A musical ensemble is a group of people who perform instrumental or vocal music. In each musical style different norms have developed for the sizes and composition of different ensembles, and for the repertoire of songs or musical works that these ensembles perform.

A group of two musicians is called a duo, a group of three is a trio, a group of four a quartet, and a group of five a quintet. A musician who usually performs alone is usually termed a solo musician or solo artist.

In classical music, trios or quartets either blend the sounds of musical instrument families (such as piano, strings, and wind instruments) or group together instruments from the same instrument family, such as string ensembles or wind ensembles. In jazz ensembles, the instruments typically include wind instruments (one or more saxophones, trumpets, etc.), one or two chordal "comping" instruments (electric guitar, piano, or organ), a bass instrument (electric bass guitar or double bass), and a drummer or percussionist. In rock ensembles, usually called rock bands, there are usually guitars and keyboards (piano, electric piano, Hammond organ, synthesizer, etc.) and a rhythm section made up of a bass guitar and drum kit.

Classical chamber music

In Western Art music, commonly referred to as classical music, smaller ensembles are called chamber music ensembles. The terms duet, trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, nonet and dectet are used to describe groups of two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine and ten musicians, respectively. A group of eleven musicians, such as found in ''The Carnival of the Animals'', is called either a "hendectet" or an "undectet" (see Latin numerical prefixes). A solo is not an ensemble because it only contains one musician.

Four parts

Strings

A string ''quartet'' usually consists of two violins, a viola and a cello. An upper string quartet features two violins and two violas. A lower string quartet features 1 viola, 2 cellos and a double bass. An American string quartet features two guitars, a banjo and a drum kit.

Wind

A woodwind quartet usually features a clarinet, bassoon, flute and oboe. A brass quartet features 2 trumpets, a trombone and a tuba. A wind quartet features a horn, flute, oboe and bassoon. A lower wind quartet features a tuba, a bassoon, a bass clarinet and a trombone.

Five parts

The string ''quintet'' is a common type of group. It is similar to the string quartet, but with two violas, two cellos, or more rarely, the addition of a double bass. Terms such as "piano quintet" or "clarinet quintet" frequently refer to a string quartet ''plus'' a fifth instrument. Thus, a ''piano quintet'' is usually a string quartet plus a piano. Mozart's Clarinet Quintet is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of 2 violins, a viola, a cello and a clarinet, the last being the exceptional addition to a "normal" string quartet.

Other common groupings in classical music are the woodwind quintet, usually consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and horn and the brass quintet, consisting of two trumpets, one french horn, a trombone and a tuba.

Six or more instruments

Classical chamber ensembles for more than six musicians are occasionally used, such as septets (seven musicians), octets (eight musicians), or nonets (nine musicians). However, in many cases a larger classical group is referred to as an orchestra of some type. A small orchestra with fifteen to thirty members (violins, violas, cellos, double basses, and several woodwind or brass instruments) is called a chamber orchestra In the American education system, sitting groups are known as wind ensembles or concert bands (to differentiate from marching bands). Music is similar to that of a pops orchestra, orchestrated for woodwinds, brass, and percussion. A sinfonietta usually denotes a somewhat smaller orchestra (though still not a chamber orchestra). Larger orchestras are called symphony orchestras or philharmonic orchestras.

A pops orchestra is an orchestra that mainly performs light classical music (often in abbreviated, simplified arrangements) and orchestral arrangements and medleys of popular jazz, music theater, or pop music songs. A string orchestra has only strings, i.e., violins, violas, cellos and basses.

A symphony orchestra is an ensemble usually comprising at least thirty musicians; the number of players is typically between seventy and ninety-five and may exceed one hundred. A symphony orchestra is divided into families of instruments. In the string family, there are sections of violins (I and II), violas, cellos, and basses. The winds consist of the woodwind family of instruments (flutes and piccolo, oboes and English horn, clarinets [made up of the E clarinet, clarinet, and bass clarinet], and bassoons [often including contrabassoon]) and the brass family (horns, trumpets, trombones, and tuba). The percussion family includes the timpani, bass drum, snare drum, and any other percussion instruments called for in a score (e.g., triangle, glockenspiel, chimes, cymbals, wood blocks).

When orchestras are performing baroque music (from the 17th century and early 18th century), they may also use a harpsichord or pipe organ. When orchestras are performing Romantic-era music (from the 19th century), they may also use harps or unusual instruments such as the wind machine. When orchestras are performing music from the 20th century or the 21st century, occasionally instruments such as electric guitar, theremin, or even an electronic synthesizer may be used.

Jazz ensembles

Three parts

In jazz, there are several types of trios. One type of jazz trio is formed with a piano player, a bass player and a drummer. Another type of jazz trio that became popular in the 1950s and 1960s is the organ trio, which is composed of a Hammond organ player, a drummer, and a third instrumentalist (either a saxophone player or an electric jazz guitarist). In organ trios, the Hammond organ player performs the bass line on the organ bass pedals while simultaneously playing chords or lead lines on the keyboard manuals. Other types of trios include the "drummer-less" trio, which consists of a piano player, a double bassist, and a horn (saxophone or trumpet) or guitar player ; and the jazz trio with a horn player (saxophone or trumpet), double bass player, and a drummer. In the latter type of trio, the lack of a chordal instrument means that the horn player and the bassist have to imply the changing harmonies with their improvised lines.

Four parts

Jazz quartets typically add a ''horn'' (the generic jazz name for saxophones, trombones, trumpets, or any other wind instrument commonly associated with jazz) to one of the jazz trios described above. Slightly larger jazz ensembles, such as quintets (five instruments) or sextets (six instruments) typically add other soloing instruments to the basic quartet formation, such as different types of saxophones (e.g., alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, etc.) or an additional chordal instrument.

Larger ensembles

The lineup of larger jazz ensembles can vary considerably, depending on the style of jazz being performed. In a 1920s-style dixieland jazz band, a larger ensemble would be formed by adding a banjo player, woodwind instruments, as with the clarinet, or additional horns (saxophones, trumpets, trombones) to one of the smaller groups. In a 1940s-style Swing big band, a larger ensemble is formed by adding "sections" of like instruments, such as a saxophone section and a trumpet section, which perform arranged "horn lines" to accompany the ensemble. In a 1970s-style jazz fusion ensemble, a larger ensemble is often formed by adding additional percussionists or sometimes a saxophone player would "double" or "triple" meaning that they would also be proficient at the clarinet, flute or both. Also by the addition of soloing instruments.

Rock and pop bands

Two parts

Two-member rock and pop bands are relatively rare, because of the difficulty in providing all of the musical elements which are part of the rock or pop sound (vocals, chords, bass lines, and percussion or drumming) with trios or quartets. Two-member rock and pop bands typically omit one of these musical elements. In many cases, two-member bands will omit a drummer, since guitars, bass guitars, and keyboards can all be used to provide a rhythmic pulse, however one rare west coast metal and rock band In Between, consists of a drummer and a guitarist/singer. Examples of two-member bands are The Everly Brothers, Pet Shop Boys, Hella, Flight of the Conchords, Death from above 1979, Francis Xavier, I Set My Friends On Fire, Middle Class Rut, No Age, The Pity Party, The White Stripes, Big Business, erdbeerseestern, God Head Silo, Two Gallants, Lightning Bolt, The Ting Tings, The Black Box Revelation, Satyricon, The Black Keys, Panic! At the Disco, Stray Kites, Tenacious D, D.A. Dad, Simon and Garfunkel and The Pack A.D..

When electronic sequencers became widely available in the 1980s, this made it easier for two-member bands to add in musical elements that the two band members were not able to perform. Sequencers allowed bands to pre-program some elements of their performance, such as an electronic drum part and a synth-bass line. Two-member pop music bands such as Soft Cell, Blancmange and Yazoo used pre-programmed sequencers. Other pop bands from the 1980s which were ostensibly fronted by two performers, such as Wham! and Tears for Fears, were not actually two-piece ensembles, because other instrumental musicians were used "behind the scenes" to fill out the sound.

Two-piece bands in rock music are quite rare. However, starting in the 2000s, blues-influenced rock bands such as The White Stripes, Lost Dawn and The Black Keys utilized a guitar and drums scheme. However, this is predated by the Flat Duo Jets from the '80's. Death From Above 1979 featured a drummer and bass guitarist. Tenacious D is a two-guitar band; One Day as a Lion and The Dresden Dolls both feature a keyboardist and a drummer. The band Welk consists of a two-man psychedelic flute band, with the occasional synthesizer. Two-person bands have grown in popularity in experimental rock music. W.A.S.P. guitarist Doug Blair is also known for his work in the two-piece progressive rock band signal2noise, where he manages to be the lead guitarist and bassist at the same time, thanks to a special custom instrument he invented (an electric guitar with five regular guitar strings paired with three bass guitar strings). Heisenflei of Los Angeles duo The Pity Party plays drums, keyboards, and sings simultaneously. Providence-based Lightning Bolt is a two-member band. Bassist Brian Gibson augments his playing with delay pedals, pitch shifters, looping devices and other pedals, occasionally creating harmony. Local H, No Age, Blood Red Shoes, PS I Love You, The Redmond Barry's and Warship are other prominent two-person experimental rock bands.

Example line-up

Lead vocals, Bass, Guitar

Drums, Percussion, Backing vocals

or

Lead vocals, Keyboard, Guitar

Drums, Percussion, Backing vocals

or

Lead vocals, Bass, Drum machine

Lead guitar, Backing vocals Drum machine

Three parts

The smallest ensemble that is commonly used in rock music is the trio format. In a hard rock or blues-rock band, or heavy metal rock group, a "power trio" format is often used, which consists of an electric guitar player, an electric bass guitar player and a drummer, and typically one or more of these musicians also sing (sometimes all three members will sing, e.g. Bee Gees or Alkaline Trio). Some well-known power trios with the guitarist on lead vocals are The Jimi Hendrix Experience, Stevie Ray Vaughan and Double Trouble, Nirvana, Green Day, Violent Femmes, Gov't Mule, The Minutemen, Triumph, Shellac, Sublime, Chevelle, Muse, Short Stack, ZZ Top, and the original lineup of Wolfmother. A handful of others with the bassist on vocals include Primus, Motörhead, The Police, The Melvins, Blue Cheer, Dinosaur Junior, Rush, The Presidents of the United States of America, Venom, and Cream. Some power trios feature two lead vocalists, both of which play their respective instruments. For example, in the band blink-182 vocals are split between bassist Mark Hoppus and guitarist Tom DeLonge.

An alternative to the power trio are organ trios formed with an electric guitarist, a drummer and a keyboardist. Although organ trios are most commonly associated with 1950s and 1960s jazz organ trio groups such as those led by organist Jimmy Smith, there are also organ trios in rock-oriented styles, such as jazz-rock fusion and Grateful Dead-influenced jam bands such as Medeski Martin & Wood. In organ trios, the keyboard player typically plays a Hammond organ or similar instrument, which permits the keyboard player to perform bass lines, chords, and lead lines. A variant of the organ trio are trios formed with an electric bassist, a drummer and an electronic keyboardist (playing synthesizers) such as the progressive rock band Emerson, Lake & Palmer, and Atomic Rooster. Another variation is to have a vocalist, a guitarist and a drummer, an example being Yeah Yeah Yeahs. Another variation is two guitars, a bassist, and a drum machine, examples including Magic Wands and Big Black.

A power trio with the guitarist on lead vocals is popular record company lineup, as the guitarist and singer will usually be the songwriter. Therefore you only have to present one face to the public, the backing band is easy to house, and the songs will likely stay simple and accessible as the frontman will have to sing and play guitar at the same time.

Example line-up

Lead vocals, Lead guitar

Bass guitar, Keyboards

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead vocals, Bass guitar

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion, Backing vocals

or

Backing vocals, Bass guitar

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion, Lead vocals

or

Lead vocals, Lead guitar

Bass guitar, Backing vocals, Harmonica

Drums, Percussion

Four parts

The four-piece band is the most common configuration in rock and pop music. Before the development of the electronic keyboard, the configuration was typically two guitarists (one lead guitarist and one rhythm guitarist, with the latter on vocals), a bassist (typically the electric bass guitar) and a drummer (e.g.KISS, Foo Fighters, Weezer, Metallica, The Clash, Creedence Clearwater Revival, The Kinks, The Fray, Sonic Youth, The Smashing Pumpkins, Arctic Monkeys, Franz Ferdinand, Against Me! and the new lineup of Wolfmother). This is popular with bands for its versatility. However, it has been noted the main complaint is that it takes too much effort to keep so many instruments in tune when they are played by every member of the band.

Another common formation was a vocalist, electric guitarist, bass guitarist, and a drummer (e.g.The Who, Led Zeppelin, The Ramones, Tokio Hotel, Sex Pistols, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Queen, R.E.M., Blur, The Smiths, Echo and the Bunnymen, Stone Roses, Creed, Black Sabbath, Van Halen, The Stooges, Joy Division, U2 and Coldplay). Instrumentally, these bands can be considered as trios. This format is popular with new bands, as there are only two instruments that need tuning, the line-and-counterpoint formula prevalent with their material is easy to learn, four members are commonplace to work with, the roles are clearly defined and generally are: melody line, rhythm section with counterpoint melody, and vocals on top.

In some early rock bands, keyboardists were used, performing on piano (e.g. The Seeds and The Doors) with a guitarist, singer, drummer and keyboardist. Some bands will have a guitarist, bassist, drummer, and keyboard player (for example, Small Faces, King Crimson, The Guess Who, Pink Floyd, Coldplay, The Killers, The Monkees and Blind Faith).

Some bands will have the bassist on lead vocals, such as Thin Lizzy, Chameleons, Pink Floyd, NOFX, +44, Slayer, The All-American Rejects or even the lead guitarist, such as Dire Straits and Creedence Clearwater Revival. Some bands, such as The Beatles, have a lead guitarist, a rhythm guitarist and a bassist that all sing lead and backing vocals, that also play keyboards regularly, as well as a drummer. Others, such as The Four Seasons, have a lead vocalist, a lead guitarist, a keyboard player, and a bassist, with the drummer not being a member of the band.

Example line-ups

Lead vocals

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead vocals

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Keyboards, Backing vocals

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

or

Lead vocals, Rhythm guitar

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead vocals, Bass guitar

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Keyboards

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead vocals, piano, Rhythm guitar

Lead guitar, backing vocals

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Backing vocals

or

Lead vocals, Lead guitar

Rhythm guitar, Backing vocals, Keyboards, Harmonica

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion, Backing vocals

or

Lead vocal, Bass guitar

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Rhythm guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion, Backing vocals

or

Lead vocals, Lead guitar

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Keyboards

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead vocals, Keyboards/Piano

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion

or *Lead vocals *Lead guitar , Backing vocals *Keyboards ,Backing vocals *Drums ,Percussion

Five parts

Five-piece bands have existed in rock music since early times. The Beach Boys, The Rolling Stones, Aerosmith, Def Leppard, AC/DC, Oasis, Pearl Jam, Guns N' Roses, Radiohead, The Strokes, Styx, The Yardbirds, 311 are examples of the common vocalist, lead guitar, rhythm guitar, bass, and drums lineup. An alternative to the five-member lineup replaces the rhythm guitarist with a keyboard–synthesizer player (examples being the bands Journey, Nightwish, Maroon 5, Dream Theater, Genesis, Jethro Tull, The Zombies, Bon Jovi, Yes, Snow Patrol, Fleetwood Mac, Marilyn Manson and Deep Purple, all of which consist of a vocalist, guitarist, bassist, keyboardist, and a drummer) or with a turntablist such as Incubus or Limp Bizkit. Alternatives include a keyboardist, guitarist, drummer, bassist, and saxophonist, such as The Sonics and Sam the Sham and the Pharaohs. Another alternative is three guitarists, a bassist and a drummer, such as Radiohead and The Byrds. Some five-person bands feature two guitarists, a keyboardist, a bassist and a drummer, with one or more of these musicians (typically one of the guitarists) handling lead vocals on top of their instrument (examples being Children of Bodom, Sturm und Drang and Ensiferum). In some cases, typically in cover bands, one musician plays either rhythm guitar or keyboards, depending on the song (one notable band being Firewind, with Bob Katsionis handling this particular role).

Other times, the vocalist will provide another musical voice to the table, most commonly a harmonica; Mick Jagger, for example, played harmonica and percussion instruments like maracas and tambourine. Ozzy Osbourne was also known to play the harmonica on some occasions (i.e. "The Wizard" by Black Sabbath).

Line-up

Lead vocals

Lead guitar, backing vocals

Rhythm guitar, backing vocals

Bass guitar, backing vocals

Drums, percussion

or

Lead vocals, keyboards, piano

Lead guitar, backing vocals

Bass guitar, backing vocals

Rhythm guitar, backing vocals

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead vocals, rhythm guitar

Lead guitar, backing vocals

Bass guitar, backing vocals

Keyboards, synthesizers

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead vocals

Lead guitar, backing vocals

Keyboards, backing vocals

Bass guitar, backing vocals

Drums, percussion, backing vocals

or

Lead vocals, Rhythm guitar, Piano

Lead guitar, Piano, Keyboards, Backing vocals

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Keyboards, Rhythm guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion, Backing vocals

or

Lead vocals, Rhythm guitar, Keyboards

Rhythm guitar, Backing vocals

Lead guitar, Backing vocals

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead vocals, Rhythm guitar, Percussion, Keyboards

Lead guitar, Piano, Electronics, Bass, Percussion

Lead guitar, Backing vocals, Synths, Drums, Percussion

Bass guitar, Synths

Drums, Percussion, Backing vocals

Larger rock ensembles

Larger bands have long been a part of rock and pop music, in part due to the influence of the "singer accompanied with orchestra" model inherited from popular big-band jazz and swing and popularized by Frank Sinatra and Ella Fitzgerald.To create larger ensembles, rock bands often add an additional guitarist, an additional keyboardist, additional percussionists or second drummer, an entire horn section, and even a flutist. An example of a six-member rock band is Linkin Park with a lead vocalist, rap vocalist/keyboardist, lead guitarist, bassist, turntablist, and drummer. The American heavy metal band Slipknot is composed of eight members, with a vocalist, two guitarists, a drummer, two custom percussionists, a turntablist, and a sampler.

In larger groups (such as The Band), instrumentalists could play multiple instruments, which enabled the ensemble to create a wider variety of instrument combinations. More rarely, rock or pop groups will be accompanied in concerts by a full or partial symphony orchestra, where lush string-orchestra arrangements are used to flesh out the sound of slow ballads.

Example line-up

Lead vocals, screaming vocals

rapping vocals, pianist

lead guitar, backing vocals

bass guitar, backing vocals

turntables, programming, samples, backing vocals

drums, backing vocals

or

Lead vocals

Lead guitar

Rhythm guitar, backing vocals

Bass guitar, backing vocals

Drums, percussion

Keyboards

or

Lead vocals, Guitar

Lead guitarist, Backing vocals

Rhythm guitarist

Bass guitar, Backing vocals

Horns (anything from saxophone to a horn section)

Keyboards, Piano

Drums

or

Lead vocals

Lead guitar, backing vocals

Bass guitar, screaming vocals

Drums, percussion

Keyboards, piano

Rhythm guitar, backing vocals

DJ, emcee, drum machine, Sampler, synthesizers

Percussion

or even

Lead vocalist

Lead vocalist

Lead guitar

Lead guitar

Rhythm guitar

Bass guitar

Drums, Percussion

or

Lead Vocals, Rhythm Guitar

Backing Vocals, Lead Guitar

Backing Guitar, Backing Vocals

Bass Guitar, Backing Vocals

Drums, Percussion

Keyboards, Piano, Backing Vocals

Pedal Steel Guitar, Backing Vocals

Violin Backing Vocals

The above line-up was used by Bon Jovi during the Lost Highway tour.

Musical drama

Sung dramas such as operas and musicals usually have numbers where several of the principals are singing together, either on their own or with the chorus. Such numbers (''duets'', ''trios'', etc.) are also referred to as 'ensembles'.

Other western musical ensembles

In the 20th century, the Wind Symphony or Wind Ensemble became popular, especially in academic circles. A wind ensemble consists entirely of wind instruments and percussion instruments, but may also include a double bass. Schools from elementary level onward often have a school band program which is usually centered around its wind ensemble, often known as a concert band.

A choir is a group of voices. By analogy, sometimes a group of similar instruments in a symphony orchestra are referred to as a choir. For example, the woodwind instruments of a symphony orchestra could be called the woodwind choir.

A group that plays popular music or military music is usually called a band. A group that plays while marching on a football field, without being a marching band, is called a drum and bugle corps. These bands perform a wide range of music, ranging from arrangements of jazz orchestral, or popular music to military-style marches. Drum corps perform on brass and percussion instruments only. Some corps perform on bugles in the key of G, while others perform on brass instruments in multiple keys, depending on the group. Drum and Bugle Corps incorporate costumes, hats, and pageantry in their performances.

Other band types include:

Jug bands

Mexican Mariachi groups typically consist of at least two violins, two trumpets, one Spanish guitar, one vihuela (a high-pitched, five-string guitar), and one Guitarrón (a Mexican acoustic bass that is roughly guitar-shaped), and one or more singers.

See also

List of musical ensemble formats

Music

Alexandrov ensemble

References

External links

Music, Historical images. From New York Public Library Digital Gallery

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''Tyrannosaurus'' ( or ; meaning "tyrant lizard", from Greek τυράννος (''tyrannos'', "tyrant") and σαύρος' (''sauros'', "lizard")) is a genus of theropod dinosaur. The species ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' (''rex'' meaning "king" in Latin), commonly abbreviated to ''T. rex'', is a fixture in popular culture. It lived throughout what is now western North America, with a much wider range than other tyrannosaurids. Fossils are found in a variety of rock formations dating to the Maastrichtian age of the upper Cretaceous Period, 67 to 65.5 million years ago. It was among the last non-avian dinosaurs to exist prior to the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event.

Like other tyrannosaurids, ''Tyrannosaurus'' was a bipedal carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long, heavy tail. Relative to the large and powerful hindlimbs, ''Tyrannosaurus'' forelimbs were small, though unusually powerful for their size, and bore two clawed digits. Although other theropods rivaled or exceeded ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' in size, it was the largest known tyrannosaurid and one of the largest known land predators, measuring up to in length, up to tall at the hips, and up to in weight. By far the largest carnivore in its environment, ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' may have been an apex predator, preying upon hadrosaurs and ceratopsians, although some experts have suggested it was primarily a scavenger. The debate over ''Tyrannosaurus'' as apex predator or scavenger is among the longest running in paleontology.

More than 30 specimens of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' have been identified, some of which are nearly complete skeletons. Soft tissue and proteins have been reported in at least one of these specimens. The abundance of fossil material has allowed significant research into many aspects of its biology, including life history and biomechanics. The feeding habits, physiology and potential speed of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' are a few subjects of debate. Its taxonomy is also controversial, with some scientists considering ''Tarbosaurus bataar'' from Asia to represent a second species of ''Tyrannosaurus'' and others maintaining ''Tarbosaurus'' as a separate genus. Several other genera of North American tyrannosaurids have also been synonymized with ''Tyrannosaurus''.

Description

''Tyrannosaurus rex'' was one of the largest land carnivores of all time; the largest complete specimen, FMNH PR2081 ("Sue"), measured long, and was tall at the hips. Mass estimates have varied widely over the years, from more than , to less than , with most modern estimates ranging between . Packard ''et al.'' (2009) tested dinosaur mass estimation procedures on elephants and concluded that dinosaur estimations are flawed and produce over-estimations; thus, the weight of ''Tyrannosaurus'' could be much less than usually estimated.

Although ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' was larger than the well known Jurassic theropod ''Allosaurus'', it was slightly smaller than some other Cretaceous carnivores, such as ''Spinosaurus'' and ''Giganotosaurus''.

The neck of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' formed a natural S-shaped curve like that of other theropods, but was short and muscular to support the massive head. The forelimbs had only two clawed fingers, along with an additional small metacarpal representing the remnant of a third digit. In contrast the hind limbs were among the longest in proportion to body size of any theropod. The tail was heavy and long, sometimes containing over forty vertebrae, in order to balance the massive head and torso. To compensate for the immense bulk of the animal, many bones throughout the skeleton were hollow, reducing its weight without significant loss of strength. The largest known ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' skulls measure up to in length. Large fenestrae (openings) in the skull reduced weight and provided areas for muscle attachment, as in all carnivorous theropods. But in other respects ''Tyrannosaurus''’ skull was significantly different from those of large non-tyrannosauroid theropods. It was extremely wide at the rear but had a narrow snout, allowing unusually good binocular vision. The skull bones were massive and the nasals and some other bones were fused, preventing movement between them; but many were pneumatized (contained a "honeycomb" of tiny air spaces) which may have made the bones more flexible as well as lighter. These and other skull-strengthening features are part of the tyrannosaurid trend towards an increasingly powerful bite, which easily surpassed that of all non-tyrannosaurids. The tip of the upper jaw was U-shaped (most non-tyrannosauroid carnivores had V-shaped upper jaws), which increased the amount of tissue and bone a tyrannosaur could rip out with one bite, although it also increased the stresses on the front teeth.

The teeth of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' displayed marked heterodonty (differences in shape). The premaxillary teeth at the front of the upper jaw were closely packed, D-shaped in cross-section, had reinforcing ridges on the rear surface, were incisiform (their tips were chisel-like blades) and curved backwards. The D-shaped cross-section, reinforcing ridges and backwards curve reduced the risk that the teeth would snap when ''Tyrannosaurus'' bit and pulled. The remaining teeth were robust, like "lethal bananas" rather than daggers; more widely spaced and also had reinforcing ridges. Those in the upper jaw were larger than those in all but the rear of the lower jaw. The largest found so far is estimated to have been long including the root when the animal was alive, making it the largest tooth of any carnivorous dinosaur yet found.

Classification

''Tyrannosaurus'' is the type genus of the superfamily Tyrannosauroidea, the family Tyrannosauridae, and the subfamily Tyrannosaurinae; in other words it is the standard by which paleontologists decide whether to include other species in the same group. Other members of the tyrannosaurine subfamily include the North American ''Daspletosaurus'' and the Asian ''Tarbosaurus'', both of which have occasionally been synonymized with ''Tyrannosaurus''. Tyrannosaurids were once commonly thought to be descendants of earlier large theropods such as megalosaurs and carnosaurs, although more recently they were reclassified with the generally smaller coelurosaurs. In 1955, Soviet paleontologist Evgeny Maleev named a new species, ''Tyrannosaurus bataar'', from Mongolia. By 1965, this species had been renamed ''Tarbosaurus bataar''. Despite the renaming, many phylogenetic analyses have found ''Tarbosaurus bataar'' to be the sister taxon of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'', and it has often been considered an Asian species of ''Tyrannosaurus''. A recent redescription of the skull of ''Tarbosaurus bataar'' has shown that it was much narrower than that of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' and that during a bite, the distribution of stress in the skull would have been very different, closer to that of ''Alioramus'', another Asian tyrannosaur. A related cladistic analysis found that ''Alioramus'', not ''Tyrannosaurus'', was the sister taxon of ''Tarbosaurus'', which, if true, would suggest that ''Tarbosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus'' should remain separate.

Other tyrannosaurid fossils found in the same formations as ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' were originally classified as separate taxa, including ''Aublysodon'' and ''Albertosaurus megagracilis'', the latter being named ''Dinotyrannus megagracilis'' in 1995. However, these fossils are now universally considered to belong to juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. A small but nearly complete skull from Montana, long, may be an exception. This skull was originally classified as a species of ''Gorgosaurus'' (''G. lancensis'') by Charles W. Gilmore in 1946, but was later referred to a new genus, ''Nanotyrannus''. Opinions remain divided on the validity of ''N. lancensis''. Many paleontologists consider the skull to belong to a juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. There are minor differences between the two species, including the higher number of teeth in ''N. lancensis'', which lead some scientists to recommend keeping the two genera separate until further research or discoveries clarify the situation.

''Manospondylus''

The first named fossil specimen which can be attributed to ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' consists of two partial vertebrae (one of which has been lost) found by Edward Drinker Cope in 1892. Cope believed that they belonged to an "agathaumid" (ceratopsid) dinosaur, and named them ''Manospondylus gigas'', meaning "giant porous vertebra" in reverence to the numerous openings for blood vessels he found in the bone. The ''M. gigas'' remains were later identified as those of a theropod rather than a ceratopsid, and H.F. Osborn recognized the similarity between ''M. gigas'' and ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' as early as 1917. However, due to the fragmentary nature of the ''Manospondylus'' vertebrae, Osborn did not synonymize the two genera.

In June 2000, the Black Hills Institute located the type locality of ''M. gigas'' in South Dakota and unearthed more tyrannosaur bones there. These were judged to represent further remains of the same individual, and to be identical to those of ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. According to the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), the system that governs the scientific naming of animals, ''Manospondylus gigas'' should therefore have priority over ''Tyrannosaurus rex'', because it was named first. However, the Fourth Edition of the ICZN, which took effect on 1 January 2000, states that "the prevailing usage must be maintained" when "the senior synonym or homonym has not been used as a valid name after 1899" and "the junior synonym or homonym has been used for a particular taxon, as its presumed valid name, in at least 25 works, published by at least 10 authors in the immediately preceding 50 years ..." ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' may qualify as the valid name under these conditions and would most likely be considered a ''nomen protectum'' ("protected name") under the ICZN if it is ever formally published on, which it has not yet been. ''Manospondylus gigas'' could then be deemed a ''nomen oblitum'' ("forgotten name").

Paleobiology

Life history

The identification of several specimens as juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' has allowed scientists to document ontogenetic changes in the species, estimate the lifespan, and determine how quickly the animals would have grown. The smallest known individual (LACM 28471, the "Jordan theropod") is estimated to have weighed only , while the largest, such as FMNH PR2081 ("Sue") most likely weighed over . Histologic analysis of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' bones showed LACM 28471 had aged only 2 years when it died, while "Sue" was 28 years old, an age which may have been close to the maximum for the species. Histology has also allowed the age of other specimens to be determined. Growth curves can be developed when the ages of different specimens are plotted on a graph along with their mass. A ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' growth curve is S-shaped, with juveniles remaining under until approximately 14 years of age, when body size began to increase dramatically. During this rapid growth phase, a young ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' would gain an average of a year for the next four years. At 18 years of age, the curve plateaus again, indicating that growth slowed dramatically. For example, only separated the 28-year-old "Sue" from a 22-year-old Canadian specimen (RTMP 81.12.1). Another recent histological study performed by different workers corroborates these results, finding that rapid growth began to slow at around 16 years of age. This sudden change in growth rate may indicate physical maturity, a hypothesis which is supported by the discovery of medullary tissue in the femur of a 16 to 20-year-old ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' from Montana (MOR 1125, also known as "B-rex"). Medullary tissue is found only in female birds during ovulation, indicating that "B-rex" was of reproductive age. Further study indicates an age of 18 for this specimen. Other tyrannosaurids exhibit extremely similar growth curves, although with lower growth rates corresponding to their lower adult sizes.

Over half of the known ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' specimens appear to have died within six years of reaching sexual maturity, a pattern which is also seen in other tyrannosaurs and in some large, long-lived birds and mammals today. These species are characterized by high infant mortality rates, followed by relatively low mortality among juveniles. Mortality increases again following sexual maturity, partly due to the stresses of reproduction. One study suggests that the rarity of juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' fossils is due in part to low juvenile mortality rates; the animals were not dying in large numbers at these ages, and so were not often fossilized. However, this rarity may also be due to the incompleteness of the fossil record or to the bias of fossil collectors towards larger, more spectacular specimens.

Sexual dimorphism

As the number of specimens increased, scientists began to analyze the variation between individuals and discovered what appeared to be two distinct body types, or ''morphs'', similar to some other theropod species. As one of these morphs was more solidly built, it was termed the 'robust' morph while the other was termed 'gracile'. Several morphological differences associated with the two morphs were used to analyze sexual dimorphism in ''Tyrannosaurus rex'', with the 'robust' morph usually suggested to be female. For example, the pelvis of several 'robust' specimens seemed to be wider, perhaps to allow the passage of eggs. It was also thought that the 'robust' morphology correlated with a reduced chevron on the first tail vertebra, also ostensibly to allow eggs to pass out of the reproductive tract, as had been erroneously reported for crocodiles. In recent years, evidence for sexual dimorphism has been weakened. A 2005 study reported that previous claims of sexual dimorphism in crocodile chevron anatomy were in error, casting doubt on the existence of similar dimorphism between ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' genders. A full-sized chevron was discovered on the first tail vertebra of "Sue", an extremely robust individual, indicating that this feature could not be used to differentiate the two morphs anyway. As ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' specimens have been found from Saskatchewan to New Mexico, differences between individuals may be indicative of geographic variation rather than sexual dimorphism. The differences could also be age-related, with 'robust' individuals being older animals.

Only a single ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' specimen has been conclusively shown to belong to a specific gender. Examination of "B-rex" demonstrated the preservation of soft tissue within several bones. Some of this tissue has been identified as a medullary tissue, a specialized tissue grown only in modern birds as a source of calcium for the production of eggshell during ovulation. As only female birds lay eggs, medullary tissue is only found naturally in females, although males are capable of producing it when injected with female reproductive hormones like estrogen. This strongly suggests that "B-rex" was female, and that she died during ovulation. Recent research has shown that medullary tissue is never found in crocodiles, which are thought to be the closest living relatives of dinosaurs, aside from birds. The shared presence of medullary tissue in birds and theropod dinosaurs is further evidence of the close evolutionary relationship between the two.

Posture

Like many bipedal dinosaurs, ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' was historically depicted as a 'living tripod', with the body at 45 degrees or less from the vertical and the tail dragging along the ground, similar to a kangaroo. This concept dates from Joseph Leidy's 1865 reconstruction of ''Hadrosaurus'', the first to depict a dinosaur in a bipedal posture. Henry Fairfield Osborn, former president of the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) in New York City, who believed the creature stood upright, further reinforced the notion after unveiling the first complete ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' skeleton in 1915. It stood in this upright pose for 77 years, until it was dismantled in 1992. By 1970, scientists realized this pose was incorrect and could not have been maintained by a living animal, as it would have resulted in the dislocation or weakening of several joints, including the hips and the articulation between the head and the spinal column. The inaccurate AMNH mount inspired similar depictions in many films and paintings (such as Rudolph Zallinger's famous mural ''The Age Of Reptiles'' in Yale University's Peabody Museum of Natural History) until the 1990s, when films such as ''Jurassic Park'' introduced a more accurate posture to the general public. Modern representations in museums, art, and film show ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' with its body approximately parallel to the ground and tail extended behind the body to balance the head.

Arms

When ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' was first discovered, the humerus was the only element of the forelimb known. For the initial mounted skeleton as seen by the public in 1915, Osborn substituted longer, three-fingered forelimbs like those of ''Allosaurus''. However, a year earlier, Lawrence Lambe described the short, two-fingered forelimbs of the closely related ''Gorgosaurus''. This strongly suggested that ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' had similar forelimbs, but this hypothesis was not confirmed until the first complete ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' forelimbs were identified in 1989, belonging to MOR 555 (the "Wankel rex"). The remains of "Sue" also include complete forelimbs. ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' arms are very small relative to overall body size, measuring only long. However, they are not vestigial but instead show large areas for muscle attachment, indicating considerable strength. This was recognized as early as 1906 by Osborn, who speculated that the forelimbs may have been used to grasp a mate during copulation. It has also been suggested that the forelimbs were used to assist the animal in rising from a prone position. Another possibility is that the forelimbs held struggling prey while it was dispatched by the tyrannosaur's enormous jaws. This hypothesis may be supported by biomechanical analysis. ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' forelimb bones exhibit extremely thick cortical bone, indicating that they were developed to withstand heavy loads. The biceps brachii muscle of a full-grown ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' was capable of lifting by itself; other muscles such as the brachialis would work along with the biceps to make elbow flexion even more powerful. The M. biceps muscle of ''T. rex'' was 3.5 times as powerful as the human equivalent. A ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' forearm also had a reduced range of motion, with the shoulder and elbow joints allowing only 40 and 45 degrees of motion, respectively. In contrast, the same two joints in ''Deinonychus'' allow up to 88 and 130 degrees of motion, respectively, while a human arm can rotate 360 degrees at the shoulder and move through 165 degrees at the elbow. The heavy build of the arm bones, extreme strength of the muscles, and limited range of motion may indicate a system evolved to hold fast despite the stresses of a struggling prey animal. Carpenter and Smith dismissed notions that the forelimbs were useless or that ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' was an obligate scavenger.

Soft tissue

In the March 2005 issue of ''Science'', Mary Higby Schweitzer of North Carolina State University and colleagues announced the recovery of soft tissue from the marrow cavity of a fossilized leg bone, from a ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. The bone had been intentionally, though reluctantly, broken for shipping and then not preserved in the normal manner, specifically because Schweitzer was hoping to test it for soft tissue. Designated as the Museum of the Rockies specimen 1125, or MOR 1125, the dinosaur was previously excavated from the Hell Creek Formation. Flexible, bifurcating blood vessels and fibrous but elastic bone matrix tissue were recognized. In addition, microstructures resembling blood cells were found inside the matrix and vessels. The structures bear resemblance to ostrich blood cells and vessels. Whether an unknown process, distinct from normal fossilization, preserved the material, or the material is original, the researchers do not know, and they are careful not to make any claims about preservation. If it is found to be original material, any surviving proteins may be used as a means of indirectly guessing some of the DNA content of the dinosaurs involved, because each protein is typically created by a specific gene. The absence of previous finds may merely be the result of people assuming preserved tissue was impossible, therefore simply not looking. Since the first, two more tyrannosaurs and a hadrosaur have also been found to have such tissue-like structures. Research on some of the tissues involved has suggested that birds are closer relatives to tyrannosaurs than other modern animals. In studies reported in the journal ''Science'' in April 2007, Asara and colleagues concluded that seven traces of collagen proteins detected in purified ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' bone most closely match those reported in chickens, followed by frogs and newts. The discovery of proteins from a creature tens of millions of years old, along with similar traces the team found in a mastodon bone at least 160,000 years old, upends the conventional view of fossils and may shift paleontologists' focus from bone hunting to biochemistry. Until these finds, most scientists presumed that fossilization replaced all living tissue with inert minerals. Paleontologist Hans Larsson of McGill University in Montreal, who was not part of the studies, called the finds "a milestone", and suggested that dinosaurs could "enter the field of molecular biology and really slingshot paleontology into the modern world".

Subsequent studies in April 2008 confirmed the close connection of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' to modern birds. Postdoctoral biology researcher Chris Organ at Harvard University announced, "With more data, they would probably be able to place ''T. rex'' on the evolutionary tree between alligators and chickens and ostriches." Co-author John M. Asara added, "We also show that it groups better with birds than modern reptiles, such as alligators and green anole lizards."

The presumed soft tissue was called into question by Thomas Kaye of the University of Washington and his co-authors in 2008. They contend that what was really inside the tyrannosaur bone was slimy biofilm created by bacteria that coated the voids once occupied by blood vessels and cells. The researchers found that what previously had been identified as remnants of blood cells, because of the presence of iron, were actually framboids, microscopic mineral spheres bearing iron. They found similar spheres in a variety of other fossils from various periods, including an ammonite. In the ammonite they found the spheres in a place where the iron they contain could not have had any relationship to the presence of blood. However, Schweitzer has strongly criticized Kayes' claims and maintains that she really did find blood cells, and argues that there’s no reported evidence that biofilms can produce branching, hollow tubes like those noted in her study. San Antonio, Schweitzer and colleagues published an analysis in 2011 of what parts of the collagen had been recovered, finding that it was the inner parts of the collagen coil that had been preserved, as would have been expected from a long period of protein degradation.

Skin and feathers

In 2004, the scientific journal ''Nature'' published a report describing an early tyrannosauroid, ''Dilong paradoxus'', from the famous Yixian Formation of China. As with many other theropods discovered in the Yixian, the fossil skeleton was preserved with a coat of filamentous structures which are commonly recognized as the precursors of feathers. It has also been proposed that ''Tyrannosaurus'' and other closely related tyrannosaurids had such protofeathers. However, skin impressions from large tyrannosaurid specimens show mosaic scales. While it is possible that protofeathers existed on parts of the body which have not been preserved, a lack of insulatory body covering is consistent with modern multi-ton mammals such as elephants, hippopotamus, and most species of rhinoceros. As an object increases in size, its ability to retain heat increases due to its decreasing surface area-to-volume ratio. Therefore, as large animals evolve in or disperse into warm climates, a coat of fur or feathers loses its selective advantage for thermal insulation and can instead become a disadvantage, as the insulation traps excess heat inside the body, possibly overheating the animal. Protofeathers may also have been secondarily lost during the evolution of large tyrannosaurids like ''Tyrannosaurus'', especially in warm Cretaceous climates.

Thermoregulation

''Tyrannosaurus'', like most dinosaurs, was long thought to have an ectothermic ("cold-blooded") reptilian metabolism. The idea of dinosaur ectothermy was challenged by scientists like Robert T. Bakker and John Ostrom in the early years of the "Dinosaur Renaissance", beginning in the late 1960s. ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' itself was claimed to have been endothermic ("warm-blooded"), implying a very active lifestyle. Since then, several paleontologists have sought to determine the ability of ''Tyrannosaurus'' to regulate its body temperature. Histological evidence of high growth rates in young ''Tyrannosaurus rex'', comparable to those of mammals and birds, may support the hypothesis of a high metabolism. Growth curves indicate that, as in mammals and birds, ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' growth was limited mostly to immature animals, rather than the indeterminate growth seen in most other vertebrates.

Oxygen isotope ratios in fossilized bone are sometimes used to determine the temperature at which the bone was deposited, as the ratio between certain isotopes correlates with temperature. In one specimen, the isotope ratios in bones from different parts of the body indicated a temperature difference of no more than 4 to 5 °C (7 to 9 °F) between the vertebrae of the torso and the tibia of the lower leg. This small temperature range between the body core and the extremities was claimed by paleontologist Reese Barrick and geochemist William Showers to indicate that ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' maintained a constant internal body temperature (homeothermy) and that it enjoyed a metabolism somewhere between ectothermic reptiles and endothermic mammals. Other scientists have pointed out that the ratio of oxygen isotopes in the fossils today does not necessarily represent the same ratio in the distant past, and may have been altered during or after fossilization (diagenesis). Barrick and Showers have defended their conclusions in subsequent papers, finding similar results in another theropod dinosaur from a different continent and tens of millions of years earlier in time (''Giganotosaurus''). Ornithischian dinosaurs also showed evidence of homeothermy, while varanid lizards from the same formation did not. Even if ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' does exhibit evidence of homeothermy, it does not necessarily mean that it was endothermic. Such thermoregulation may also be explained by gigantothermy, as in some living sea turtles.

Footprints

Two isolated fossilized footprints have been tentatively assigned to ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. The first was discovered at Philmont Scout Ranch, New Mexico, in 1983 by American geologist Charles Pillmore. Originally thought to belong to a hadrosaurid, examination of the footprint revealed a large 'heel' unknown in ornithopod dinosaur tracks, and traces of what may have been a hallux, the dewclaw-like fourth digit of the tyrannosaur foot. The footprint was published as the ichnogenus ''Tyrannosauripus pillmorei'' in 1994, by Martin Lockley and Adrian Hunt. Lockley and Hunt suggested that it was very likely the track was made by a ''Tyrannosaurus rex'', which would make it the first known footprint from this species. The track was made in what was once a vegetated wetland mud flat. It measures long by wide.

A second footprint that may have been made by a ''Tyrannosaurus'' was first reported in 2007 by British paleontologist Phil Manning, from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. This second track measures long, shorter than the track described by Lockley and Hunt. Whether or not the track was made by ''Tyrannosaurus'' is unclear, though ''Tyrannosaurus'' and ''Nanotyrannus'' are the only large theropods known to have existed in the Hell Creek Formation. Further study of the track (a full description has not yet been published) will compare the Montana track with the one found in New Mexico.

Locomotion

There are two main issues concerning the locomotory abilities of ''Tyrannosaurus'': how well it could turn; and what its maximum straight-line speed was likely to have been. Both are relevant to the debate about whether it was a hunter or a scavenger (see below).

''Tyrannosaurus'' may have been slow to turn, possibly taking one to two seconds to turn only 45° — an amount that humans, being vertically oriented and tailless, can spin in a fraction of a second. The cause of the difficulty is rotational inertia, since much of ''Tyrannosaurus''’ mass was some distance from its center of gravity, like a human carrying a heavy timber — although it might have reduced the average distance by arching its back and tail and pulling its head and forelimbs close to its body, rather like the way ice skaters pull their arms closer in order to spin faster. Scientists have produced a wide range of maximum speed estimates, mostly around , but a few as low as , and a few as high as . Researchers have to rely on various estimating techniques because, while there are many tracks of very large theropods walking, so far none have been found of very large theropods running—and this absence ''may'' indicate that they did not run. Scientists who think that ''Tyrannosaurus'' was able to run point out that hollow bones and other features that would have lightened its body may have kept adult weight to a mere or so, or that other animals like ostriches and horses with long, flexible legs are able to achieve high speeds through slower but longer strides. Additionally, some have argued that ''Tyrannosaurus'' had relatively larger leg muscles than any animal alive today, which could have enabled fast running .

Jack Horner and Don Lessem argued in 1993 that ''Tyrannosaurus'' was slow and probably could not run (no airborne phase in mid-stride), because its ratio of femur (thigh bone) to tibia (shin bone) length was greater than 1, as in most large theropods and like a modern elephant. However, Holtz (1998) noted that tyrannosaurids and some closely related groups had significantly longer distal hindlimb components (shin plus foot plus toes) relative to the femur length than most other theropods), and that tyrannosaurids and their close relatives had a tightly interlocked metatarsus that more effectively transmitted locomotory forces from the foot to the lower leg than in earlier theropods ("metatarsus" means the foot bones, which function as part of the leg in digitigrade animals). He therefore concluded that tyrannosaurids and their close relatives were the fastest large theropods. Christiansen (1998) estimated that the leg bones of ''Tyrannosaurus'' were not significantly stronger than those of elephants, which are relatively limited in their top speed and never actually run (there is no airborne phase), and hence proposed that the dinosaur's maximum speed would have been about , which is about the speed of a human sprinter. But he also noted that such estimates depend on many dubious assumptions.

Farlow and colleagues (1995) have argued that a ''Tyrannosaurus'' weighing to would have been critically or even fatally injured if it had fallen while moving quickly, since its torso would have slammed into the ground at a deceleration of 6 ''g'' (six times the acceleration due to gravity, or about 60 meters/s²) and its tiny arms could not have reduced the impact. However, giraffes have been known to gallop at , despite the risk that they might break a leg or worse, which can be fatal even in a "safe" environment such as a zoo. Thus it is quite possible that ''Tyrannosaurus'' also moved fast when necessary and had to accept such risks.

Most recent research on ''Tyrannosaurus'' locomotion does not support speeds faster than , i.e. moderate-speed running. For example, a 2002 paper in the journal ''Nature'' used a mathematical model (validated by applying it to three living animals, alligators, chickens, and humans; additionally later eight more species including emus and ostriches) to gauge the leg muscle mass needed for fast running (over ). They found that proposed top speeds in excess of were unfeasible, because they would require very large leg muscles (more than approximately 40–86% of total body mass). Even moderately fast speeds would have required large leg muscles. This discussion is difficult to resolve, as it is unknown how large the leg muscles actually were in ''Tyrannosaurus''. If they were smaller, only walking/jogging might have been possible. A study in 2007 used computer models to estimate running speeds, based on data taken directly from fossils, and claimed that ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' had a top running speed of . An average professional football (soccer) player would be slightly slower, while a human sprinter can reach . Note that these computer models predict a top speed of for a ''Compsognathus'' (probably a juvenile individual).

Those who argue that ''Tyrannosaurus'' was incapable of running estimate the top speed of ''Tyrannosaurus'' at about . This is still faster than its most likely prey species, hadrosaurids and ceratopsians. In addition, some advocates of the idea that ''Tyrannosaurus'' was a predator claim that tyrannosaur running speed is not important, since it may have been slow but still faster than its probable prey. However, Paul and Christiansen (2000) argued that at least the later ceratopsians had upright forelimbs and the larger species may have been as fast as rhinos. Healed ''Tyrannosaurus'' bite wounds on ceratopsian fossils are interpreted as evidence of attacks on living ceratopsians (see below). If the ceratopsians that lived alongside ''Tyrannosaurus'' were fast, that casts doubt on the argument that ''Tyrannosaurus'' did not have to be fast to catch its prey.

Feeding strategies

The debate about whether ''Tyrannosaurus'' was a predator or a pure scavenger is as old as the debate about its locomotion. Lambe (1917) described a good skeleton of ''Tyrannosaurus''’ close relative ''Gorgosaurus'' and concluded that it and therefore also ''Tyrannosaurus'' was a pure scavenger, because the ''Gorgosaurus''’ teeth showed hardly any wear. This argument is no longer taken seriously, because theropods replaced their teeth quite rapidly. Ever since the first discovery of ''Tyrannosaurus'' most scientists have speculated that it was a predator; like modern large predators it would readily scavenge or steal another predator's kill if it had the opportunity.

Noted hadrosaur expert Jack Horner is currently the major advocate of the idea that ''Tyrannosaurus'' was exclusively a scavenger and did not engage in active hunting at all. Horner has presented several arguments to support the pure scavenger hypothesis: Tyrannosaur arms are short when compared to other known predators. Horner argues that the arms were too short to make the necessary gripping force to hold on to prey. Tyrannosaurs had large olfactory bulbs and olfactory nerves (relative to their brain size). These suggest a highly developed sense of smell which could sniff out carcasses over great distances, as modern vultures do. Research on the olfactory bulbs of dinosaurs has shown that ''Tyrannosaurus'' had the most highly developed sense of smell of 21 sampled dinosaurs. Opponents of the pure scavenger hypothesis have used the example of vultures in the opposite way, arguing that the scavenger hypothesis is implausible because the only modern pure scavengers are large gliding birds, which use their keen senses and energy-efficient gliding to cover vast areas economically. However, researchers from Glasgow concluded that an ecosystem as productive as the current Serengeti would provide sufficient carrion for a large theropod scavenger, although the theropod might have had to be cold-blooded in order to get more calories from carrion than it spent on foraging (see Metabolism of dinosaurs). They also suggested that modern ecosystems like Serengeti have no large terrestrial scavengers because gliding birds now do the job much more efficiently, while large theropods did not face competition for the scavenger ecological niche from gliding birds. Tyrannosaur teeth could crush bone, and therefore could extract as much food (bone marrow) as possible from carcass remnants, usually the least nutritious parts. Karen Chin and colleagues have found bone fragments in coprolites (fossilized feces) that they attribute to tyrannosaurs, but point out that a tyrannosaur's teeth were not well adapted to systematically chewing bone like hyenas do to extract marrow. Since at least some of ''Tyrannosaurus'''s potential prey could move quickly, evidence that it walked instead of ran could indicate that it was a scavenger. On the other hand, recent analyses suggest that ''Tyrannosaurus'', while slower than large modern terrestrial predators, may well have been fast enough to prey on large hadrosaurs and ceratopsians. Other evidence suggests hunting behavior in ''Tyrannosaurus''. The eye-sockets of tyrannosaurs are positioned so that the eyes would point forward, giving them binocular vision slightly better than that of modern hawks. Horner also pointed out that the tyrannosaur lineage had a history of steadily improving binocular vision. It is not obvious why natural selection would have favored this long-term trend if tyrannosaurs had been pure scavengers, which would not have needed the advanced depth perception that stereoscopic vision provides. In modern animals, binocular vision is found mainly in predators. A skeleton of the hadrosaurid ''Edmontosaurus annectens'' has been described from Montana with healed tyrannosaur-inflicted damage on its tail vertebrae. The fact that the damage seems to have healed suggests that the ''Edmontosaurus'' survived a tyrannosaur's attack on a living target, i.e. the tyrannosaur had attempted active predation. There is also evidence for an aggressive interaction between a ''Triceratops'' and a ''Tyrannosaurus'' in the form of partially healed tyrannosaur tooth marks on a ''Triceratops'' brow horn and squamosal (a bone of the neck frill); the bitten horn is also broken, with new bone growth after the break. It is not known what the exact nature of the interaction was, though: either animal could have been the aggressor. When examining Sue, paleontologist Pete Larson found a broken and healed fibula and tail vertebrae, scarred facial bones and a tooth from another ''Tyrannosaurus'' embedded in a neck vertebra. If correct, these might be strong evidence for aggressive behavior between tyrannosaurs but whether it would have been competition for food and mates or active cannibalism is unclear. However, further recent investigation of these purported wounds has shown that most are infections rather than injuries (or simply damage to the fossil after death) and the few injuries are too general to be indicative of intraspecific conflict. A 2009 study showed that holes in the skulls of several specimens might have been caused by ''Trichomonas''-like parasites that commonly infect avians.

Some researchers argue that if ''Tyrannosaurus'' were a scavenger, another dinosaur had to be the top predator in the Amerasian Upper Cretaceous. Top prey was the larger marginocephalians and ornithopods. The other tyrannosaurids share so many characteristics that only small dromaeosaurs and troodontids remain as feasible top predators. In this light, scavenger hypothesis adherents have suggested that the size and power of tyrannosaurs allowed them to steal kills from smaller predators, although they may have had a hard time finding enough meat to scavenge, being outnumbered by smaller theropods. Most paleontologists accept that ''Tyrannosaurus'' was both an active predator and a scavenger like most large carnivores.

''Tyrannosaurus'' may have had infectious saliva used to kill its prey. This theory was first proposed by William Abler. Abler examined the teeth of tyrannosaurids between each tooth serration; the serrations may have held pieces of carcass with bacteria, giving ''Tyrannosaurus'' a deadly, infectious bite much like the Komodo Dragon was thought to have. However, Jack Horner regards ''Tyrannosaurus'' tooth serrations as more like cubes in shape than the serrations on a Komodo monitor's teeth, which are rounded. All forms of saliva contain possibly hazardous bacteria, so the prospect of it being used as a method of predation is disputable.

Cannibalism

A study from Currie, Horner, Erickson and Longrich in 2010 has been put forward as evidence of cannibalism in the genus ''Tyrannosaurus''. They studied some ''Tyrannosaurus'' specimens with tooth marks in the bones, attributable to the same genus. The tooth marks were identified in the humerus, foot bones and metatarsals, and this was seen as evidence for opportunistic scavenging, rather than wounds caused by intraspecific combat. In a fight, they proposed it would be difficult to reach down to bite in the feet of a rival, making it more likely that the bitemarks were made in a carcass. As the bitemarks were made in body parts with relatively scantly amounts of flesh, it is suggested that the ''Tyrannosaurus'' was feeding on a cadaver in which the more fleshy parts already had been eaten up. They were also open to the possibility that other tyrannosaurids practiced cannibalism.

Paleopathology

In 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. Of the 81 ''Tyrannosaurus'' foot bones examined in the study one was found to have a stress fracture, while none of the 10 hand bones were found to have stress fractures. The researchers found tendon avulsions only among ''Tyrannosaurus'' and ''Allosaurus''. An avulsion injury left a divot on the humerus of Sue the ''T. rex'', apparently located at the origin of the deltoid or teres major muscles. The presence of avulsion injuries being limited to a the forelimb and shoulder in both ''Tyrannosaurus'' and ''Allosaurus'' suggests that theropods may have had a musculature more complex and functionally different than those of birds. The researchers concluded that Sue's tendon avulsion was probably obtained from struggling prey. The presence of stress fractures and tendon avulsions in general provide evidence for a "very active" predation-based diet rather than obligate scavenging.

History

Henry Fairfield Osborn, president of the American Museum of Natural History, named ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' in 1905. The generic name is derived from the Greek words ''τυράννος'' (''tyrannos'', meaning "tyrant") and ''σαύρος'' (''sauros'', meaning "lizard"). Osborn used the Latin word ''rex'', meaning "king", for the specific name. The full binomial therefore translates to "tyrant lizard the king" or "King Tyrant Lizard", emphasizing the animal's size and perceived dominance over other species of the time.

Earliest finds

Teeth from what is now documented as a ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' were found in 1874 by A. Lakes near Golden, Colorado. In the early 1890s, J. B. Hatcher collected postcranial elements in eastern Wyoming. The fossils were believed to be from a large species of ''Ornithomimus'' (''O. grandis'') but are now considered ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. Vertebral fragments found by E. D. Cope in western South Dakota in 1892 and named as ''Manospondylus gigas'' have also been recognized as belonging to ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. Barnum Brown, assistant curator of the American Museum of Natural History, found the first partial skeleton of ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' in eastern Wyoming in 1900. H. F. Osborn originally named this skeleton ''Dynamosaurus imperiosus'' in a paper in 1905. Brown found another partial skeleton in the Hell Creek Formation in Montana in 1902. Osborn used this holotype to describe ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' in the same paper in which ''D. imperiosus'' was described. In 1906, Osborn recognized the two as synonyms, and acted as first revisor by selecting ''Tyrannosaurus'' as the valid name. The original ''Dynamosaurus'' material resides in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London.

In total, Brown found five ''Tyrannosaurus'' partial skeletons. In 1941, Brown's 1902 find was sold to the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Brown's fourth and largest find, also from Hell Creek, is on display in the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

Although there are numerous skeletons in the world, only one track has been documented — at Philmont Scout Ranch in northeast New Mexico. It was discovered in 1983 and identified and documented in 1994.

Notable specimens

Sue Hendrickson, amateur paleontologist, discovered the most complete (approximately 85%) and, until 2001, the largest, ''Tyrannosaurus'' fossil skeleton known in the Hell Creek Formation near Faith, South Dakota, on 12 August 1990. This ''Tyrannosaurus'', nicknamed "Sue" in her honor, was the object of a legal battle over its ownership. In 1997 this was settled in favor of Maurice Williams, the original land owner. The fossil collection was purchased by the Field Museum of Natural History at auction for USD 7.6 million, making it the most expensive dinosaur skeleton to date. From 1998 to 1999 Field Museum of Natural History preparators spent over 25,000 man-hours taking the rock off each of the bones. The bones were then shipped off to New Jersey where the mount was made. The finished mount was then taken apart, and along with the bones, shipped back to Chicago for the final assembly. The mounted skeleton opened to the public on May 17, 2000 in the great hall (Stanley Field Hall) at the Field Museum of Natural History. A study of this specimen's fossilized bones showed that "Sue" reached full size at age 19 and died at age 28, the longest any tyrannosaur is known to have lived. Early speculation that Sue may have died from a bite to the back of the head was not confirmed. Though subsequent study showed many pathologies in the skeleton, no bite marks were found. Damage to the back of the skull may have been caused by post-mortem trampling. Recent speculation indicates that "Sue" may have died of starvation after contracting a parasitic infection from eating diseased meat; the resulting infection would have caused inflammation in the throat, ultimately leading "Sue" to starve because she could no longer swallow food. This hypothesis is substantiated by smooth-edged holes in her skull which are similar to those caused in modern-day birds that contract the same parasite.

Another ''Tyrannosaurus'', nicknamed "Stan", in honor of amateur paleontologist Stan Sacrison, was found in the Hell Creek Formation near Buffalo, South Dakota, in the spring of 1987. It was not collected until 1992, as it was mistakenly thought to be a ''Triceratops'' skeleton. Stan is 63% complete and is on display in the Black Hills Institute of Geological Research in Hill City, South Dakota, after an extensive world tour during 1995 and 1996. This tyrannosaur, too, was found to have many bone pathologies, including broken and healed ribs, a broken (and healed) neck and a spectacular hole in the back of its head, about the size of a ''Tyrannosaurus'' tooth. In the summer of 2000, Jack Horner discovered five ''Tyrannosaurus'' skeletons near the Fort Peck Reservoir in Montana. One of the specimens, dubbed "C. rex", was reported to be perhaps the largest ''Tyrannosaurus'' ever found.

In 2001, a 50% complete skeleton of a juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus'' was discovered in the Hell Creek Formation in Montana, by a crew from the Burpee Museum of Natural History of Rockford, Illinois. Dubbed "Jane", the find was initially considered the first known skeleton of the pygmy tyrannosaurid ''Nanotyrannus'' but subsequent research has revealed that it is more likely a juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus''. It is the most complete and best preserved juvenile example known to date. Jane has been examined by Jack Horner, Pete Larson, Robert Bakker, Greg Erickson, and several other renowned paleontologists, because of the uniqueness of her age. "Jane" is currently on exhibit at the Burpee Museum of Natural History in Rockford, Illinois.

In a press release on 7 April 2006, Montana State University revealed that it possessed the largest ''Tyrannosaurus'' skull yet discovered. Discovered in the 1960s and only recently reconstructed, the skull measures long compared to the of "Sue's" skull, a difference of 6.5%.

Appearances in popular culture

Since it was first described in 1905, ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' has become the most widely recognized dinosaur species in popular culture. It is the only dinosaur that is commonly known to the general public by its full scientific name (binomial name) (''Tyrannosaurus rex''), and the scientific abbreviation ''T. rex'' has also come into wide usage. Robert T. Bakker notes this in ''The Dinosaur Heresies'' and explains that a name like "''Tyrannosaurus rex'' is just irresistible to the tongue."

References

Further reading

 – a good survey of research

External links

Tyrannosauridae "Tree of Life" page, very comprehensive survey by major authority Tom Holtz.

''Tyrannosaurus'' in the Dino Directory

Sue's homepage

Stan's homepage

Unearthing ''Tyrannosaurus rex''

''T.rex'' juvenile Jane

NBCI's Taxonomy Browser

Bristol University study on bite forces of predators

Museum of Unnatural Mystery – Bite force etc. of ''T. rex''

Stanford University on bite force of ''T. rex''

How ''Tyrannosaurus'' might have had sex

Recent Discovery of Soft Tissue

Cretaceous Hell Creek Faunal Facies is an example of one tyrannosaur environment, in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana

Miniature Tyrannosaurus Rex discovered

Category:Cretaceous dinosaurs Category:Dinosaurs of North America Category:Tyrannosaurs Category:Geology of Montana

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name	Marc Bolan
background	solo_singer
birth name	Mark Feld
born	September 30, 1947Hackney, London, England
died	September 16, 1977Barnes, London, England
genre	Hard rock, glam rock, psychedelic folk, psychedelic rock, pop rock
years active	1957–1977
occupation	Musician
instrument	Guitar, vocals, bass, Moog synthesizer, percussion
label	A&M;, EMI, Reprise, Mercury
associated acts	T. Rex, John's Children
notable instruments	Gibson Les PaulGibson Flying VFender Stratocaster }}

Marc Bolan (born Mark Feld; 30 September 1947 – 16 September 1977) was an English singer-songwriter, guitarist and poet. He is best known as a solo artist, and previously, for founding British rock band Tyrannosaurus Rex (later renamed T. Rex). His music, as well as his highly original sense of style and extraordinary stage presence, helped create the glam rock era which made him one of the most recognisable stars in British rock music.

Biography

Early life and career

Bolan grew up in post-war Hackney, east London, the son of Phyllis Winifred (née Atkins) and Simeon Feld, a lorry driver. His father was of Polish-Russian Jewish descent. Later moving to Wimbledon, south-west London, he fell in love with the rock and roll of Gene Vincent, Eddie Cochran, Arthur Crudup and Chuck Berry and became a mod, hanging around coffee bars such as the 2 I's in Soho. He appeared as an extra in an episode of the television show Orlando, dressed as a mod. At the age of nine, Bolan was given his first guitar and began a skiffle band. While at school, he played guitar in "Susie and the Hoops," a trio whose vocalist was a 12-year old Helen Shapiro. At 15, he left school "by mutual consent".

He briefly joined a modelling agency and became a "John Temple Boy", appearing in a clothing catalogue for the menswear store. He was a model for the suits in their catalogues as well as for cardboard cut-outs to be displayed in shop windows. "TOWN" magazine featured him as an early example of the mod movement in a photo spread with two other models. Mark Feld had changed his stage-name to Toby Tyler when he met and moved in with child actor Allan Warren, who was to become his first manager. This fortuitous encounter afforded Bolan a lifeline to the heart of show-business, as Warren saw Toby Tyler's potential whilst the latter spent hours sitting cross-legged on Warren's floor playing his acoustic guitar. A series of photographs was to be commissioned with photographer Michael McGrath, who later recalls that Bolan "left no impression" on him. Warren also hired a recording studio and had Bolan's first acetates cut. One track was the Bob Dylan song "Blowin' in the Wind". A version of Betty Everett's "You're No Good" was later submitted to EMI for a test screening but was turned down. Warren later sold Bolan's contract and recordings for £200 to his landlord, property mogul David Kirch, in lieu of three months' back rent. Kirch was too busy with his property empire to do anything for him. A year or so later, Bolan's mother pushed into Kirch's office and shouted at him that he had done nothing for her son. She demanded he tear up the contract and willingly he complied. The tapes produced during the Toby Tyler recording session vanished for over 25 years before resurfacing in 1991 and selling for nearly $8,000. Their eventual release on CD in 1993 made available the earliest of Marc's known recordings.

According to Danny Baker speaking on QI Series G, episode 15 on BBC television, ''Bolan'' is a contraction of Bob Dylan. After changing his name again to Marc Bolan (via Mark Bowland) while with Decca Records he released his first single "The Wizard". In early 1967, manager Simon Napier-Bell added him to the pop art/mod band John's Children, which achieved some success as a live band but sold few records. A John's Children single written by Marc Bolan called "Desdemona" was banned by the BBC for its line "lift up your skirt and fly." His tenure with the band was brief. Bolan claimed to have spent time with a wizard in Paris who gave him secret knowledge and could levitate. The time spent with him was often alluded to but remained "mythical"; in reality the wizard was probably U.S. actor Riggs O'Hara with whom Bolan made a trip to Paris in 1965. His song-writing took off and he began writing many of the neo-romantic songs that would appear on his first albums with Tyrannosaurus Rex.

Tyrannosaurus Rex

When John's Children collapsed (amongst other problems, the band were stunned to discover their equipment had been stolen from a studio, according to a Bolan biographer), Bolan and Steve Peregrine Took created Tyrannosaurus Rex, a psychedelic-folk rock acoustic duo, playing Bolan's songs, with Took playing assorted hand and kit percussion and occasional bass to Bolan's acoustic guitars and voice.

This version of Tyrannosaurus Rex released four albums and four singles, flirting with the charts, reaching as high as number fifteen and supported with airplay by Radio 1 DJ John Peel. One of the highlights of this era was when the duo played at the first free Hyde Park concert in 1968. Although the free-spirited, drug-taking Took was fired from the group after their first American tour, they were a force to be reckoned within the hippy underground scene while they lasted. Their music was filled with Marc's otherworldly poetry, a book of which he published in 1969, 'The Warlock Of Love'. In keeping with his early rock and roll interests, Bolan began bringing amplified guitar lines into the duo's music, buying a vintage Gibson Les Paul guitar (later featured on the cover of the album ''T. Rex'' in 1970). After replacing Took with Mickey Finn, he let the electric influences come forward even further on ''A Beard of Stars'', the final album to be credited to Tyrannosaurus Rex. It closed with the song "Elemental Child," featuring a long electric guitar break influenced by Jimi Hendrix.

Bolan, by now married to his girlfriend June Child (a former secretary to the manager of another of his heroes, Syd Barrett), shortened the group's name to T. Rex and wrote and recorded "Ride a White Swan", dominated by a rolling, hand clapping back-beat, Bolan's electric guitar and Finn's percussion.

T. Rex and glam rock

Bolan and his producer Tony Visconti oversaw the session for "Ride a White Swan", the single that changed Bolan's career. Recorded on 1 July 1970 and released later that year, it made slow progress in the UK Top 40, until it finally peaked in early 1971 at number two.

Bolan took to wearing top hats and feather boas on stage as well as putting drops of glitter on each of his cheekbones. Stories are conflicting about his inspiration for this—some say it was introduced by his personal assistant, Chelita Secunda, although Bolan told John Pidgeon in a 1974 interview on Radio 1 that he noticed the glitter on his wife's dressing table prior to a photo session and casually daubed some on his face there and then. Other performers—and their fans—soon took up variations on the idea.

The glam era also saw the rise of Bolan's friend David Bowie, whom Bolan had come to know in the underground days (Bolan had played guitar on Bowie's 1970 single "Prettiest Star").

Bolan followed "Ride a White Swan" and ''T. Rex'' by expanding the group to a quartet with bassist Steve Currie and drummer Bill Legend, and cutting a five-minute single, "Hot Love", with a rollicking rhythm, string accents and an extended sing-along chorus inspired somewhat by "Hey Jude". It was number one for six weeks and was quickly followed by "Get It On", a grittier, more adult tune that spent four weeks in the top spot. The song was renamed "Bang a Gong (Get It On)" when released in the United States, to avoid confusion with another song of the same name by the American band Chase. The song reached #10 in the United States in early 1972, the only top 40 single the band ever had in America.

In November 1971, the band's record label, Fly, released the ''Electric Warrior'' track "Jeepster" without Bolan's permission. Outraged, Bolan took advantage of the timely lapsing of his Fly Records contract and left for EMI, who gave him his own record label, the T. Rex Wax Co. Its bag and label featured an iconic head-and-shoulders image of Bolan. Despite the lack of Bolan's endorsement, "Jeepster" peaked at number two.

In 1972, Bolan achieved two more British number ones with "Telegram Sam" and "Metal Guru" (the latter of which stopped Elton John getting to the top with "Rocket Man") and two more number twos in "Children Of The Revolution" and "Solid Gold Easy Action". Bolan told Gloria Jones the track "Metal Guru" would be "the smoothest song in history".

The total of four number two singles (the top spot held by novelty singles recorded by Clive Dunn, Benny Hill and Little Jimmy Osmond). In the same year he appeared in Ringo Starr's film ''Born to Boogie'', a documentary showing a concert at Wembley Empire Pool on 18 March 1972. Mixed in were surreal scenes shot at John Lennon's mansion in Ascot and a session with T. Rex joined by Ringo Starr on second drum kit and Elton John on piano. At this time T. Rex record sales accounted for about 6 percent of total British domestic record sales. The band was reportedly selling 100,000 records a day; however, no T. Rex single ever became a million-seller in the UK, despite many gold discs and an average of four weeks at the top per number one hit; documentation of actual sales has been lost.

In 1973, Bolan played twin lead guitar alongside his friend Jeff Lynne on the Electric Light Orchestra songs "Ma-Ma-Ma Belle" and "Dreaming of 4000" (originally uncredited) from ''On the Third Day'', as well as on "Everyone's Born To Die", which was not released at the time but appears as a bonus track on the 2006 remaster.

Bolan played guitar in Ringo Starr's ''Ringo'' album on the track "Have you seen my baby (hold on)".

By late 1973, his pop star fame gradually began to wane, even though he achieved a number three hit, "20th Century Boy", in February and mid-year "The Groover" followed it to number four. "Truck On (Tyke)" missed the UK Top 10 reaching only number twelve in December. However, "Teenage Dream" from the 1974 album ''Zinc Alloy And The Hidden Riders of Tomorrow'' showed that Bolan was attempting to create richer, more involved music than he had previously attempted with T. Rex. He expanded the line up of the band to include a second guitarist, Jack Green, and other studio musicians, and began to take more control over the sound and production of his records.

In 1974, Bolan played guitar for Ike & Tina Turner. He appeared on "Nutbush City Limits", "Sexy Ida (Part II)", and "Baby Get It On". Tina Turner confirmed this in a BBC Radio 1 interview.

Eventually, the vintage T. Rex line-up disintegrated. Legend left in 1973 and Finn in 1975 and Bolan's marriage came to an end because of his affair with backing singer Gloria Jones. He spent a good deal of his time in the U.S. for much of the next three years, continuing to release singles and albums which, while less popular to the masses, were full of unusual lyrics and sometimes eccentric musical experiments. Although Bolan's health began to fail as he put on weight, the former glam rock icon cleaned up and continued working, producing at least one UK chart hit every year until his death in 1977.

Resurgence

Gloria Jones gave birth to Bolan's son in September 1975, whom they named Rolan Bolan (although his birth certificate lists him as 'Rolan Seymour Feld'; compare David Bowie's son Zowie Bowie). That same year, Bolan returned to the UK from tax exile in the U.S. and Monaco and to the public eye with a low-key tour. Bolan made regular appearances on the LWT pop show ''Supersonic'', directed by his old friend Mike Mansfield and released a succession of singles, but he never regained the success of his glory days of the early 1970s. The last remaining member of Bolan's halcyon era T. Rex, Currie, left the group in late 1976.

In early 1977, Bolan got a new band together, released a new album, ''Dandy in the Underworld'', and set out on a fresh UK tour, taking along punk band The Damned as support to entice a young audience who did not remember his heyday. Granada Television commissioned Bolan to front a six-part series called ''Marc'', where he introduced new and established bands and performed his own songs. By this time Bolan had lost weight, appearing as trim as he had during T. Rex's earlier heyday. The show was broadcast during the post-school half-hour on ITV earmarked for children and teenagers; it was a big success. One episode reunited Bolan with his former John's Children-bandmate Andy Ellison, then fronting the band Radio Stars. The last episode featured a unique Bolan "duet" with David Bowie during which Bolan fell off the stage before the singing had commenced. With no time for a retake, this occurrence was aired and Bowie's amusement was clearly visible.

Death

Bolan died on 16 September 1977, two weeks before his 30th birthday. He was a passenger in a purple Mini 1275GT (registration FOX 661L) driven by Gloria Jones as they headed home from Mortons drinking club and restaurant in Berkeley Square. Jones lost control of the car and it struck a sycamore tree after failing to negotiate a small humpback bridge near Gipsy Lane on Queens Ride, Barnes, southwest London. Bolan died instantly, while Jones suffered a broken arm and broken jaw and spent time in hospital; she did not learn of Bolan's death until the day of his funeral. Bolan's home, which was less than a mile away at 142 Upper Richmond Road West in East Sheen, was quickly looted. Fans quickly turned the site of the crash into a shrine and in 2007 the site was officially recognised as Bolan's Rock Shrine.

At Bolan's funeral, attended by David Bowie and Rod Stewart, a swan-shaped floral tribute was displayed outside the service in recognition of his breakthrough hit single. His funeral service was at the Golders Green Crematorium which is a secular provision in North London. Bolan himself stated that he was Jewish, the religion of his father. However, because his mother was not a Jew he would be considered a gentile under Orthodox Jewish law (Halakha). His ashes were buried at Golders Green Crematorium.

Bolan never learned to drive, fearing a premature death. Despite this fear, cars or automotive components are at least mentioned in, if not the subject of, many of his songs. He also owned a number of vehicles, including a famed white Rolls-Royce, which had been lent by his management to Hawkwind on the night of his death.

Fellow T. Rex member Steve Currie also died in a car crash less than four years later.

Equipment

Guitars

Electric: Marc Bolan was mostly seen playing Gibson Les Pauls. His main guitar, a Les Paul Standard (fitted with a Les Paul Custom replacement neck after the original neck was broken) was refinished in an translucent orange to resemble Gretsch guitars played by his hero Eddie Cochran. He was also seen playing a black Gibson Flying V with tremolo and a late 1960s model Olympic White Fender Stratocaster. One with both an eye and ear for the unusual, Bolan also played various models of visually striking guitars from smaller independent companies, among them a Veleno aluminium guitar, and the Burns Flyte. Acoustic: Bolan favoured the Epiphone and Gibson brands. Most notably the Gibson Hummingbird and Gibson J-160E models.

In 2011, Gibson Guitar Corporation issued a specification-correct model of his main Gibson Les Paul guitar as part of their Signature series.

Amplification

While Bolan was known to use makes as diverse as Vox, Orange, and Marshall, he is perhaps most associated with the short-lived Vampower line of British amplifiers. Used through 1970–1973, the model MK1A Vampower 100 watt stack was present and utilised on the ground-breaking T. Rex tours and recordings of that period.

Signal Processors

Dallas-Arbiter Fuzz Face, Electro-Harmonix Screaming Tree, MXR Blue Box, Vox wah.

Legacy

In 1979, Siouxsie and the Banshees released a cover of "20th Century Boy" as the b-side to the single "The Staircase (Mystery)".

In December 1980, "Telegram Sam" was the fourth single released by British gothic rock band Bauhaus. The A side is a cover of T. Rex's song of the same name. It was released in 7-and 12-inch format, the latter featuring "Rosegarden Funeral of Sores" as an extra track.

Also in 1980, The Bongos were the first American group, with "Mambo Sun," to enter the ''Billboard'' charts with a T.Rex cover. Since then, Bongos frontman Richard Barone has recorded several other Bolan compositions ("The Visit," "Ballrooms of Mars"), worked with T.Rex producer Tony Visconti for his current solo album, ''Glow'' (2010, Bar/None Records) that includes a remake of Bolan's "Girl" from ''Electric Warrior'', and has himself produced tracks for Bolan's son Rolan.

In 1981, Department S released a cover of "Solid Gold Easy Action" as the b-side to the single "Is Vic There?".

In 1984, The Replacements released a cover of "20th Century Boy" as a B-side to the single "I Will Dare"; it is also included on the reissue version of their album ''Let It Be''. In 1993, Adam Ant (born, Stuart Leslie Goddard) covered the track live on the Limed Edition live disc of his ''Antmusic: The Very Best of Adam Ant'' collection.

In 1985, Duran Duran splinter band Power Station, with Robert Palmer as vocalist, took a version of "Get It On" into the UK Top 40 and to US #6, the first cover of a Bolan song to enter the charts since his death. They also performed the tune (with Michael Des Barres replacing Palmer) at the U.S. Live Aid concert.

In 1986, the Violent Femmes performed "Children of the Revolution" on their third album ''The Blind Leading the Naked'', for which they also recorded a music video.

In 1990, Baby Ford did a cover of "Children of the Revolution" that appeared on the album ''Oooh, The World of Baby Ford''.

In 1993, Guns N' Roses covered "Buick MacKane" on 'The Spaghetti Incident?" but it was mislabelled on the album as "Buick Makane".

In 1994, Billy Idol wore a t-shirt reproducing ''The Slider'' album cover in his popular video supporting the song "Speed". That was a clear homage to Marc Bolan, who helped Generation X to rise at the very beginning of their career.

In 2006 Def Leppard released their album ''Yeah'' which contains covers of their favourite bands while growing up, the first song on this album is "20th Century Boy". Joe Elliott wanted to sing "Metal Guru" while Vivian Campbell wanted "Telegram Sam" but end up agreeing to "20th Century Boy". It's not the first time that Def Leppard has sung a T.Rex song; there is a live version of Get It On.

"Children of the Revolution" was similarly performed by Elton John and Pete Doherty at Live 8, 20 years later. Bono and Gavin Friday cover "Children of the Revolution" on the ''Moulin Rouge!'' soundtrack.

In 2000, Naoki Urasawa created a Japanese manga entitled ''20th Century Boys'' that was inspired by Marc Bolan's song, "20th Century Boy". The series is a multiple award-winner, and has also been released in North America. The story was adopted into three successful live-action movies from 2008 to 2009, which were also released in the US, Canada and the UK.

"20th Century Boy" introduced a new generation of devotees to Bolan's work in 1991 when it was featured on a Levi's jeans TV commercial featuring Brad Pitt, and was re-released, reaching the UK Top 20. The song was performed by the fictional band The Flaming Creatures (performed by Placebo, reprised by Placebo and David Bowie at the 1999 BRIT Awards) in the 1998 film ''Velvet Goldmine''. In every decade since his death, a Bolan greatest hits compilation has placed in the top 20 UK albums and periodic boosts in sales have come via cover versions from artists inspired by Bolan, including Morrissey and Siouxsie and the Banshees. Similarly, "I Love to Boogie" was briefly used on an advert for Robinson's soft drink in 2001, bringing Bolan's music to a new generation. Mitsubishi also featured "20th Century Boy" in a 2002 car commercial, prompting Hip-O Records to release a best-of collection CD titled ''20th Century Boy: The Ultimate Collection''.

His music is still widely used in films, recent notable cases being ''Breakfast on Pluto'', ''Death Proof'', ''Lords of Dogtown'', ''Billy Elliot'', ''Jarhead'', ''Moulin Rouge!'', ''Herbie: Fully Loaded'', ''Breaking-Up'', ''Hot Fuzz'', ''Click'', ''School of Rock'' & ''Scott Pilgrim vs. the World''. Bolan is still cited by many guitar-centric bands as a huge influence (Joy Division/New Order's Bernard Sumner has said that the first single he owned was "Ride a White Swan".) However, he always maintained he was a poet who put lyrics to music. The tunes were never as important as the words.

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An altogether less welcome legacy for his friends and family is the ongoing row about his fortune. Bolan had arranged a discretionary trust to safeguard his money. His death left the fortune beyond the reach of those closest to him and both his family and journalists have taken an active interest in investigating the situation, so far with little result other than bringing the story to wider attention. A small, separate Jersey-based trust fund has allowed his son to receive some income. However, the bulk of Bolan's fortune, variously estimated at between £20 and £30 million pounds (approx $38 – $57 million), remains in trust. As of 2007, Bolan's family is supposed to have a house paid for by the trust, and Rolan is supposed to receive an allowance.

Bolan returned to the top of the UK charts in 2005 when the remastered, expanded ''Born to Boogie'' DVD hit No. 1 in the Music DVD charts.

Steve Kilbey – a self-confessed Marc Bolan fan and singer for renowned Australian art-rock group The Church – performed Bolan's "One Inch Rock" on the Steve Kilbey Live DVD, released in January 2008.

In 2006, it was revealed that English Heritage had refused to commission a blue plaque to commemorate Bolan, as they believed him to be of "insufficient stature or historical significance". There is, however, an existing plaque dedicated to Bolan at his childhood home, put there by Hackney Council.

There are also two plaques dedicated to his memory at Golders Green Crematorium in North London. The second one to be displayed was placed there by the official Marc Bolan fan club and fellow fans in September 2002, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of his passing. The inscription on the stone, which also bears his image, reads '25 years on – his light of love still shines brightly'. Placed beneath the plaque there is an appropriate ceramic figure of a white swan.

In 2006, TV series ''Life on Mars'', William Matheson portrays Marc Bolan, circa 1973, in a bar in Manchester. Time-travelling Sam Tyler recognises him, has a fan boy moment, and warns him to be careful of riding in Minis. In the American version of the series, the character is replaced by that of Jim Croce, who died later that year in a plane crash, and Sam warns him. However, the T. Rex version of "Get It On" is played in the New York dance club in that scene.

One of Bolan's guitars, a Gibson Flying V, recently turned up on ''Antiques Roadshow'' in the hands of a private collector. The appraiser estimated the value of the guitar to be approximately £50,000–60,000.

A school is planned in his honour, to be built in Sierra Leone: The Marc Bolan School of Music and Film.

The Cameron Crowe-created movie "Almost Famous" features a scene where a Black Sabbath groupie is telling aspiring journalist William Miller (said to be created in Crowe's own image) about how, "Marc Bolan broke her heart, man. It's famous," regarding the character of Penny Lane, played by Kate Hudson.

My Chemical Romance's song 'Vampire Money' taken from their album 'Danger Days: The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys' released on 22 November 2010 features the lyric 'glimmer like Bolan in the morning sun', referencing Marc Bolan.

A musical, ''20th Century Boy'', based on Bolan's life, and featuring his music, is due to premiere at the New Wolsey Theatre in Ipswich in autumn 2011.

Discography

;Singles'''

Nov. 1965 The Wizard/Beyond The Rising Sun. Decca F 12288.

June 1966. The Third Degree/San Francisco Poet. Decca F 12413.

Dec. 1966. Hippy Gumbo/Misfit. Parlophone R 5539.

''John's Children:''

May 1967. Desdemona/Remember Thomas A Beckett. Track 604 003.

July 1967. Midsummer's Night Scene/Sara Crazy Child. (Track 604 005, withdrawn; very few copies exist)

Aug. 1967. Come And Play With Me In The Garden/Sara Crazy Child. Track 604 005.

''Tyrannosaurus Rex:''

April 1968. Debora/Child Star.(34). Regal Zono RZ 3008.

Aug. 1968. One Inch Rock/Salamada Palaganda.(28). Regal Zono RZ 3011.

Jan. 1969. Pewtor Suitor/Warlord Of The Royal Crocodiles. Regal Zono RZ 3016.

July 1969. King Of The Rumbling Spires/Do You Remember.(44). Regal Zono RZ 3022.

Jan. 1970. By The Light Of A Magical Moon/Find A Little Wood. Regal Zono RZ 3025.

March 1970. Debora/One Inch Rock/Woodland Bop/Seal Of Seasons.(7). Magnifly ECHO 102.

''Dib Cochran And The Earwigs:''

1970. Oh Baby/Universal Love/Deep Summer. Bell 1121.

''T. Rex:''

Oct. 1970. Ride a White Swan/Is It Love/Summertime Blues. Fly BUG 1.

Feb. 1971. Hot Love/Woodland Rock/King Of The Mountain Cometh. Fly BUG 6.

July 1971. Get It On (Bang a Gong)/There Was A Time/Raw Ramp. Fly BUG 10.

Nov. 1971. Jeepster/Life's A Gas. Fly BUG 16.

Jan. 1972. Telegram Sam/Cadillac/Baby Strange. T.Rex Wax 101.

May 1972. Metal Guru/Thunderwing/Lady. EMI Marc 1.

Sept. 1972. Children of the Revolution/Jitterbug Love/Sunken Rags. EMI Marc 2.

Dec. 1972. Solid Gold Easy Action/Born To Boogie. EMI Marc 3.

March 1973. 20th Century Boy/Free Angel. EMI Marc 4.

June 1973. The Groover/Midnight. EMI Marc 5.

''Electric Light Orchestra:''

Jan. 1973. ''On the Third Day'' – Marc Bolan played twin lead guitar on the track "Ma-Ma-Ma Belle" and 5 other songs.

''Big Carrot:''

Aug. 1973. Blackjack/Squint Eye Mangle. EMI 2047.

''T. Rex:''

Nov. 1973. Truck On (Tyke)/Sitting Here.(12). EMI Marc 6.

Jan. 1974. "Teenage Dream"/"Satisfaction Pony".(13). EMI Marc 7.

''Marc Bolan:''

June 1974. Jasper C. Debussy/Hippy Gumbo/The Perfumed Garden Of Gulliver Smith. Track 2094 013.

''T. Rex:''

July 1974. Light Of Love/Explosive Mouth.(22). EMI Marc 8.

Nov. 1974. Zip Gun Boogie/Space Boogie.(41). EMI Marc 9.

July 1975. New York City/Chrome Sitar.(15). EMI Marc 10.

Sept. 1975. Dreamy Lady/Do You Wanna Dance?/Dock Of The Bay.(30). EMI Marc 11.

Nov. 1975. Christmas Bop/Telegram Sam/Metal Guru.(Scheduled for release but cancelled). EMI Marc 12.

Feb. 1976. London Boys/Solid Baby.(40). EMI Marc 13.

April 1976. Hot Love/Get It On. Cube BUG 66.

June 1976. I Love To Boogie/Baby Boomerang.(13). EMI Marc 14.

Sept. 1976. Laser Love/Life's An Elevator.(41). EMI Marc 15.

''Marc Bolan and Gloria Jones:''

Jan. 1977. To Know Him Is To Love Him/City Port. EMI 2572.

''T. Rex:''

March 1977. The Soul Of My Suit/All Alone.(42). EMI Marc 16.

May 1977. Dandy In The Underworld/Groove A Little/Tame My Tiger. EMI Marc 17.

Aug. 1977. Celebrate Summer/Ride My Wheels. EMI Marc 18.

References

External links

Marc Bolan Signature Les Paul from Gibson

Born to Boogie: a site dedicated to Marc Bolan and T.Rex in the Ringo Starr-produced film and its redux release in 2005

Marc Bolan and T. Rex information website

Marc Bolan School Of Music And Film

Marc Bolan Myspace

Marc Bolan and T. Rex information website

Morton's Club, Berekeley Square, London W1J

Category:1947 births Category:1977 deaths Category:English Jews Category:English male singers Category:English rock singers Category:English singer-songwriters Category:Glam rock Category:Jewish musicians Category:People from Stoke Newington Category:English people of Polish descent Category:English people of Russian descent Category:Road accident deaths in England Category:Protopunk musicians Category:Lead guitarists

cs:Marc Bolan da:Marc Bolan de:Marc Bolan el:Μαρκ Μπόλαν es:Marc Bolan fr:Marc Bolan gl:Marc Bolan hr:Marc Bolan id:Marc Bolan it:Marc Bolan he:מארק בולאן hu:Marc Bolan nl:Marc Bolan ja:マーク・ボラン no:Marc Bolan nn:Marc Bolan pl:Marc Bolan pt:Marc Bolan ro:Marc Bolan ru:Марк Болан fi:Marc Bolan sv:Marc Bolan uk:Марк Болан

Name	Ray Turner
Birth date	April 28, 1947
Birth place	England
Nationality	British
Known for	his publications on Logic in computer science and the Philosophy of computer science
Occupation	Professor
Employer	University of Essex }}

Professor Raymond Turner (born 28 April 1947) is an English logician and theoretical computer scientist based at the University of Essex. He is best known for his work on logic in computer science and for his pioneering work in the philosophy of computer science. He is on the editorial boards for the "Journal of Logic and Computation" and the "Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy: Editor Logic, Computation, and Agency."

Books

''Logics for Artificial Intelligence'', 121 pages, E. Horwood, 1984, ISBN 0470201231

''Truth and Modality for Knowledge Representation'', 119 pages, Pitman, 1990, ISBN 0273031864

''Constructive Foundations for Functional Languages'', 288 pages, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co, 1 May 1991, ISBN 0077074114

''Computable Models'', 240 pages, Springer, 2009, ISBN 1848820518

References

Category:1947 births Category:Academics Category:British computer scientists Category:British logicians Category:Living people