as the first recreational wargame and Wells is regarded by gamers and hobbyists as "the Father of Miniature War Gaming".

Politics

Wells called his political views socialist. He was for a time a member of the socialist Fabian Society, but broke with them as his creative political imagination, matching the originality shown in his fiction, outran theirs. He later grew staunchly critical of them as having a poor understanding of economics and educational reform. He ran as a Labour Party candidate for London University in the 1922 and 1923 general elections after the death of his friend W. H. R. Rivers, but at that point his faith in the party was weak or uncertain.

Social class was a theme in Wells's ''The Time Machine'' in which the Time Traveller speaks of the future world, with its two races, as having evolved from

the gradual widening of the present (19th century) merely temporary and social difference between the Capitalist and the Labourer ... Even now, does not an East-end worker live in such artificial conditions as practically to be cut off from the natural surface of the earth? Again, the exclusive tendency of richer people ... is already leading to the closing, in their interest, of considerable portions of the surface of the land. About London, for instance, perhaps half the prettier country is shut in against intrusion.

Nevertheless, Wells has this very same Time Traveller speak in terms antithetical to much of socialist thought, referring approvingly and as "perfect" and with no social problem unsolved, to an imagined world of stark class division between the rich assured of their wealth and comfort, and the rest of humanity assigned to lifelong toil:

Once, life and property must have reached almost absolute safety. The rich had been assured of his wealth and comfort, the toiler assured of his life and work. No doubt in that perfect world there had been no unemployed problem, no social question left unsolved.

His most consistent political ideal was the World State. He stated in his autobiography that from 1900 onward he considered a World State inevitable. He envisioned the state to be a planned society that would advance science, end nationalism, and allow people to progress by merit rather than birth.

He supported Britain in the First World War, despite his many criticisms of British policy, and opposed, in 1916, moves for an early peace. In an essay published that year he acknowledged that he could not understand those British pacifists who were reconciled to "handing over great blocks of the black and coloured races to the [German Empire] to exploit and experiment upon" and that the extent of his own pacifism depended in the first instance upon an armed peace, with "England keep[ing] to England and Germany to Germany". State boundaries would be established according to natural ethnic affinities, rather than by planners in distant imperial capitals, and overseen by his envisaged world alliance of states. In his book ''In the Fourth Year'' published in 1918 he suggested how each nation of the world would elect, "upon democratic lines" by proportional representation, an electoral college in the manner of the United States of America, in turn to select its delegate to the proposed League of Nations. This international body he contrasted with imperialism, not only the imperialism of Germany, against which the war was being fought, but also the imperialism, which he considered more benign, of Britain and France.

His values and political thinking came under increasing criticism from the 1920s and afterwards.

The leadership of Joseph Stalin led to a change in his view of the Soviet Union even though his initial impression of Stalin himself was mixed. He disliked what he saw as a narrow orthodoxy and obdurance to the facts in Stalin. However, he did give him some praise saying in an article in the left-leaning ''New Statesman'' magazine, "I have never met a man more fair, candid, and honest" and making it clear that he felt the "sinister" image of Stalin was unfair or simply false. Nevertheless he judged Stalin's rule to be far too rigid, restrictive of independent thought, and blinkered to lead toward the Cosmopolis he hoped for. In the course of his visit to the Soviet Union in 1934, he debated the merits of reformist socialism over Marxism-Leninism with Stalin. Stalin described H G Wells, along with George Bernard Shaw, as one of the "useful idiots"; influential propagandists who preached the virtues of the Soviet Union abroad, despite widespread political repression within the USSR, and mass starvation consequent to Soviet collectivisation. Wells believed in the theory of eugenics. In 1904 he discussed a survey paper by Francis Galton, co-founder of eugenics, saying "I believe ... It is in the sterilisation of failure, and not in the selection of successes for breeding, that the possibility of an improvement of the human stock lies". Some contemporary supporters even suggested connections between the "degenerate" man-creatures portrayed in ''The Time Machine'' and Wells's eugenic beliefs. For example, the economist Irving Fisher said in a 1912 address to the Eugenics Research Association: "The Nordic race will ... vanish or lose its dominance if, in fact, the whole human race does not sink so low as to become the prey, as H. G. Wells images, of some less degenerate animal!"

Wells had given some moderate, unenthusiastic support for Territorialism before the First World War, but later became a bitter opponent of the Zionist movement in general. He saw Zionism as an exclusive and separatist movement which challenged the collective solidarity he advocated in his vision of a world state. No supporter of Jewish identity in general, Wells had in his utopian writings predicted the ultimate assimilation of Jewry.

Wells brought his interest in Art & Design and politics together when he and other notables signed a memorandum to the Permanent Secretaries of the Board of Trade, among others. The November 1914 memorandum expressed the signatories concerns about British industrial design in the face of foreign competition. The suggestions were accepted, leading to the foundation of the Design and Industries Association.

In the end his contemporary political impact was limited. His efforts regarding the League of Nations became a disappointment as the organisation turned out to be a weak one unable to prevent World War II. The war itself increased the pessimistic side of his nature. In his last book ''Mind at the End of its Tether'' (1945) he considered the idea that humanity being replaced by another species might not be a bad idea. He also came to call the era "The Age of Frustration".

Religion

Wells wrote in his book ''God the Invisible King'' that his idea of God did not draw upon the traditional religions of the world: "This book sets out as forcibly and exactly as possible the religious belief of the writer. [Which] is a profound belief in a personal and intimate God". Later in the work he aligns himself with a "renascent or modern religion ... neither atheist nor Buddhist nor Mohammedan nor Christian ... [that] he has found growing up in himself".

Of Christianity he has this to say: "... it is not now true for me ... Every believing Christian is, I am sure, my spiritual brother ... but if systemically I called myself a Christian I feel that to most men I should imply too much and so tell a lie." Of other world religions he writes: "All these religions are true for me as Canterbury Cathedral is a true thing and as a Swiss chalet is a true thing. There they are, and they have served a purpose, they have worked. Only they are not true for me to live in them ... They do not work for me."

Final years

He spent his final years venting his frustration at various targets which included a neighbour who erected a large sign to a servicemen's club, and being hostile towards the Catholic Church. Wells's literary reputation declined as he spent his later years promoting causes that were rejected by most of his contemporaries. G. K. Chesterton quipped: "Mr. Wells is a born storyteller who has sold his birthright for a pot of message."

Wells was a diabetic, and a co-founder in 1934 of what is now Diabetes UK, the leading charity for people living with diabetes in the UK.

On 28 October 1940 Wells was interviewed by Orson Welles, who two years previous had performed an infamous radio adaptation of ''The War of the Worlds'', on KTSA radio in San Antonio, Texas. In the interview, Wells admitted his surprise at the widespread panic that resulted from the broadcast, but acknowledged his debt to Welles for increasing sales of one of his "more obscure" titles.

He died of unspecified causes on 13 August 1946 at his home at 13 Hanover Terrace, Regent's Park, London, aged 79. Some reports indicate the cause of death was diabetes or liver cancer. In his preface to the 1941 edition of ''The War in the Air'', Wells had stated that his epitaph should be: "I told you so. You ''damned'' fools." He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 16 August 1946 and his ashes were scattered at sea. A commemorative blue plaque in his honour was installed at his home in Regent's Park.

In popular fiction

H. G. Wells has been portrayed in a number of novels, films, and games, including:

The novel ''The Time Ships'', by British author Stephen Baxter, was designated by the Wells estate as an authorised sequel to ''The Time Machine'', marking the centenary of its publication, and features characters, situations and technobabble from several of Wells's stories, as well as a representation of Wells (unnamed, and referred to as 'my friend, the Author').

Christopher Priest's novel ''The Space Machine'' thematically references both ''The Time Machine'' and ''The War of the Worlds''.

The first volume of the graphic series ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'', by Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill features cavorite, the fictional substance from Well's ''The First Men in the Moon''. In addition the second volume includes Wells's character Doctor Moreau.

In the film adaptation of ''The League of Extraordinary Gentleman (film)'' the character of an Invisible thief is inspired by H.G Well's novel ''The Invisible Man''. The character namely Rodney Skinner was specially created, due to copyright issues regarding H.G. Wells's original novel. In his comic book "League" incarnation, Skinner is a thief who stole the invisibility formula from (we are led to assume) the original novel's anti-hero Griffin

In C. S. Lewis's novel ''That Hideous Strength'', the character Jules is a caricature of Wells, and much of Lewis's science fiction was written both under the influence of Wells and as an antithesis to his work (or, as he put it, an "exorcism" of the influence it had on him). The devoutly Christian Lewis was especially incensed at Wells's ''The Shape of Things to Come'' where a future world government systematically persecutes and completely obliterates Christianity (and all other religions), which the book presents as a positive and vitally necessary act. (Lewis had, however, kind words to say for Wells as an author; in a note at the beginning of ''Out of the Silent Planet'', he writes, "Certain slighting references to earlier stories of this type which will be found in the following pages have been put there for purely dramatic purposes. The author would be sorry if any reader supposed he was too stupid to have enjoyed Mr. H. G. Wells's fantasies or too ungrateful to acknowledge his debt to them.")

Wells's photo appears on a stairway wall of time traveller Alex Hartdegen's New York brownstone, in a 2002 version of ''The Time Machine'', directed by Wells's great-grandson Simon Wells. The 1960 movie version has a plate on the Time Machine telling that it had been manufactured by "H. George Wells" (a.k.a. George, the protagonist of the film).

Arthur Sammler, the main character of Saul Bellow's ''Mr. Sammler's Planet'', knew Wells, and is urged by other characters to use that fact as the basis for writing a biography of Wells, a project about which Holocaust survivor and self-made philosopher Sammler has decidedly mixed feelings.

Wells appears as the protagonist in the 1979 film ''Time After Time'', and in the novel ''The Martian War'' by Kevin J. Anderson (as "Gabriel Mesta"). Both works use the conceit that Wells's works were based upon actual adventures he had. In the film ''Time After Time'', he meets and falls in love with a woman named Amy Robbins (the name of his real-life second wife).

In an episode of ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'', titled "Tempus Fugitive", a time-travelling H. G. Wells (Terry Kiser) seeks out Superman's help to stop a criminal from the future whom Wells had accidentally unleashed on the present. The concept of Wells's time machine being stolen and used for evil closely resembles the plot of ''Time After Time''. Both H. G. Wells and the criminal Tempus (Lane Davies) returned for three later episodes.

In an adventure in the BBC's ''Doctor Who'', the two-part, 90-minute "Timelash", the time-travelling Doctor (Colin Baker) encounters an excitable young man, Herbert, in the Scottish Highlands, taking him on an adventure that is revealed to have been inspirational when it is finally realised this is the pre-published Wells.

In Ben Bova's short story "Inspiration", the narrator gets Wells to meet a young Albert Einstein and Lord Kelvin. In the end of the story he (Wells) gave a tip to a 6-year-old Adolf Hitler.

The movie ''The Librarian: Quest for the Spear'', ends with the main character, Flynn Carsen, getting a mission to retrieve H. G. Wells's Time Machine.

Newt Gingrich, former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives and staunch Republican, praised Wells in his book ''To Renew America'', writing, "Our generation is still seeking its Jules Verne or H. G. Wells to dazzle our imaginations with hope and optimism."

In the movie ''The Maltese Falcon'' Kasper Gutman recounts the history of the bird emphasising that "Those are facts, historical facts, not school book history, not Mr. Wells' history, but facts nevertheless."

In the science/historical fiction novel ''And Having Writ...'', Wells is a major character.

Wells is a major character in John Kessel's award-winning short story "Buffalo", first printed in ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'', February, 1991.

H. G. Wells makes an appearance in Chapter 10 of ''The Hollow Lands'' by Michael Moorcock. This being the second book in ''The Dancers at the End of Time'' series. The hero has gone back in time and needs help returning to the future.

Woody Allen's comedy film ''Sleeper'' (1973) is loosely based on Wells's novel, ''When the Sleeper Awakes''.

''The Infinite Worlds of H. G. Wells'' is a 4-hour dramatisation of the origin of several of Wells's stories. Originally made for TV, the series has been released on DVD.

In Libba Bray's novel ''The Sweet Far Thing'', H. G. Wells makes an appearance in chapter twenty-four.

Ronald Wright's 1998 novel ''A Scientific Romance'' imagines that a Wells contemporary built a working time machine, which the protagonist uses to travel 500 years into the future, where he explores England which has become overgrown with jungle, and the few remaining people live in stone age conditions with peculiar remnants of civilisation.

In season 2 of the sci-fi television show ''Warehouse 13'', H. G. Wells (Jaime Murray) is portrayed as a female. A 19th century agent of Warehouse 12, she also contributed the "inspiration and research" for the works attributed to her brother.

Bibliography

References

Further reading

Dickson, Lovat. ''H.G. Wells: His Turbulent Life & Times''. 1969.

Gilmour, David. ''The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling''. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0-374-18702-9); 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-374-52896-9).

Gomme, A. W., ''Mr. Wells as Historian''. Glasgow: MacLehose, Jackson, and Co., 1921.

Gosling, John. ''Waging the War of the Worlds''. Jefferson, North Carolina, McFarland, 2009 (paperback, ISBN 0786441054).

Mauthner, Martin. ''German Writers in French Exile, 1933–1940'', London: Vallentine and Mitchell, 2007, ISBN 9780853035404.

West, Anthony. ''H. G. Wells: Aspects of a Life''. London: Hutchinson, 1984.

External links

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name	Thomas Hardy
birth date	June 02, 1840
birth place	Stinsford, Dorchester, Dorset, England
death date	January 11, 1928
death place	Dorchester, Dorset, England
resting place
occupation	Novelist, Poet, and Short Story writer
movement	Naturalism
influences	Arthur Schopenhauer, Charles Darwin, Charles Dickens, John Milton, Charlotte Brontë,
influenced	Philip Larkin, D. H. Lawrence, Stephen King, John Fowles
spouse
signature	Thomas Hardy signature.svg }}

Thomas Hardy, OM (2 June 1840 – 11 January 1928) was an English novelist and poet. While his works typically belong to the Naturalism movement, several poems display elements of the previous Romantic and Enlightenment periods of literature, such as his fascination with the supernatural.

While he regarded himself primarily as a poet who composed novels mainly for financial gain, he became and continues to be widely regarded for his novels, such as ''Tess of the d'Urbervilles'' and ''Far from the Madding Crowd''. The bulk of his fictional works, initially published as serials in magazines, were set in the semi-fictional county of Wessex (based on the Dorchester region where he grew up) and explored tragic characters struggling against their passions and social circumstances.

Hardy's poetry, first published in his fifties, has come to be as well regarded as his novels and has had a significant influence over modern English poetry, especially after The Movement poets of the 1950s and 1960s cited Hardy as a major figure.

Life

Thomas Hardy was born at Higher Bockhampton, a hamlet in the parish of Stinsford to the east of Dorchester in Dorset, England. His father Thomas (d.1892) worked as a stonemason and local builder. His mother Jemima (d.1904) was well-read. She educated Thomas until he went to his first school at Bockhampton at age eight. For several years he attended Mr. Last's Academy for Young Gentlemen in Dorchester. Here he learned Latin and demonstrated academic potential. However, a family of Hardy's social position lacked the means for a university education, and his formal education ended at the age of sixteen when he became apprenticed to James Hicks, a local architect. Hardy trained as an architect in Dorchester before moving to London in 1862; there he enrolled as a student at King's College, London. He won prizes from the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Architectural Association. Hardy never felt at home in London. He was acutely conscious of class divisions and his social inferiority. However, he was interested in social reform and was familiar with the works of John Stuart Mill. He was also introduced to the works of Charles Fourier and Auguste Comte during this period by his Dorset friend, Horace Moule. Five years later, concerned about his health, he returned to Dorset and decided to dedicate himself to writing. In 1870, while on an architectural mission to restore the parish church of St Juliot in Cornwall, Hardy met and fell in love with Emma Lavinia Gifford, whom he married in 1874. Although he later became estranged from his wife, her death in 1912 had a traumatic effect on him. After her death, Hardy made a trip to Cornwall to revisit places linked with their courtship, and his ''Poems 1912–13'' reflect upon her passing. In 1914, Hardy married his secretary Florence Emily Dugdale, who was 39 years his junior. However, he remained preoccupied with his first wife's death and tried to overcome his remorse by writing poetry.

Hardy became ill with pleurisy in December 1927 and died at Max Gate just after 9 pm on 11 January 1928, having dictated his final poem to his wife on his deathbed; the cause of death was cited, on his death certificate, as "cardiac syncope", with "old age" given as a contributory factor. His funeral was on 16 January at Westminster Abbey, and it proved a controversial occasion because Hardy and his family and friends had wished for his body to be interred at Stinsford in the same grave as his first wife, Emma. However, his executor, Sir Sydney Carlyle Cockerell, insisted that he be placed in the abbey's famous Poets' Corner. A compromise was reached whereby his heart was buried at Stinsford with Emma, and his ashes in Poets' Corner.

Shortly after Hardy's death, the executors of his estate burnt his letters and notebooks. Twelve records survived, one of them containing notes and extracts of newspaper stories from the 1820s. Research into these provided insight into how Hardy kept track of them and how he used them in his later work. In the year of his death Mrs Hardy published ''The Early Life of Thomas Hardy, 1841–1891: compiled largely from contemporary notes, letters, diaries, and biographical memoranda, as well as from oral information in conversations extending over many years''. Hardy's work was admired by many writers of a younger generation including D. H. Lawrence and Virginia Woolf. In his autobiography ''Goodbye to All That'', Robert Graves recalls meeting Hardy in Dorset in the early 1920s. Hardy received him and his new wife warmly, and was encouraging about his work.

In 1910, Hardy was awarded the Order of Merit.

Hardy's cottage at Bockhampton and Max Gate in Dorchester are owned by the National Trust.

Novels

Hardy's first novel, ''The Poor Man and the Lady'', finished by 1867, failed to find a publisher and Hardy destroyed the manuscript so only parts of the novel remain. He was encouraged to try again by his mentor and friend, Victorian poet and novelist George Meredith. ''Desperate Remedies'' (1871) and ''Under the Greenwood Tree'' (1872) were published anonymously. In 1873 ''A Pair of Blue Eyes'', a novel drawing on Hardy's courtship of his first wife, was published under his own name. The term "cliffhanger" is considered to have originated with the serialised version of this story (which was published in ''Tinsley's Magazine'' between September 1872 and July 1873) in which Henry Knight, one of the protagonists, is left literally hanging off a cliff.

Hardy said that he first introduced Wessex in ''Far from the Madding Crowd'' (1874), his next novel. It was successful enough for Hardy to give up architectural work and pursue a literary career. Over the next twenty-five years Hardy produced ten more novels.

The Hardys moved from London to Yeovil and then to Sturminster Newton, where he wrote ''The Return of the Native'' (1878). In 1885, they moved for the last time, to Max Gate, a house outside Dorchester designed by Hardy and built by his brother. There he wrote ''The Mayor of Casterbridge'' (1886), ''The Woodlanders'' (1887), and ''Tess of the d'Urbervilles'' (1891), the last of which attracted criticism for its sympathetic portrayal of a "fallen woman" and was initially refused publication. Its subtitle, ''A Pure Woman: Faithfully Presented'', was intended to raise the eyebrows of the Victorian middle-classes.

''Jude the Obscure'', published in 1895, met with even stronger negative outcries from the Victorian public for its frank treatment of sex, and was often referred to as "Jude the Obscene". Heavily criticised for its apparent attack on the institution of marriage through the presentation of such concepts as erotolepsy, the book caused further strain on Hardy's already difficult marriage because Emma Hardy was concerned that ''Jude the Obscure'' would be read as autobiographical. Some booksellers sold the novel in brown paper bags, and the Bishop of Wakefield is reputed to have burnt his copy. In his postscript of 1912, Hardy humorously referred to this incident as part of the career of the book: "After these [hostile] verdicts from the press its next misfortune was to be burnt by a bishop – probably in his despair at not being able to burn me". Despite this criticism, Hardy had become a celebrity in English literature by the 1900s, with several highly successful novels behind him, yet he felt disgust at the public reception of two of his greatest works and gave up writing fiction altogether. Other novels written by Hardy include ''Two on a Tower'', a romance story set in the world of Astronomy.

Literary themes

Hardy criticises certain social constraints that hindered the lives of those living in the 19th century. Considered a Victorian Realist writer, Hardy examines the social constraints that are part of the Victorian status quo, suggesting these rules hinder the lives of all involved and ultimately lead to unhappiness. In ''Two on a Tower,'' Hardy seeks to take a stand against these rules and sets up a story against the backdrop of social structure by creating a story of love that crosses the boundaries of class. The reader is forced to consider disposing of the conventions set up for love. Nineteenth-century society enforces these conventions, and societal pressure ensures conformity. Swithin St Cleeve's idealism pits him against contemporary social constraints. He is a self-willed individual set up against the coercive strictures of social rules and mores.

Hardy’s characters often encounter crossroads, which are symbolic of a point of opportunity and transition. But the hand of fate is an important part of many of Hardy's plots. ''Far From the Madding Crowd'' tells a tale of lives that are constructed by chance. “Had Bathsheba not sent the valentine, had Fanny not missed her wedding, for example, the story would have taken an entirely different path.” Hardy's main characters often seem to be in the overwhelming and overpowering grip of fate.

Poetry

:''For the full text of several poems, see the External links section''

In 1898 Hardy published his first volume of poetry, ''Wessex Poems'', a collection of poems written over 30 years. Hardy claimed poetry as his first love, and after a great amount of negative criticism erupted from the publication of his novel ''Jude The Obscure'', Hardy decided to give up writing novels permanently and to focus his literary efforts on writing poetry. After giving up the novel form, Hardy continued to publish poetry collections until his death in 1928. Although he did publish one last novel in 1897, that novel, ''The Well-Beloved'', had actually been written prior to ''Jude the Obscure''.

Although his poems were not initially as well received by his contemporaries as his novels were, Hardy is now recognised as one of the greatest poets of the twentieth century. His verse had a profound influence on later writers, notably Philip Larkin, who included many of Hardy's poems in the edition of the ''Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse'' that Larkin edited in 1973.

In a recent biography on Hardy, Claire Tomalin argues that Hardy became a truly great English poet after the death of his first wife, Emma, beginning with the elegies he wrote in her memory, calling these poems, "one of the finest and strangest celebrations of the dead in English poetry."

Most of Hardy's poems, such as "Neutral Tones'" and "A Broken Appointment", deal with themes of disappointment in love and life (which were also prominent themes in his novels), and mankind's long struggle against indifference to human suffering. Using stylistic patterns similar to those that he used in his novels, Hardy sometimes wrote ironic poems, like "Ah, Are You Digging On My Grave," in which he employed twist endings in the last few lines or in the last stanza to convey that irony. Some, like "The Darkling Thrush" and "An August Midnight", appear as poems about writing poetry, because the nature mentioned in them gives Hardy the inspiration to write. His compositions range in style from the three-volume epic closet drama ''The Dynasts'' to shorter poems such as "A Broken Appointment." A particularly strong theme in the ''Wessex Poems'' is the long shadow that the Napoleonic Wars cast over the nineteenth century, for example, in "The Sergeant's Song" and "Leipzig".

A few of Hardy's poems, such as "The Blinded Bird" (a melancholy polemic against the sport of ), display his love of the natural world and his firm stance against animal cruelty, exhibited in his antivivisectionist views and his membership in the RSPCA.

A number of notable composers, including Gerald Finzi, Benjamin Britten, and Gustav Holst, have set poems by Hardy to music.

Religious beliefs

Hardy's family was Anglican, but not especially devout. He was baptised at the age of five weeks and attended church, where his father and uncle contributed to music. However, he did not attend the local Church of England school, instead being sent to Mr Last's school, three miles away. As a young adult, he befriended Henry R. Bastow (a Plymouth Brethren man), who also worked as a pupil architect, and who was preparing for adult baptism in the Baptist Church. Hardy flirted with conversion, but decided against it. Bastow went to Australia and maintained a long correspondence with Hardy, but eventually Hardy tired of these exchanges and the correspondence ceased. This concluded Hardy's links with the Baptists.

Although Hardy’s faith remained intact, the irony and struggles of life led him to question the traditional Christian view of God: Hardy's religious life seems to have mixed agnosticism, deism, and spiritism. Once, when asked in correspondence by a clergyman about the question of reconciling the horrors of pain with the goodness of a loving God, Hardy replied, Nevertheless, Hardy frequently conceived of and wrote about supernatural forces that control the universe, more through indifference or caprice than any firm will. Also, Hardy showed in his writing some degree of fascination with ghosts and spirits. Despite these sentiments, Hardy retained a strong emotional attachment to the Christian liturgy and church rituals, particularly as manifested in rural communities, that had been such a formative influence in his early years, and Biblical references can be found woven throughout many of Hardy's novels.

Hardy's friends during his apprenticeship to John Hicks included Horace Moule (one of the eight sons of Henry Moule), and the poet William Barnes, both ministers of religion. Moule remained a close friend of Hardy's for the rest of his life, and introduced him to new scientific findings that cast doubt on literal interpretations of the Bible, such as those of Gideon Mantell. Moule gave Hardy a copy of Mantell's book ''The Wonders of Geology'' (1848) in 1858, and Adelene Buckland has suggested that there are "compelling similarities" between the "cliffhanger" section from ''A Pair of Blue Eyes'' and Mantell's geological descriptions. It has also been suggested that the character of Henry Knight in ''A Pair of Blue Eyes'' was based on Horace Moule.

Locations in novels

Berkshire is ''North Wessex'', Devon is ''Lower Wessex'', Dorset is ''South Wessex'', Somerset is ''Outer'' or ''Nether Wessex'', Wiltshire is ''Mid-Wessex'',

Bere Regis is ''King's-Bere'' of ''Tess'', Bincombe Down cross roads is the scene of the military execution in ''A Melancholy Hussar''. It is a true story, the deserters from the German Legion were shot in 1801 and are recorded in the parish register. Bindon Abbey is where Clare carried her. Bournemouth is ''Sandbourne'' of ''Hand of Ethelberta'' and ''Tess of the d'Urbervilles'', Bridport is ''Port Bredy'', Charborough House and its folly tower is the model for ''Welland House'' in the novel ''Two on a Tower''. Corfe Castle is the ''Corvsgate-Castle'' of ''Hand of Ethelberta''. Cranborne Chase is ''The Chase'' scene of Tess's seduction. (Note – Bowerchalke on Cranborne Chase was the film location for the great fire in John Schlesinger's 1967 film Far from the Madding Crowd.) Milborne St Andrew is "Millpond St Judes" in Far From the Madding Crowd. Charborough House is located between Sturminster Marshall and Bere Regis. Charborough House and its folly tower is the model for Welland House in the novel Two on a Tower by Thomas Hardy. Little England Cottage, Milborne St Andrew being the location of Swithin St Cleeves home and remains as described to this day. Dorchester, Dorset is ''Casterbridge'', the scene of ''Mayor of Casterbridge''. Dunster Castle in Somerset is ''Castle De Stancy'' of ''A Laodicean''. Fordington moor is ''Durnover moor'' and ''fields''. Greenhill Fair near Bere Regis is ''Woodbury Hill Fair'', Lulworth Cove is ''Lulstead Cove'', Marnhull is ''Marlott'' of ''Tess of the D'Urbervilles'', Melbury House near Evershot is ''Great Hintock Court'' in ''A Group of Noble Dames.'' Minterne is ''Little Hintock'', Owermoigne is ''Nether Moynton'' in ''Wessex Tales''.

Piddlehinton and Piddle Trenthide are the ''Longpuddle'' of ''A Few Crusted Characters''. Puddletown Heath, Moreton Heath, Tincleton Heath and Bere Heath are ''Egdon Heath''. Poole is ''Havenpool'' in ''Life's Little Ironies''. Portland is the scene of ''The Pursuit of the Well-Beloved''. Puddletown is ''Weatherbury'' in ''Far from the Madding Crowd'', River Frome valley is the scene of ''Talbothays dairy'' in ''Tess''. Salisbury is ''Melchester'' in ''On the Western Circuit'', ''Life's Little Ironies'' and ''Jude the Obscure'' etc. Shaftesbury is ''Shaston'' in ''Tess of the d'Urbervilles'' and ''Jude the Obscure''. Sherborne is ''Sherton-Abbas'', Sherborne Castle is home of ''Lady Baxby'' in ''A Group of Noble Dames''. Stonehenge is the scene of Tess's apprehension. Sutton Poyntz is ''Overcombe''. Swanage is the ''Knollsea'' of ''Hand of Ethelberta''. Taunton is known as Toneborough in both Hardy's novels and poems. Wantage is ''Alfredston'', of Jude the Obscure. Fawley, Berkshire is ''Marygreen'' of ''Jude the Obscure''. Weyhill is ''Weydon Priors'', Weymouth is ''Budmouth Regis'', the scene of ''Trumpet Major'' & portions of other novels; Winchester is ''Wintoncester'' where Tess was executed. Wimborne is ''Warborne'' of ''Two on a Tower''. Wolfeton House, near Dorchester is the scene of ''The Lady Penelope'' in ''a Group of Noble Dames''. Woolbridge Manor House, close to Wool station, is the scene of Tess's confession and honeymoon.

Influence

Hardy provides the springboard for D. H. Lawrence's ''Study of Thomas Hardy'' (1936). Though this work became a platform for Lawrence's own developing philosophy rather than a more standard literary study, the influence of Hardy's treatment of character and Lawrence's own response to the central metaphysic behind many of Hardy's novels helped significantly in the development of ''The Rainbow'' (1915, suppressed) and ''Women in Love'' (1920, private publication). Hardy was clearly the starting point for the character of the novelist Edward Driffield in W Somerset Maugham's novel ''Cakes and Ale''. Thomas Hardy's works feature prominently in the narrative in Christopher Durang's ''The Marriage of Bette and Boo'', in which a graduate thesis analysing ''Tess of the d'Urbervilles'' is interspersed with analysis of Matt's family's neuroses.

Works

Prose

Hardy divided his novels and collected short stories into three classes:

Novels of Character and Environment

''The Poor Man and the Lady'' (1867, unpublished and lost)

''Under the Greenwood Tree'' (1872)

''Far from the Madding Crowd'' (1874)

''The Return of the Native'' (1878)

''The Mayor of Casterbridge'' (1886)

''The Woodlanders'' (1887)

''Wessex Tales'' (1888, a collection of short stories)

''Tess of the d'Urbervilles'' (1891)

''Life's Little Ironies'' (1894, a collection of short stories)

''Jude the Obscure'' (1895)

Romances and Fantasies

''A Pair of Blue Eyes'' (1873)

''The Trumpet-Major'' (1880)

''Two on a Tower'' (1882)

''A Group of Noble Dames'' (1891, a collection of short stories)

''The Well-Beloved'' (1897) (first published as a serial from 1892)

Novels of Ingenuity

''Desperate Remedies'' (1871)

''The Hand of Ethelberta'' (1876)

''A Laodicean'' (1881)

Hardy also produced a number of minor tales and a collaborative novel, ''The Spectre of the Real'' (1894). An additional short-story collection, beyond the ones mentioned above, is ''A Changed Man and Other Tales'' (1913). His works have been collected as the 24-volume Wessex Edition (1912–13) and the 37-volume Mellstock Edition (1919–20). His largely self-written biography appears under his second wife's name in two volumes from 1928–30, as ''The Early Life of Thomas Hardy, 1840–91'' and ''The Later Years of Thomas Hardy, 1892–1928'', now published in a critical one-volume edition as ''The Life and Work of Thomas Hardy'', edited by Michael Millgate (1984).

Short stories (with date of first publication)

"How I Built Myself A House" (1865)

"Destiny and a Blue Cloak" (1874)

"The Thieves Who Couldn't Stop Sneezing" (1877)

"The Duchess of Hamptonshire" (1878)

"The Distracted Preacher" (1879)

"Fellow-Townsmen" (1880)

"The Honourable Laura" (1881)

"What The Shepherd Saw" (1881)

"A Tradition of Eighteen Hundred and Four" (1882)

"The Three Strangers" (1883)

"The Romantic Adventures Of A Milkmaid" (1883)

"Interlopers At The Knap" (1884)

"A Mere Interlude" (1885)

"A Tryst At An Ancient Earthwork" (1885)

"Alicia's Diary" (1887)

"The Waiting Supper" (1887–88)

"The Withered Arm" (1888)

"A Tragedy Of Two Ambitions" (1888)

"The First Countess of Wessex" (1889)

"Anna, Lady Baxby" (1890)

"The Lady Icenway" (1890)

"Lady Mottisfont" (1890)

"The Lady Penelope" (1890)

"The Marchioness of Stonehenge" (1890)

"Squire Petrick's Lady" (1890)

"Barbara of the House of Grebe" (1890)

"The Melancholy Hussar of The German Legion" (1890)

"Absent-Mindedness in a Parish Choir" (1891)

"The Winters And The Palmleys" (1891)

"For Conscience' Sake" (1891)

"Incident in Mr. Crookhill's Life"(1891)

"The Doctor's Legend" (1891)

"Andrey Satchel and the Parson and Clerk" (1891)

"The History of the Hardcomes" (1891)

"Netty Sargent's Copyhold" (1891)

"On The Western Circuit" (1891)

"A Few Crusted Characters: Introduction" (1891)

"The Superstitious Man's Story" (1891)

"Tony Kytes, the Arch-Deceiver" (1891)

"To Please His Wife" (1891)

"The Son's Veto" (1891)

"Old Andrey's Experience as a Musician" (1891)

"Our Exploits At West Poley" (1892–93)

"Master John Horseleigh, Knight" (1893)

"The Fiddler of the Reels" (1893)

"An Imaginative Woman" (1894)

"The Spectre of the Real" (1894)

"A Committee-Man of 'The Terror'" (1896)

"The Duke's Reappearance" (1896)

"The Grave By The Handpost" (1897)

"A Changed Man" (1900)

"Enter a Dragoon" (1900)

"Blue Jimmy: The Horse Stealer" (1911)

"Old Mrs. Chundle" (1929)

"The Unconquerable"(1992)

Poetry collections

''The Photograph'' (1890)

''Wessex Poems and Other Verses'' (1898)

''Poems of the Past and Present'' (1901)

''The Man He Killed'' (1902)

''Time's Laughingstocks and Other Verses'' (1909)

''The Voice'' (1912)

''Satires of Circumstance'' (1914)

''Moments of Vision'' (1917)

''Collected Poems'' (1919)

''Late Lyrics and Earlier with Many Other Verses'' (1923)

''Human Shows, Far Phantasies, Songs and Trifles'' (1925)

''Winter Words in Various Moods and Metres'' (1928)

''The Complete Poems'' (Macmillan, 1976)

''Selected Poems'' (Edited by Harry Thomas, Penguin, 1993)

''Hardy: Poems'' (Everyman's Library Pocket Poets, 1995)

''Thomas Hardy: Selected Poetry and Nonfictional Prose'' (St. Martin's Press, 1996)

''Selected Poems'' (Edited by Robert Mezey, Penguin, 1998)

''Thomas Hardy: The Complete Poems'' (Edited by James Gibson, Palgrave, 2001)

Drama

''The Dynasts'' (verse drama)

*''The Dynasts, Part 1'' (1904)

*''The Dynasts, Part 2'' (1906)

*''The Dynasts, Part 3'' (1908)

''The Famous Tragedy of the Queen of Cornwall at Tintagel in Lyonnesse'' (1923) (one-act play)

Notes

References

Armstrong, Tim. "Player Piano: Poetry and Sonic Modernity" in '' Modernism/Modernity'' 14.1 (January 2007), 1–19.

Blunden, Edmund. ''Thomas Hardy.'' New York: St. Martin's, 1942.

Brennecke, Jr., Ernest. ''The Life of Thomas Hardy.'' New York: Greenberg, 1925.

D'Agnillo, Renzo, "Music and Metaphor in ''Under the Greenwood Tree'', in ''The Thomas Hardy Journal'', 9, 2 (May 1993), pp.39–50.

D'Agnillo, Renzo, “Between Belief and Non-Belief: Thomas Hardy’s ‘The Shadow on the Stone’”, in Thomas Hardy, Francesco Marroni and Norman Page (eds), Pescara, Edizioni Tracce, 1995, pp.197–222.

Deacon, Lois and Terry Coleman. ''Providence and Mr. Hardy.'' London: Hutchinson, 1966.

Draper, Jo. ''Thomas Hardy: A Life in Pictures.'' Wimborne, Dorset: The Dovecote Press.

Ellman, Richard & O'Clair, Robert (eds.) 1988. "Thomas Hardy" in ''The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry'', Norton, New York.

Gatrell, Simon. ''Hardy the Creator: A Textual Biography.'' Oxford: Clarendon, 1988.

Gibson, James. ''Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life.'' London: Macmillan, 1996.

Gittings, Robert. ''Thomas Hardy's Later Years.'' Boston : Little, Brown, 1978.

Gittings, Robert. ''Young Thomas Hardy.'' Boston : Little, Brown, 1975.

Gittings, Robert and Jo Manton. ''The Second Mrs Hardy.'' London: Heinemann, 1979.

Gossin, P. ''Thomas Hardy's Novel Universe: Astronomy, Cosmology, and Gender in the Post-Darwinian World''. Aldershot, Ashgate, 2007 (The Nineteenth Century Series).

Halliday, F. E. ''Thomas Hardy: His Life and Work.'' Bath: Adams & Dart, 1972.

Hands, Timothy. ''Thomas Hardy : Distracted Preacher? : Hardy's religious biography and its influence on his novels.'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989.

Hardy, Evelyn. ''Thomas Hardy: A Critical Biography.'' London: Hogarth Press, 1954.

Hardy, Florence Emily. ''The Early Life of Thomas Hardy, 1840–1891.'' London: Macmillan, 1928.

Hardy, Florence Emily. ''The Later Years of Thomas Hardy, 1892–1928'' London: Macmillan, 1930.

Harvey, Geoffrey. ''Thomas Hardy: The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy.'' New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group), 2003.

Hedgcock, F. A., ''Thomas Hardy: penseur et artiste.'' Paris: Librairie Hachette, 1911.

Holland, Clive. ''Thomas Hardy O.M.: The Man, His Works and the Land of Wessex.'' London: Herbert Jenkins, 1933.

Jedrzejewski, Jan. ''Thomas Hardy and the Church.'' London: Macmillan, 1996.

Johnson, Lionel Pigot. ''The art of Thomas Hardy (London: E. Mathews, 1894).

Kay-Robinson, Denys. ''The First Mrs Thomas Hardy.'' London: Macmillan, 1979.

Langbaum, Robert. "Thomas Hardy in Our Time." New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995, London: Macmillan, 1997.

Marroni, Francesco, "The Negation of Eros in 'Barbara of the House of Grebe’ ", in "Thomas Hardy Journal", 10, 1 (February 1994) pp. 33–41

Marroni, Francesco and Norman Page (eds.), ''Thomas Hardy''. Pescara: Edizioni Tracce, 1995.

Marroni, Francesco, ''La poesia di Thomas Hardy''. Bari: Adriatica Editrice, 1997.

Marroni, Francesco, "The Poetry of Ornithology in Keats, Leopardi, and Hardy: A Dialogic Analysis", in "Thomas Hardy Journal", 14, 2 (Mayy 1998) pp. 35–44

Millgate, Michael (ed.). ''The Life and Work of Thomas Hardy by Thomas Hardy.'' London: Macmillan, 1984.

Millgate, Michael. ''Thomas Hardy: A Biography.'' New York: Random House, 1982.

Millgate, Michael. ''Thomas Hardy: A Biography Revisited.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Morgan, Rosemarie, (ed) The Ashgate Research Companion to Thomas Hardy, (Ashgate publishing), 2010.

Morgan, Rosemarie, (ed) The Hardy Review,(Maney Publishing), 1999–.

Morgan, Rosemarie, Student Companion to Thomas Hardy (Greenwood Press),2006.

Morgan, Rosemarie, Cancelled Words: Rediscovering Thomas Hardy (Routledge, Chapman & Hall),1992

Morgan, Rosemarie, Women and Sexuality in the Novels of Thomas Hardy (Routledge & Kegan Paul), 1988;paperback: 1990.

David Musselwhite,Social Transformations in Hardy's Tragic Novels: Megamachines and Phantasms,Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

O'Sullivan, Timothy. ''Thomas Hardy: An Illustrated Biography.'' London: Macmillan, 1975.

Orel, Harold. ''The Final Years of Thomas Hardy, 1912–1928.'' Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1976.

Orel, Harold. ''The Unknown Thomas Hardy.'' New York: St. Martin's, 1987.

Phelps, Kenneth. ''The Wormwood Cup: Thomas Hardy in Cornwall.'' Padstow: Lodenek Press, 1975.

Pinion, F. B. ''Thomas Hardy: His Life and Friends.'' London: Palgrave, 1992.

Pite, Ralph. ''Thomas Hardy: The Guarded Life.'' London: Picador, 2006.

Saxelby, F. Outwin. ''A Thomas Hardy dictionary : the characters and scenes of the novels and poems alphabetically arranged and described'' (London: G. Routledge, 1911).

Seymour-Smith, Martin. ''Hardy.'' London: Bloomsbury, 1994.

Stevens-Cox, J. ''Thomas Hardy: Materials for a Study of his Life, Times, and Works.'' St. Peter Port, Guernsey: Toucan Press, 1968.

Stevens-Cox, J. ''Thomas Hardy: More Materials for a Study of his Life, Times, and Works.'' St. Peter Port, Guernsey: Toucan Press, 1971.

Stewart, J. I. M. ''Thomas Hardy: A Critical Biography.'' New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1971.

Turner, Paul. ''The Life of Thomas Hardy: A Critical Biography.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.

Weber, Carl J. ''Hardy of Wessex, his Life and Literary Career.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1940.

Wilson, Keith. ''Thomas Hardy on Stage.'' London: Macmillan, 1995.

Wilson, Keith, ed. ''Thomas Hardy Reappraised: Essays in Honour of Michael Millgate.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006.

Wilson, Keith, ed. ''A Companion to Thomas Hardy.'' Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Wotton, George. Thomas Hardy: Towards A Materialist Criticism. Lanham: Rowan & Littlefield, 1985.

Letter from Hardy to Bertram Windle, transcribed by Birgit Plietzsch, from CL, vol 2, pp.131–133 The letter is contained in the maps section of the TTHA website.

==External links==

The Thomas Hardy Association (TTHA)

Works by Thomas Hardy at Internet Archive

Works by Thomas Hardy in audio format from LibriVox

Poems by Thomas Hardy at Poetry Foundation

Poems by Thomas Hardy at PoemHunter.com

A Hyper-Concordance to the Works of Thomas Hardy at the Victorian Literary Studies Archive, Nagoya University, Japan

"The Dead Man Walking" (1909) and other Hardy poems at ''poetry-archive.com''

Thomas Hardy's Wessex Research site, including maps, by Dr Birgit Plietzsch

Works by Thomas Hardy in e-book version

Thomas Hardy's ashes at Westminster Abbey

Pictures of Thomas Hardy visiting Marie Stopes at her lighthouse home on Portland, Dorset

The Thomas Hardy Society

The Life and Death of Thomas Hardy @ ''Ward's Book of Days''

Hardy Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin

Category:19th-century English people Category:Pantheists Category:English poets Category:English novelists Category:English short story writers Category:Members of the Order of Merit Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Category:Alumni of King's College London Category:People from Dorchester, Dorset Category:1840 births Category:1928 deaths Category:Victorian poets Category:Victorian novelists Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey

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