Male (♂) refers to the sex of an organism, or part of an organism, which produces small mobile gametes, called spermatozoa. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a larger female gamete or ovum, in the process of fertilization. A male cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a female, but some organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually.

Not all species share a common sex-determination system. In most animals, sex is determined genetically, but in some species it can be determined due to social, environmental or other factors. The sex of humans is determined genetically.

The existence of two sexes seems to have been selected independently across different evolutionary lineages (see Convergent Evolution). The repeated pattern is sexual reproduction in isogamous species with two or more mating types with gametes of identical form and behavior (but different at the molecular level) to anisogamous species with gametes of male and female types to oogamous species in which the female gamete is very much larger than the male and has no ability to move. There is a good argument that this pattern was driven by the physical constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction.

Accordingly, sex is defined operationally across species by the type of gametes produced (i.e.: spermatozoa vs. ova) and differences between males and females in one lineage are not always predictive of differences in another.

Male/female dimorphism between organisms or reproductive organs of different sexes is not limited to animals; male gametes are produced by chytrids, diatoms and land plants, among others. In land plants, ''female'' and ''male'' designate not only the female and male gamete-producing organisms and structures but also the structures of the sporophytes that give rise to male and female plants.

Symbol

A common symbol used to represent the male gender is the Mars symbol, ♂ (Unicode: U+2642 Alt codes: Alt+11)—a circle with an arrow pointing northeast. This is often called a stylized representation of the Roman god Mars' shield and spear.

Sex determination

The sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may naturally change during the course of an organism's life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are either male or female, hermaphroditic animals, such as worms, have both male and female reproductive organs.

Genetic determination

Most mammals, including humans, are genetically determined as such by the XY sex-determination system where males have an XY (as opposed to XX) sex chromosome. It is also possible in a variety of species, including human beings, to be XXY or have other intersex/hermaphroditic qualities. These qualities are widely reported to be as common as redheadedness (about 2% of the population). During reproduction, a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while a female can only give an X egg. A Y sperm and an X egg produce a boy, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a girl. The ZW sex-determination system, where males have a ZZ (as opposed to ZW) sex chromosome may be found in birds and some insects (mostly butterflies and moths) and other organisms. Members of Hymenoptera, such as ants and bees, are determined by haplodiploidy, where most males are haploid and females and some sterile males are diploid.

Environmental determination

In some species of reptiles, including alligators, sex is determined by the temperature at which the egg is incubated. Other species, such as some snails, practice sex change: adults start out male, then become female. In tropical clown fish, the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the other ones are male.

In some arthropods, sex is determined by infection. Bacteria of the genus ''Wolbachia'' alter their sexuality; some species consist entirely of ZZ individuals, with sex determined by the presence of ''Wolbachia''.

Secondary sex characteristics

In those species with two sexes, males may differ from females in ways other than production of spermatozoa. In many insects and fish the male is smaller than the female. In seed plants, which exhibit alternation of generations, the female and male parts are both included within the sporophyte sex organ of a single organism. In mammals, including humans, males are typically larger than females. In birds, the male often exhibits a colorful plumage that attracts females.

See also

Boy

Female

Gender

Male pregnancy

Man

Masculinity

male plant

References

Category:Gender Category:Sex Category:Men

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name	Raffaella Carrà
birth name	Raffaella Roberta Pelloni
birth date	June 18, 1943
birth place	Bologna, Italy
othername	Raffaella Carrà
occupation	Actress, singer
yearsactive	1952–present
domesticpartner	Sergio Japino
website	}}

Raffaella Carrà (born 18 June 1943, Bologna, Italy), in Italy often simply known as ''la Carrà'' and in some Latin American countries sometimes simply as ''Raffaella'', is an Italian singer, dancer, television presenter, and actress. She is a popular figure in Italy, Spain, Malta, Greece and Latin America and Russia, both as a result of her many well known taped presentations and records, and because of her many popular TV shows.

Early life

She was born Raffaella Roberta Pelloni, in Bologna. In her native town she had dance lessons.

Career

Singing and dancing

Since 1961, Carrà has sung and danced on the variety shows of Italian television. In particular, since the early 1970s, they have featured elaborate choreography, mesmerizing elaborate themes, and her uninhibited style. She was the first television figure to show her belly button on camera. This was met with heavy criticism from the Vatican.

Carrà had a hit song with the sensual "Tuca Tuca" (1970), written for her singing and dancing television presentations by her long-time collaborator and former boyfriend, Gianni Boncompagni. Similarly, in 1971 Carrà achieved another hit with "Chissà se Va".

Her greatest international hit single was "Tanti Auguri" ("Best Wishes"), which has become a popular song amongst the gay community. The song is also known under its Spanish title "Para hacer bien el amor hay que venir al sur" (which refers to Southern Europe, since the hit was recorded and taped in Spain). The Estonian version of the song "Jätke võtmed väljapoole" was performed by Anne Veski. "A far l'amore comincia tu" ("To make love, your move first") was another success for her internationally, known in Spanish as "En el amor todo es empezar", in German as "Liebelei", in French as "Puisque tu l'aimes dis le lui", and in English as "Do It, Do It Again". It was her only entry to the UK Singles Chart, where she remains a one-hit wonder. In 1977, she recorded another hit single, "Fiesta" ('The Party' in English) originally in Spanish, but then recorded it in French and Italian after the song hit the charts.

In 1985, Carra's ''Starlight Express'' video was released featuring characters, costumes and sets from the show. In 2008, "Do It, Do It Again" was featured briefly in the ''Midnight'' episode of the fourth series of ''Doctor Who''. "A far l'amore comincia tu" has also been covered in Turkish by a Turkish popstar called Ajda Pekkan as "Sakın Ha" in 1977.

Most recently, Carrà has gained new attention for her appearance as the female vocal soloist in the proto hip-hop gibberish song Prisencolinensinainciusol (1973) by Adriano Celentano. A remixed video of her dancing and singing in the song went viral on the internet in 2008.

Recently Rafalle Carrà worked with Bob Sinclar with the new single Far l'Amore which was released on youtube 17th march 2011.

Television hostess

As a television hostess, Carrà has done significant work since the late 1970s, mainly in the Italian (RAI) and Spanish (TVE) national TV networks. One of her most celebrated series has been the ''Pronto Raffaella?'' gameshow (Italy, 1983–1985), in which she answered the phone calls of her contestants. The show's format was copied in many Latin-American Countries and Spain,in South America (in Argentina by Susana Giménez, in Peru by Gisela Valcárcel and in Brazil by Christina Rocha), with great success. Carrà hosted one such adaptation, ''¡Hola Raffaella!'' (1992–1994) for Spanish television.

From 2008, returning by popular demand, Carrà hosts a variety show on Italy's National and International RAI network, "Carramba Che Fortuna". With the show's unique formula, families all over the world are reunited on live television. Carrà creates magic by surprising unsuspecting guests, detailing their life history with such intensity and emotion which climaxes in a once in a lifetime reunion with the overseas visitor.

Actress

Carrà debuted in cinema at age nine, in ''Tormento del passato'' (1952). She did five other movies until 1960 when she graduated from the national film school of Italy. Also in that year, she appeared in ''Long Night in 1943'' (1960). In 1965, she moved to the United States signing with 20th Century Fox. As Carrà, she starred in the motion picture ''Von Ryan's Express'' (1965) with Frank Sinatra, Edward Mulhare, and Trevor Howard. In 1966, she guest starred in an episode of the American television series ''I Spy'' (''Sophia'', as the title character). Feeling homesick, she decided to return to Italy. ''Le Saint prend l'affût'' (1966).

During the 1960s, Carrà starred in about twenty Italian films and a few television shows. However, subsequently her actress career has been scarce with no more than five works mainly for television.

Spanish-language market

After her boom in the Italian market of the early 1970s, Carrà moved to Spain, doing television and releasing records in the Spanish language. This led her to move to South America, where her records had been heard for some years. In 1979 she established her headquarters in Buenos Aires, which was under a military regime. Carrà was one of the figures of the ATC, the official television network of Argentina. She was very well-received throughout Latin America, and filled the stadiums and theaters wherever she performed. In 1980 she filmed the ''Barbara'' musical romantic comedy, also in Buenos Aires, with the most important stars of the region. In that same year, five capitals of the world (Buenos Aires, Mexico DF, Rome, Moscow, and London) joined up to celebrate her in a television special. After appearing in the Festival de Vina del Mar (1982) she returned permanently to Italy. She visited the city of Salto, Uruguay and performed a show in the Parque Harriague.

Owing to this stint, Carrà has generated much social controversy along the years, allegedly as a "puppet" of the Argentinian National Reorganization Process.

Personal life

Carrà has had a twenty year relationship with the choreographer Sergio Japino.

References

External links

Raffaella Carrà at the Internet Movie Database

Raffaella Carrà at the MSN

Russian fan site

Category:1943 births Category:Italian actors Category:Italian female singers Category:Italian-language singers Category:Italian television personalities Category:Italian television presenters Category:Living people Category:People from Bologna Category:Spanish-language singers

ca:Raffaella Carrà de:Raffaella Carrà el:Ραφαέλα Καρά es:Raffaella Carrà fr:Raffaella Carrà gl:Raffaella Carrà it:Raffaella Carrà la:Raphaela Carra hu:Raffaella Carrà nl:Raffaella Carrà pt:Raffaela Carrà ru:Карра, Раффаэлла sk:Raffaella Carrà tr:Raffaella Carrà

Name	Jean Paul Gaultier
Nationality	French
Birth date	April 24, 1952
Birth place	Arcueil, Val-de-Marne, France
Label name	Jean Paul Gaultier, Hermès

Jean Paul Gaultier (), born 24 April 1952 in Arcueil, Val-de-Marne, France) is a French haute couture fashion designer. Gaultier was the creative director of Hermès from 2003 to 2010. In the past, He has hosted the television series ''Eurotrash''.

Life and career

Gaultier never received formal training as a designer. Instead, he started sending sketches to famous couture stylists at an early age. Pierre Cardin was impressed by his talent and hired him as an assistant in 1970. Afterwards he worked with Jacques Esterel in 1971 and Jean Patou later that year, then returning to manage the Pierre Cardin boutique in Manila for a year in 1974.

His first individual collection was released in 1976 and his characteristic irreverent style dates from 1981, and he has long been known as the ''enfant terrible'' of French fashion. Many of Gaultier's following collections have been based on street wear, focusing on popular culture, whereas others, particularly his Haute Couture collections, are very formal yet at the same time unusual and playful.

Although most people found his designs decadent at the time, fashion editors, notably Melka Tréanton of Elle, Claude Brouet and Catherine Lardeur of French Marie Claire, were seduced by his creativity and immediately noticed his mastery of tailoring and later launched his career. In 1985 he introduced man-skirts, and produced sculptured costumes for Madonna during the nineties, starting with her infamous cone bra for her 1990 Blond Ambition Tour, and designed the wardrobe for her 2006 Confessions Tour. Gaultier has also worked in close collaboration with Wolford Hosiery. He promoted the use of skirts, especially kilts on men's wardrobe, and the release of designer collections. Gaultier caused shock by using unconventional models for his exhibitions, like older men and full-figured women, pierced and heavily tattooed models, and by playing with traditional gender roles in the shows. This earned him both criticism and enormous popularity.

At the end of the 1980s, Gaultier suffered some personal losses, including his lover and business partner Francis Menuge, who died of AIDS-related causes.

Gaultier designed the wardrobe of many motion pictures, including Luc Besson's ''The Fifth Element'', Pedro Almodóvar's ''Kika'', Peter Greenaway's ''The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover'', and Jean-Pierre Jeunet's ''La Cité des enfants perdus'' (''The City of Lost Children''). He currently designs for three collections: his own couture and ready-to-wear lines, for both men and women.

In 1988 Gaultier released a dance single titled "How To Do That" on Fontana records from which came one of the first ever "single title" remix albums "Aow Tou Dou Zat" on Mercury records. The album includes mixes by Norman Cook, JJ Jeczalik, George Shilling, Mark Saunders, Latin Rascals, David Dorrell, Tim Atkins, Carl Atkins, and Mantronik. Co-written & produced by Tony Mansfield, video directed by Jean Baptiste Mondino. The album also featured a collaboration with accordion player Yvette Horner.

Gaultier has designed a number of the costumes and outfits worn by rocker Marilyn Manson, including the outfits for Manson's ''Golden Age of Grotesque'' album. In France the costumes he designed for singer Mylène Farmer gained much attention. In spring 2008 he signed a contract to be again the fashion designer for her tour in 2009.

He's also well-known for his exhibit in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art known as Bravehearts — Men in Skirts.

He has designed the costumes for Kylie Minogue's international KYLIEX2008 tour, as well as the late iconic Hong Kong singer Leslie Cheung, who hired Gaultier to design eight different costumes for his last concert tour before his death. Information of such can be found in the ‘Biography’ section in the website of Jean Paul Gaultier and the ‘Encounters’ section in the same website .

Collections and labels

Active Labels Labels include Jean Paul Gaultier, Gaultier PARIS – couture collection – and former JEAN'S Paul Gaultier, Eyewear Jean Paul Gaultier and Jean Paul Gaultier Argent. Besides his ready-to-wear collection, in 1988 Gaultier expanded his brand to include the label Junior Gaultier, a lower-priced line designed for the youth market with a heavy nautical influence that he began to carry throughout all of his collections. In 1988, a Junior Gaultier outfit was selected by Jeff Banks as the Dress of the Year. The Junior Gaultier label was replaced in 1994 with JPG by Gaultier, a unisex collection that followed the designer's idea of fluidity of the sexes. Gaultier Jean's, a similar line consisting mainly of denim and more simply styled garments with a heavy street influence, followed in 1992, which was then replaced with Jean's Paul Gaultier from 2004 to 2008. Junior Gaultier's name was reused in 2009 for the launching of the child's wear, to be completed with a Baby Line in 2011.

What brought Gaultier immense success was the advent of his haute couture line in 1997. Through this collection, he was able to freely express the scope and range of his aesthetic, drawing inspiration from radically divergent cultures, from imperial India to Hasidic Judaism. As a result of this success, Hermès hired Gaultier as creative director from 2003 to 2010. Hermes took a 30% stake in Jean Paul Gaultier in 2003 and later increased their stake to 45%.

Gaultier's Spring 2009 couture was influenced by the visual style of singer Klaus Nomi and he used Nomi's recording of ''Cold Song'' in his runway show.

Perfumes

In addition to being a fashion designer, Jean Paul Gaultier is known for a popular line of perfumes. His first fragrance, Classique, a women's floral-oriental, was introduced in 1993, followed by Le Mâle for men two years later. Both were highly successful, and Le Mâle is now the number-one men's fragrance in the European Union based on sales; it also holds a strong market position in Australia and the United States.

His third fragrance, the women's fragrance Fragile, was introduced in 2000; however, it is now in limited distribution due to poor sales. In 2005, the unisex "fragrance for humanity" Gaultier² (pronounced Gaultier to the power of two) was launched (except in Canada, where it was launched in January 2006, and the United States, where it was launched in August 2006). Most recently, Jean Paul Gaultier's latest men's fragrance, Fleur du Mâle was launched in April 2007. Shortly thereafter, the "Eau de Cologne Fleur du Male" was released demonstrating a lighter version of the Fleur du Male. The newest in the Gaultier family of fragrances is ladies fragrance "Ma Dame".

The 6th July 2012 the new men fragrance, Kokorico , has been launching at the theater Gaîté Lyrique (Paris), just after the Haute Couture F/w 2011-2012 fashion show

All Jean Paul Gaultier perfumes are produced under a long-term license by Paris-based Beauté Prestige International, a division of the Japanese company Shiseido that also produces fragrances for Narciso Rodriguez, Elie Saab and Issey Miyake.

References

External links

Official Jean-Paul Gaultier Site

Category:1952 births Category:Living people Category:People from Val-de-Marne Category:French fashion designers Category:High fashion brands Category:Haute couture Category:LGBT people from France Category:LGBT fashion designers Category:Luxury brands Category:Eurovision Song Contest commentators

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name	Johann Paul Friedrich Richter
pseudonym	Jean Paul
birth date	March 21, 1763
birth place	Wunsiedel, Germany
death date	November 14, 1825
death place	Bayreuth, Germany
occupation	novelist
nationality	German
period	1783-1825
genre	humour
subject	education, politics
website	}}

Jean Paul (21 March 1763 – 14 November 1825), born Johann Paul Friedrich Richter, was a German Romantic writer, best known for his humorous novels and stories.

Life and work

Jean Paul was born at Wunsiedel, in the Fichtelgebirge mountains (Bavaria). His father was an organist at Wunsiedel. In 1765 his father became a pastor at Joditz near Hof, and in 1767 at Schwarzenbach, but he died on 25 April 1779, leaving the family in great poverty. After attending the ''Gymnasium'' at Hof, Jean Paul went in 1781 to the University of Leipzig. His original intention was to enter his father's profession, but theology did not interest him, and he soon devoted himself wholly to the study of literature. Unable to maintain himself at Leipzig he returned in 1784 to Hof, where he lived with his mother. From 1787 to 1789 he served as a tutor at Töpen, a village near Hof; and from 1790 to 1794 he taught the children of several families in a school he had founded in nearby Schwarzenbach.

Jean Paul began his career as a man of letters with ''Grönländische Prozesse'' ("Greenland Lawsuits", published anonymously in Berlin) and ''Auswahl aus des Teufels Papieren'' ("Selections from the Devil's Papers", signed J. P. F. Hasus), the former of which was issued in 1783-84, the latter in 1789. These works were not received with much favour, and in later life Richter himself had little sympathy for their satirical tone. A spiritual crisis he suffered on 15 November 1790, in which he had a vision of his own death, altered his outlook profoundly. His next book, ''Die unsichtbare Loge'' ("The Invisible Lodge"), a romance published in 1793 under the pen-name Jean Paul (in honour of Jean Jacques Rousseau), had all the qualities that were soon to make him famous, and its power was immediately recognized by some of the best critics of the day.

Encouraged by the reception of ''Die unsichtbare Loge'', Richter composed a number of books in rapid succession: ''Leben des vergnügten Schulmeisterleins Maria Wutz in Auenthal'' ("Life of the Cheerful Schoolmaster Maria Wutz", 1793), the best-selling ''Hesperus'' (1795), which made him famous, ''Biographische Belustigungen unter der Gehirnschale einer Riesin'' ("Biographical Recreations under the Brainpan of a Giantess", 1796), ''Leben des Quintus Fixlein'' ("Life of Quintus Fixlein", 1796), ''Der Jubelsenior'' ("The Parson in Jubilee", 1797), and ''Das Kampaner Tal'' ("The Valley of Campan", 1797). Also among these was the novel ''Blumen- Frucht- und Dornenstücke, oder Ehestand, Tod und Hochzeit des Armenadvokaten Siebenkäs'' ("Flower, Fruit and Thorn Pieces; or, the Married Life, Death and Wedding of Siebenkäs, Poor Man's Lawyer") in 1796-97. The book's slightly supernatural theme, involving a Doppelgänger and pseudocide, stirred some controversy over its interpretation of the Resurrection, but these criticisms served only to draw awareness to the author. This series of writings assured Richter a place in German literature, and during the rest of his life every work he produced was welcomed by a wide circle of admirers.

After his mother's death in 1797, Richter went to Leipzig, and in the following year to Weimar, where he started work on his most ambitious novel, ''Titan'', published between 1801-02. Richter became friends with such Weimar notables as Herder, by whom he was warmly appreciated, but despite their close proximity, Richter never become close to Goethe and Schiller, both of whom found his literary methods repugnant; but in Weimar, as elsewhere, his remarkable conversational powers and his genial manners made him a favorite in general society. The English writers Thomas Carlyle and Thomas de Quincy took an interest in Jean Paul's work.

In 1801 he married Caroline Meyer, whom he had met in Berlin the year before. They lived first at Meiningen, then at Coburg; and finally, in 1804, they settled at Bayreuth. Here Richter spent a quiet, simple and happy life, constantly occupied with his work as a writer. In 1808 he was fortunately delivered from anxiety about outward necessities by Prince Primate Karl Theodor von Dalberg, who gave him an annual pension of 1,000 florins which was later continued by the king of Bavaria.

Jean Paul's ''Titan'' was followed by ''Flegeljahre'' ("The Awkward Age", 1804-5). His later imaginative works were ''Dr Katzenbergers Badereise'' ("Dr Katzenberger's Trip to the Medicinal Springs", 1809), ''Des Feldpredigers Schmelzle Reise nach Flätz'' ("Army Chaplain Schmelzle's Voyage to Flätz", 1809), ''Leben Fibels'' ("Life of Fibel", 1812), and ''Der Komet, oder Nikolaus Marggraf'' ("The Comet, or, Nikolaus Markgraf", 1820–22). In ''Vorschule der Aesthetik'' ("Introduction to Aesthetics", 1804) he expounded his ideas on art; he discussed the principles of education in ''Levana, oder Erziehungslehre'' ("Levana, or, Pedagogy", 1807); and the opinions suggested by current events he set forth in ''Friedenspredigt'' ("Peace Sermon", 1808), ''Dämmerungen für Deutschland'' ("Twilights for Germany", 1809), ''Mars und Phöbus Thronwechsel im Jahre 1814'' ("Mars and Phoebus Exchange Thrones in the Year 1814", 1814), and ''Politische Fastenpredigten'' ("Political Lenten Sermons", 1817). In his last years he began ''Wahrheit aus Jean Pauls Leben'' ("The Truth from Jean Paul's Life"), to which additions from his papers and other sources were made after his death by C. Otto and E. Förster.

Also during this time he supported the younger writer E. T. A. Hoffmann, who long counted Richter among his influences. Richter wrote the preface to ''Fantasy Pieces'', a collection of Hoffmann's short stories published in 1814.

In September 1821 Jean Paul lost his only son, Max, a youth of the highest promise; and he never quite recovered from this shock. He lost his sight in 1824, and died of dropsy at Bayreuth, on 14 November 1825.

Characteristics of his work

Friedrich Schiller said of Jean Paul that he would have been worthy of admiration if he had made as good use of his riches as other men made of their poverty—the classic approach of "Weimar".

But in working out his conceptions, Jean Paul found it appropriate to express any powerful feeling by which he might happen to be moved. He made it his style to use seemingly out-of-the-way facts or psychological notions which occurred to him. Hence every one of his works is irregular in structure and his style lacks directness, though never grace. His imagination was one of extraordinary fertility, and he had a surprising power of suggesting great thoughts by means of the simplest incidents and relations.

The love of nature was one of Jean Paul's deepest pleasures; his expressions of religious feelings are also marked by a truly poetic spirit, for to him visible things were but the symbols of the invisible, and in the unseen realities alone he found elements which seemed to him to give significance and dignity to human life. His humour, the most distinctive of his qualities, cannot be dissociated from the other characteristics of his writings. It mingled with all his thoughts, and to some extent determined the form in which he embodied even his most serious reflections. That it is sometimes extravagant and grotesque cannot be disputed, but it is never harsh nor vulgar, and generally it springs naturally from the perception of the incongruity between ordinary facts and ideal laws.

Jean Paul's personality was deep and many-sided; with all his willfulness and eccentricity he was a man of a pure and sensitive spirit, with a passionate scorn for pretence and an ardent enthusiasm for truth and goodness.

The last scene of Jean Paul's ''Flegeljahre'' was the inspiration behind Robert Schumann's composition "Papillons" Op. 2.

19th century works on Jean Paul

Richter's ''Sämtliche Werke'' (''Complete Works'') appeared in 1826-28 in 60 volumes, to which were added 5 volumes of ''Literarischer Nachlass'' (literary bequest) in 1836-38; a second edition was published in 1840-42 (33 volumes); a third in 1860-62 (24 volumes). The last complete edition is that edited by R. Gottschall (60 parts, 1879). Editions of selected works appeared in 16 volumes (1865), in Kürschner's ''Deutsche Nationalliteratur'' (edited by P. Nerrlich, 6 vols, pp. 388–487), &c.; The chief collections of Richter's correspondence are:

''Jean Pauls Briefe an F. H. Jacobi'' (1828)

''Briefwechsel Jean Pauls mit seinem Freunde C. Otto'' (1829–33)

''Briefwechsel zwischen H. Voss und Jean Paul'' (1833)

''Briefe an eine Jugendfreundin'' (1858)

P. Nerrlich, ''Jean Pauls Briefwechsel mit seiner Frau und seinem Freunde Otto'' (1902).

See further:

The continuation of Richter's autobiography by C. Otto and E. Fürster (1826–33)

H. Dring, ''J. P. F. Richters Leben und Charakteristik'' (1830–32)

Richard Otto Spazier, ''JPF Richter: ein biographischer Commentar zu dessen Werken'' (5 vols, 1833)

E. Förster, ''Denkwürdigkeiten aus dem Leben von J. P. F. Richter'' (1863)

Paul Nerrlich, ''Jean Paul und seine Zeitgenossen'' (1876)

J. Firmery, ''Étude sur la vie et les œuvres de J. P. F. Richter'' (1886)

P. Nerrlich, ''Jean Paul, sein Leben und seine Werke'' (1889)

Ferdinand Josef Schneider, ''Jean Pauls Altersdichtung'' (1901); and ''Jean Pauls Jugend und erstes Auftreten in der Literatur'' (1906).

Thomas Carlyle's two essays on Richter.

Quotations

Joy is inexhaustible, unlike seriousness.

Music is the moonlight in the gloomy night of life.

Many young people get worked up about opinions that they will share in 20 years.

Too much trust is a foolishness, too much distrust a tragedy.

The German language is the organ among the languages. (''Die deutsche Sprache ist die Orgel unter den Sprachen.'')

A man never describes his own character so clearly as when he describes another.

We learn our virtues from our friends who love us; our faults from the enemy who hates us. We cannot easily discover our real character from a friend. He is a mirror, on which the warmth of our breath impedes the clearness of the reflection.

What a father says to his children is not heard by the world, but it will be heard by posterity.

Works

''Grönländische Prozesse'' 1783-1784

''Auswahl aus des Teufels Papieren'' 1789

''Leben des vergnügten Schulmeisterlein Maria Wutz'' 1790

''Die unsichtbare Loge'' 1793

''Hesperus (book)'' 1795

''Biographische Belustigungen'' 1796

''Leben des Quintus Fixlein'' 1796

''Siebenkäs'' 1796

''Der Jubelsenior'' 1797

''Das Kampaner Tal'' 1797

''Des Luftschiffers Giannozzo Seebuch'' 1801

''Titan'' 1800-03

''Flegeljahre'' (unfinished) 1804

''Vorschule der Aesthetik'' 1804

''Levana oder Erziehlehre'' 1807

''Dr. Katzenbergers Badereise'' 1809

''Des Feldpredigers Schmelzle Reise nach Flätz'' 1809

''Leben Fibels'' 1812

''Bemerkungen über uns närrische Menschen''

''Clavis Fichtiana'' (see also Johann Gottlieb Fichte)

''Das heimliche Klaglied der jetzigen Männer''

''Der Komet'' 1820-1822

''Der Maschinenmann''

''Die wunderbare Gesellschaft in der Neujahrsnacht''

''Freiheits-Büchlein''

English translations

Richter's more important works have been translated into English, for example:

''Quintus Fixlein'' and ''Schmelzles Reise'', by Carlyle

''Walt and Vult'' by Lee (1846)

''Titan'' by Brooks (1863)

''Flower, Fruit and Thorn Pieces'' by Ewing (1877)

''Levana'' by Wood (1887)

References

External links

Jean Paul's works at Projekt Gutenberg-DE (in German)

Famous Quotes by Jean Paul Richter

Category:1763 births Category:1825 deaths Category:People from the District of Wunsiedel Category:German novelists Category:German short story writers Category:People from the Principality of Bayreuth Category:Deaths from edema Category:German opinion journalists Category:Blind people

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