A parochial school is a school that provides religious education in addition to conventional education. In a narrower sense, a parochial school is a Christian grammar school or high school which is part of, and run by, a parish.

United Kingdom

In British education, parish schools from the established church of the relevant constituent country formed the basis of the state-funded education system, and many schools retain a church connection while essentially providing secular education in accordance with standards set by the government of the country concerned. These are often primary schools, and may be designated as ''name'' C.E. School or ''name'' C.E. (Aided) School, depending on whether they are wholly or partly funded by the church (the latter is more common).

In 2002, Frank Dobson proposed an amendment to the Education Bill (for England & Wales) which would limit the selection rights of faith schools by requiring them to offer at least a quarter of places to children of another or no religion, in order to increase inclusivity and lessening social division. The proposal was defeated in Parliament.

In 2005, David Bell, the head of the Office for Standards in Education said "Faith should not be blind. I worry that many young people are being educated in faith-based schools, with little appreciation of their wider responsibilities and obligations to British society. This growth in faith schools needs to be carefully but sensitively monitored by government to ensure that pupils receive an understanding of not only their own faith but of other faiths and the wider tenets of British society". He criticised Islamic schools in particular, calling them a "threat to national identity".

In October 2006, Bishop Kenneth Stevenson, speaking on behalf of the Church of England, said "I want to make a specific commitment that all new Church of England schools should have at least 25% of places available to children with no requirement that they be from practising Christian families." This commitment applies only to new schools, not existing ones.

In September 2007, attempts to create the first secular school in Britain were blocked. Dr Paul Kelley, head of Monkseaton High School in Tyneside, proposed plans to eliminate the daily act of Christian worship, and "a fundamental change in the relationship with the school and the established religion of the country".

In November 2007, the Krishna-Avanti Hindu school in north-west London became the first school in the United Kingdom to make vegetarianism a condition of entry. Additionally, parents of pupils are expected to abstain from alcohol to prove they are followers of the faith.

In November 2007, the Jewish Free School in north London was found guilty of discrimination for giving preference to children who were born to Jewish mothers.

In January 2008 the Commons children, schools and families select committee raised concerns about the government's plans for expanding faith schooling. The general secretary of the Association of Teachers and Lecturers, Dr. Mary Bousted, said "Unless there are crucial changes in the way many faith schools run we fear divisions in society will be exacerbated. In our increasingly multi-faith and secular society it is hard to see why our taxes should be used to fund schools which discriminate against the majority of children and potential staff because they are not of the same faith".

Voluntary aided schools such as Church of England and Catholic schools are not allowed to discriminate against staff of other faiths except in the appointment of religious education teachers. They are only asked to be sympathetic of the particular religious ethos.

England

English education includes many schools linked to the Church of England which sets the ethos of the school and can influence selection of pupils where there is competition for places. These form a large proportion of the 6,955 Christian faith schools in England. The Roman Catholic church also maintains schools. In addition, there are 36 Jewish, seven Muslim and two Sikh faith schools. Faith schools follow the same national curriculum as state schools. Religious education in Church of England schools is monitored by the local diocese, but does not typically take up much more of the timetable than in secular schools. Although not state schools, there are around 700 unregulated madrassas in Britain, attended by approximately 100,000 Muslim children. Doctor Ghayasuddin Siddiqui, the leader of the Muslim Parliament of Great Britain, has called for them to be subject to government inspection following publication of a 2006 report which highlighted widespread physical and sexual abuse.

Scotland

Scotland has its own educational system, distinct from that of England and Wales. Although schools existed in Scotland prior to the Reformation widespread public education in Scotland was pioneered by the Church of Scotland, which handed over its parish schools to the state in 1872. Although these schools are now known as "non-denominational" schools, and are open to all, their traditional links with the Presbyterian and Episcopalian churches and clergy remain in most cases.

Charitably funded Roman Catholic schools were brought into the state system by the Education (Scotland) Act 1918. Whilst maintaining a strong Catholic ethos, Scottish Catholic schools have long welcomed pupils from other faith backgrounds, though they tend to give precedence to non-Catholics who come from families of faith. In Scottish Catholic schools employment of non-Catholics or lapsed Catholics can be restricted by the Church. In some dioceses, one of the requirements for applicants baptised as Catholic is to possess a certificate which has been signed by their parish priest. Each diocese varies on the method of approval and the rigour with which it is applied. Non-Catholic applicants are not required to provide any religious documentation. Certain positions, such as headteachers, religious education teachers and guidance teachers are invariably held by practising Roman Catholics.

Unlike in England and Wales, Scottish schools do not normally have the practice of school-wide daily assembly/worship; this applies even to denominational schools.

United States

Historically, most American parochial schools have been Catholic schools, often elementary schools attached to a local parish, as well as schools runs by Lutherans, Calvinists and Orthodox Jews. In recent years thousands of Fundamentalist religious schools have been founded, especially in the South, though they are not usually called "parochial." There have always been a number of non-religious private schools, especially elite "prep" schools in the Northeast.

Catholic private schools also exist and are not necessarily connected with a parish.

As a rule, parochial schools are open to all children in the parish. Thus parochial school systems function as quasi-public educational networks, in parallel to the state-school systems, the key difference being that parochial systems are largely supported by donations to the parish while state schools are funded by taxes. Out-of-pocket costs to the student attending a parochial school are usually much greater than an equivalent public school, which is taxpayer subsidized, though the actual cost on a per-student basis is on average nearly double for public schools. Although, it costs parents much more for their children to attend, teachers are generally paid less than those at an equivalent public school. For example, in 1998, they were paid about 45% less than public school teachers.

History

The development of the American Catholic parochial school system can be divided into three phases. During the first (1750–1870), parochial schools appeared as ''ad hoc'' efforts by parishes, and most Catholic children attended public schools. During the second period (1870–1910), the Catholic hierarchy made a basic commitment to a separate Catholic school system. These parochial schools, like the big-city parishes around them, tended to be ethnically homogeneous; a German child would not be sent to an Irish school, nor vice-versa, nor a Lithuanian pupil to either. Instruction in the language of the old country was common. In the third period (1910–1945), Catholic education was modernized and modeled after the public school systems, and ethnicity was deemphasized in many areas. In cities with large Catholic populations (such as Chicago and Boston) there was a flow of teachers, administrators, and students from one system to the other.

In addition to the Catholics, the German Lutherans and Calvinist Dutch also began parochial schools, as did Orthdox Jews.

Starting from about 1876, thirty nine states (out of 50) passed a constitutional amendment to their state constitutions, called "Blaine Amendments," forbidding tax money be used to fund parochial schools. In 2002, the United States Supreme Court upheld an Ohio law allowing aid under specific circumstances.

Philippines

Since the time of the Spaniards, schools have been traditionally run by the church and the different religious orders. Parochial schools are run by the parishes while Catholic schools are administered by the dioceses or religious orders.

Metro Manila

In the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manila and its suffragan dioceses, the parochial schools are being supervised by the Manila Archdiocesan Parochial Schools Association and its affiliates like the Diocese of Cubao Educational System or and the Parochial Schools Association of Novaliches. These organisations are overseen by the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines through the Episcopal Commission on Catechism and Christian Education.

See also

Bennett Law, 1890 dispute in Wisconsin

Christian school

Cathedral school

Catholic school

Lutheran school

Jewish day school

Madrasah

Religion and children

Sunday school

Oregon Compulsory Education Act of 1926

''Meyer v. Nebraska'', US Supreme Court case

''Pierce v. Society of Sisters'', US Supreme Court case

Church school

Further reading

United States

Lazerson, Marvin. "Understanding American Catholic Educational History," ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1977 17(3): 297-317 in JSTOR

Perko, F. Michael. "Religious Schooling In America: An Historiographic Reflection," ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2000 40(3): 320-338 in JSTOR

Raiche, C.S.J., Annabelle, and Ann Marie Biermaier, O.S.B. ''They Came to Teach: The Story of Sisters Who Taught in Parochial Schools and Their Contribution to Elementary Education in Minnesota'' (St. Cloud, Minnesota: North Star Press, 1994)271pp.

Walch, Timothy. ''Parish School: American Catholic Parochial Education from Colonial Times to the Present, ''(New York: Crossroad, 1996) 301 pp.

Footnotes

External links

National Parochial School Directory (USA)

''The Guardian'', 23 August 2005, "Two thirds oppose state aided faith schools" in United Kingdom

Category:School types Category:Christian education

ar:مدرسة دينية id:Sekolah paroki zh:教区学校

Coordinates	34°03′″N118°15′″N
Name	The Three Holy Hierarchs
Birth date	330 (Basil)349 (John)329 (Gregory)
Death date	379 (Basil)407 (John)389 (Gregory)
Feast day	January 30
Venerated in	Eastern Orthodoxy, Eastern Catholic Churches
Titles	Fathers Among the Saints
Attributes	Vested as bishops, wearing omophoria; raising right hand in blessing; holding Gospel Books or scrolls
Prayer attrib	}}

The Three Holy Hierarchs (''Greek'': Οἱ Τρεῖς Ἱεράρχες) of Eastern Christianity refers to Basil the Great (known as Basil of Caesarea), Gregory the Theologian (known as Gregory of Nazianzus) and John Chrysostom. They were highly influential bishops of the early church who played pivotal roles in shaping Christian theology. In Eastern Christianity they are also known as the Three Great Hierarchs and Ecumenical Teachers, while in Roman Catholicism the three are honored as Doctors of the Church. The three are venerated as saints in Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Anglicanism and other Christian churches.

Origins of the term

Disputes raged in 11th century Constantinople about which of the three hierarchs was the greatest. Some argued that Basil was superior to the other two because of his explanations of Christian faith and monastic example. Supporters of John Chrysostom countered that the "Golden Mouthed" () archbishop of Constantinople was unmatched in both eloquence and in bringing sinners to repentance. A third group insisted that Basil's close friend, Gregory the Theologian, was preferred to the others due to the majesty, purity and profundity of his homilies and his defense of the faith from the Arian heresy. All three have separate feast days in January: Basil on January 1, Gregory on January 25, and Chrysostom on January 27. The Eastern Churches teach that the three hierarchs appeared together in a vision to St. John Mauropous, bishop of Euchaita, in the year 1084, and said that they were equal before God: "There are no divisions among us, and no opposition to one another." As a result, a January 30 feast day commemorating all three in common was instituted around 1100 under the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos.

See also

Cappadocian Fathers

Patristics

Russian battleship Tri Sviatitelia, named after the Three Holy Hierarchs

Notes

References

External links

The Three Holy Hierarchs (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese)

Synaxis of the Ecumenical Teachers and Hierarchs: Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, and John Chrysostom Orthodox synaxarion

Category:Byzantine saints Category:Church Fathers Category:Christian mystics Category:Doctors of the Church Category:Anatolian Roman Catholic saints Category:Saints from Anatolia Category:Eastern Orthodox bishops Category:Eastern Orthodox saints Category:Eastern Catholic saints Category:Patristics Category:4th-century Christian saints Category:330 births Category:379 deaths

de:Hierarch el:Τρεις Ιεράρχες es:Tres Santos Jerarcas ja:三成聖者 ru:Собор трёх святителей sr:Света три јерарха

Coordinates	34°03′″N118°15′″N
Name	Saint Michael the Archangel
Feast day	November 21 (Old Calendar Eastern Orthodox Churches) / November 8 (New Calendar Eastern Orthodox Churches), September 29 ("Michaelmas"); May 8; many other local and historical feasts
Venerated in	Anglican Communion, Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam, Judaism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Lutheranism
Titles	Archangel
Canonized date	pre-congregation
Attributes	Archangel; Treading on Satan or a serpent; carrying a banner, scales, and sword
Patronage	Guardian of the Catholic Church; protector of the Jewish people.
Issues	}}

Michael ( (pronounced ), ''Micha'el'' or ''Mîkhā'ēl''; , ''Mikhaḗl''; or ''Míchaël''; , ''Mīkhā'īl'') is an archangel in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic tradition. He is viewed as the field commander of the Army of God. He is mentioned by name in the Book of Daniel, the Book of Jude, and the Book of Revelation, in which he leads God's armies against the Devil's forces during his uprising. In the book of Daniel, Michael appears as "one of the chief princes"

In Hebrew, ''Michael'' means "who is like God" (''mi''-who, ''ke''-as or like, ''El''-deity), which in Talmudic tradition is interpreted as a rhetorical question: "Who is like God?" (which expects an answer in the negative) to imply that ''no one'' is like God. In this way, Michael is reinterpreted as a symbol of humility before God.

Much of the late Midrashic detail about Michael was transmitted to Christianity through the Book of Enoch, whence it was taken up and further elaborated. Christian ''cultus'' devoted to the archangel was first initiated in the East, as a healer, at Chonae near Colossae in Phrygia and in the West, at the end of the fifth century, as a patron in war, at Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano. In late medieval Christianity, Michael, together with Saint George, became the patron saint of chivalry. Jean Molinet was one who glorified the primordial feat of arms of the archangel as "the first deed of knighthood and chivalrous prowess that was ever achieved." Thus Michael was the natural patron of the first chivalric order of France, the Order of Saint Michael of 1469. In the British honours system, a chivalric order founded in 1818 is also named for these two saints, the Order of St Michael and St George. Michael is also considered in many Christian circles as the patron saint of the warrior. Police officers and soldiers, particularly paratroopers and fighter pilots, regard him as their patron. He is the Patron of the Catholic Police Guild. He is also a patron of Germany, the City of Brussels, and Kiev.

Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Lutherans refer to him as Saint Michael the Archangel and also simply as Saint Michael. Orthodox Christians refer to him as the Taxiarch Archangel Michael or simply Archangel Michael. Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists, and certain New Age Christian denominations refer to Michael as the Christ Michael, or Christ before he became man. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that Michael is the heavenly form of Adam from the Book of Genesis, and that Michael assisted Jehovah (the heavenly form of Jesus Christ) in the creation of the world under the direction of God the Father.

Hebrew Bible

Book of Joshua

Some believe the numinous "captain of the host of the Lord" encountered by Joshua in the early days of his campaigns in the Promised Land (Joshua 5:13-15) is Michael the Archangel. This unnamed heavenly messenger is of supernatural and holy origin, likely sent by God:

(NRSV)}}

There is some controversy about this passage, however. In other places in the Bible, angels do not accept the worship of humans (see Rev. 22:9 for an example); the willingness of this person to accept Joshua's worship implies that he was divine (e.g., a theophany of God). However, it is clear that Joshua is instigating worship of God, not the commander of the Lord's army. In Revelation 19:10 we have the exact same scenario with St. John and an angel and unlike Joshua 5 it reads; 'I, John, fell on my face and worshiped him.' The angel rebukes him.

Book of Daniel

The prophet Daniel experiences a vision after having undergone a period of fasting. In the vision, an angel identifies Michael as the protector of Israel (10:13, 21). Later in the vision (12:1), Daniel is informed that Michael will stand for Israel during the time of the End. There is no further mention of Michael in the Hebrew Bible.

Apocrypha

War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness

In the War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, Michael is described as the prince of light, leading forces of God against the darkness of evil, who is led by Belial. He is described as the "viceroy of heaven".

Book of Enoch

Michael is designated in the ''Book of Enoch'', as "the prince of Israel" and the "archistratege"(meaning chief general in the Greek language) of God. He is the angel of forbearance and mercy (''Enoch'', xl:3) who taught Enoch the mysteries of clemency and justice (lxxi:2). Some speculate that the angel in the book of ''Jubilees'' (i:27 and ii:1), who is said to have instructed Moses on Mount Sinai and to have delivered to him the tablets of Law, may be Michael.

Enoch 9:1 states that Michael, along with Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel and Suriel heard the cries of men under the strain of the Watchers and their giant offspring. It was Michael and his compatriots that beseeched God on behalf of men, prompting Yahweh to call Enoch to prophethood.

In Enoch 10:15 Yahweh says to Michael; "Go and announce his crime to Samyaza, and to the others who are with him, who have been associated with women, that they might be polluted with all their impurity. And when all their sons shall be slain, when they shall see the perdition of their beloved, bind them for seventy generations underneath the earth, even to the day of Judgement, and of consummation, until the judgement, the effect of which will last forever and be completed."

Enoch 20:5 says that Michael presides over human virtue in order to command nations.

Enoch 24:4-10 has Enoch before the Tree of Life/Mercy, and Michael explains to him that he should not touch it, for it is for those who are 'elect' after the day of Judgement.

Enoch 40:8 says that Michael is patient and merciful.

Enoch 53:6 states that Michael, along with Gabriel, Raphael and Phanuel shall be strengthened during the Battle of Armageddon.

Enoch 58 shows Enoch overcome with terror over a vision he has, and Michael is quick to interpret. The terror is only for those who turn on Yahweh, that the Day of Judgement is for the elect, a day of covenant, while for sinners it is a day of inquisition.

Enoch 66:14-15 has Michael explaining to Enoch that the evil spirits [demons] shall bear witness against those of the flesh who supported them. Yet Enoch is told that Michael holds a secret oath so that the elect shall not perish by their knowledge like the sinners, Enoch 68:20-22.

Enoch 70:11-16 shows that Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and Phanuel always 'escort' Yahweh [God the Father], whenever he leaves his throne.

Rabbinic traditions

According to rabbinic Jewish tradition, Michael acted as the advocate of Israel, and sometimes had to fight with the princes of the other nations (cf. Daniel 10:13) and particularly with the angel Samael, Israel's accuser. Michael's enmity with Samael dates from the time when the latter was thrown down from heaven. Samael took hold of the wings of Michael, whom he wished to bring down with him in his fall; but Michael was saved by God (Midrash Pirke R. El. xxvi.).

The rabbis declare that Michael entered upon his role of defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Thus, according to Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, it was Michael who rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he had been thrown by Nimrod (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xliv. 16). It was Michael, the "one that had escaped" (Genesis 14:13), who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive (Midrash Pirke R. El.), and who protected Sarah from being defiled by Abimelech. He announced to Sarah that she would bear a son and he rescued Lot at the destruction of Sodom (Talmud B. M. 86b).

It is said that Michael prevented Isaac from being sacrificed by his father by substituting a ram in his place, and saved Jacob, while yet in his mother's womb, from being killed by Samael (Midr. Abkir, in Yalḳ., Gen. 110). Later Michael prevented Laban from harming Jacob (Pirke R. El. xxxvi.). According to one source, it was Michael who wrestled with Jacob and who afterward blessed him (Targum pseudo-Jonathan to Genesis xxxii. 25; Pirke R. El. xxxvii.).

The midrash ''Exodus Rabbah'' holds that Michael exercised his function of advocate of Israel at the time of the Exodus also, when Satan (as an adversary) accused the Israelites of idolatry and declared that they were consequently deserving of death by drowning in the Red Sea (Ex. R. xviii. 5). But according to Midr. Abkir, when Uzza, the tutelar angel of Egypt, summoned Michael to plead before God, Michael remained silent, and it was God himself who defended Israel.

Legend makes Michael the teacher of Moses; so that the Israelites are indebted to their advocate for the supreme good of the Torah. This idea is alluded to in Midrash Deuteronomy Rabbah xi. 6 in the statement that Michael declined to bring Moses' soul to God on the ground that he had been Moses' teacher.

Michael is said to have destroyed the army of Sennacherib (Midrash Exodus Rabbah xviii. 5), a deed normally attributed to an otherwise unnamed angel of destruction but perhaps accomplished by Uriel, Gabriel, or others.

Michael is also credited with being the angel who spoke to Moses in the burning bush (an honor often bestowed upon Zagzagel).

He is accepted in lore as well as being the special patron of Adam. Supposedly he was the first angel in all of the heavens to bow down before humanity. Michael then kept an eye on the first family, remaining vigilant even after the fall of Adam and Eve and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden.

In the apocryphal Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, Michael taught Adam how to farm. The archangel later brought Adam to heaven in a fiery chariot, giving him a tour of the blessed realm. After Adam's death, Michael helped convince the Lord to permit Adam's soul to be brought to heaven and cleansed of its great sin. Jewish legend also states Michael to be one of the three "men" who visited Abraham. He is said to have tried to prevent Israel from being led into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar II and to save the Temple from destruction; but the sins of the people were so great that he was powerless to carry his purposes into effect. There is a legend which seems to be of Jewish origin, and which was adopted by the Copts, to the effect that Michael was first sent by God to bring Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem, and that Michael was afterward very active in freeing his nation from Babylonian captivity (Amélineau, "Contes et Romans de l'Egypte Chrétienne," ii. 142 et seq.). According to a midrash, Michael saved Hananiah and his companions from the Fiery furnace (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xliv. 16). Michael was active in the time of Esther: "The more Haman accused Israel on earth, the more Michael defended Israel in heaven" (Midrash Esther Rabbah iii. 8). It was Michael who reminded Ahasuerus that he was Mordecai's debtor (Targum to Esther vi. 1); and there is a legend that Michael appeared to the high priest Hyrcanus, promising him assistance (comp. Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 10, § 3).

The motif of Michael and the dragon appears in Michael's fight with Samael in Assumptio Mosis, x.). This legend is not found in Jewish sources except insofar as Samael or Satan is called in the Kabbalah "the primitive serpent".

The idea that Michael was the advocate of the Jews became so prevalent that in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people, Michael came to occupy a certain place in the Jewish liturgy. There were two prayers written beseeching him as the prince of mercy to intercede in favor of Israel: one composed by Eliezer ha-Kalir, and the other by Judah b. Samuel he-Hasid. But appeal to Michael seems to have been more common in ancient times. Thus Jeremiah is said (Baruch Apoc. Ethiopic, ix. 5) to have addressed a prayer to him. "When a man is in need he must pray directly to God, and neither to Michael nor to Gabriel" (Yer. Ber. ix. 13a).

With regard to the nature of the offerings which Michael brings to the altar, one opinion is that they are the souls of the just, while according to another they are fiery sheep. The former opinion, which has become prevalent in Jewish mystical writings, explains the important position occupied by Michael in Jewish eschatology. The idea that Michael is the Charon of individual souls, which is common among Christians, is not found in Jewish sources, but that he is in charge of the souls of the just appears in many Jewish writings.

Michael is said to have had a dispute with Samael over the soul of Moses (Midrash Deut. Rabbah xi. 6.) According to the Zohar, Michael accompanies the souls of the pious and helps them to enter the gates of the heavenly Jerusalem. It is said that Michael and his host are stationed at the gates of the heavenly Jerusalem and give admittance to the souls of the just. Michael's function is to open the gates also of justice to the just. It is also said that at the resurrection, Gabriel will sound the trumpet, at which the graves will open and the dead will rise.

Christian tradition

Canonical New Testament

In the Epistle of Jude St Michael disputes with the Devil over the body of Moses. In the Book of Revelation "...there was war in heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon and his angels fought back. But he was not strong enough, and they lost their place in heaven. The great dragon was hurled down - that ancient serpent called the Devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him." Saint John describes Satan being thrown out of heaven three and a half years from the end of the age, "a time, times and half a time". The Devil being thrown from heaven coincides with the "abomination that causes desolation" spoken of by Daniel. In Catholic teachings, Saint Michael will also triumph at the end times when he defeats Antichrist. The Book of Daniel (12:1) states: "At that time Michael, the great prince who protects your people, will arise." as the ''"Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Chonae."'' The Monastery of the Miracle in the Moscow Kremlin, where the Russian Tsars were baptized, was dedicated to the Feast of the Miracle at Chonae (Kona). Hot springs at Pythia in Bithynia and elsewhere in Asia Minor were also dedicated to St Michael.

At Constantinople likewise, Saint Michael was a great heavenly physician. His principal sanctuary, the ''"Michaelion"'', was at Sosthenion, some fifty miles south of Constantinople. He supposedly visited Emperor Constantine the Great at Constantinople, intervened in assorted battles, and appeared, sword in hand, over the mausoleum of Hadrian, in apparent answer to the prayers of Pope St Gregory I the Great (r. 590-604) that a plague in Rome should cease. In honor of the occasion, the pope took to calling the mausoleum the ''"Castel Sant'Angelo"'' (Castle of the Holy Angel), the name by which it is still known. The sick slept in this church at night to wait for a manifestation of St Michael; his feast was kept there June 9.

Another famous church was within the walls of the city, at the baths of Arcadius; there the synaxis of the archangel was celebrated November 8. This feast spread over the entire Greek Church, and the Syrian, Armenian, and Coptic Churches also adopted it. It is currently the principal feast of St Michael amongst the Eastern Christians. Although originating in Phrygia, its station at Constantinople was known as the ''"Thermae of Arcadius"'' (Martinow, "Annus Graeco-slavicus", November 8). Other feasts of St Michael at Constantinople were: October 27, in the "Promotu" Church; June 18, in the Church of St Julian at the Forum; and December 10, at Athaea.

At Rome, the Leonine Sacramentary (sixth century) has the ''"Natale Basilicae Angeli via Salaria"'', September 30; of the five Masses for the feast, three mention St Michael. The Gelasian Sacramentary (seventh century) gives the feast ''"S. Michaelis Archangeli"'', and the Gregorian Sacramentary (eighth century), ''"Dedicatio Basilionis S. Angeli Michaelis"'', September 29. A manuscript also here adds "via Salaria" (Ebner, "Miss. Rom. Iter Italicum", 127). This Church of the Via Salaria was six miles to the north of the city; in the ninth century it was called Basilica Archangeli in Septimo (Armellini, "Chiese di Roma", p. 85). It disappeared a thousand years ago. At Rome also the part of heavenly physician was given to St Michael. According to a legend of the tenth century, he appeared over the Moles Hadriani (Castel di S. Angelo), in 950, during the procession which St Gregory held against the pestilence, putting an end to the plague. Pope Boniface IV (608-15) built on the Moles Hadriani in honour of him, a church, which was styled St Michaelis inter nubes (in summitate circi).

In Normandy, Saint Michael is the patron of mariners in his famous sanctuary at Mont-Saint-Michel in the Diocese of Coutances. He is said to have appeared there, in 708, to St Aubert, Bishop of Avranches. In Normandy, his feast, ''"S. Michaelis in periculo maris"'', or "in Monte Tumba", was universally celebrated on October 18, the anniversary of the dedication of the first church, October 16, 710; the feast is now confined to the Diocese of Coutances.

The hymns of the Roman Office are said to have been composed by Saint Rabanus Maurus of Fulda (d. 856). The hymn "Te Splendor" to Saint Michael (which derives its name from the fact that in Latin it begins with Te splendor et virtus Patris) is published in the Raccolta collection of prayers with indulgences, and, in 1817, Pope Pius VII granted an indulgence for saying the hymn.

In art, St Michael is represented as an angelic warrior, fully armed with helmet, sword, and shield (often the shield bears the Latin inscription: ''"Quis ut Deus?"''), standing over the dragon, whom he sometimes pierces with a lance. He also holds a pair of scales in which he weighs the souls of the departed (cf. Rock, "The Church of Our Fathers", III, 160), or the Book of Life, to show that he takes part in the judgment. Michelangelo depicted this scene on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel.

His feast (September 29) in the Middle Ages was celebrated as a holy day of obligation, as he was the patron of knights, but along with several other feasts it was gradually abolished since the eighteenth century. Michaelmas Day, in England and other countries, is one of the regular quarter-days for settling rents and accounts; but it is no longer remarkable for the hospitality with which it was formerly celebrated. Stubble-geese being esteemed in perfection about this time, most families had one dressed on Michaelmas Day. In some parishes, (such as the Isle of Skye,) they had a procession on this day and baked a cake, called St Michael's bannock.

Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians often refer to the angel Michael as ''"Saint Michael"'', an honorific title that does not indicate canonisation. He is generally referred to in Christian litanies as ''"Saint Michael the Archangel."'' Orthodoxy accords him the title ''"Archistrategos"'', or ''"Supreme Commander of the Heavenly Hosts."''

In the Roman Catholic Church, Saint Michael has four main roles or offices. He is the Christian angel of death, carrying the souls of all the deceased to heaven, where they are weighed in his perfectly balanced scales (hence Michael is often depicted holding scales). At the hour of death, Michael descends and gives each soul the chance to redeem itself before passing, thus consternating the devil and his minions. St Michael is the special patron of the Chosen People in the Old Testament and is guardian of the Church; it was thus not unusual for the angel to be revered by the military orders of knights during the Middle Ages. Last, he is the supreme enemy of Satan and the fallen angels.

Some early Protestant scholars identified Michael with the pre-incarnate Christ, basing their view, partly on the juxtaposition of the "child" and the archangel in Revelation 12, and partly on the attributes ascribed to him in Daniel.

In the Roman Catholic calendar of saints, Anglican Calendar of Saints, and the Lutheran Calendar of Saints, his feast day, once widely known as Michaelmas, is celebrated September 29 and was one of the four quarter days on which accounts were settled and, in England, when terms began in universities. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, his principal feast day is November 8 (November 21 by most Orthodox churches since they use the Julian calendar), where he is honored along with the rest of the ''"Bodiless Powers of Heaven"'' as their Supreme Commander, and his miraculous appearance at Colossae (see below) is commemorated on September 6.

The last visit, that of his appearance over the mausoleum of Hadrian, certified one major aspect involving Michael, namely his role as an angel of healing. This title was bestowed at Phrygia, in Asia Minor, which also propagated the cult of angels and became a leading center for their veneration. St Michael is reputed to have caused a healing spring to flow in the first century at Colossae, and his churches were frequently visited by the sick and lame. The angel is invoked additionally as the patron of sailors in Normandy (the famous monastery of Mont Saint Michel on the north coast of France is named after him). He is especially remembered in France as the angel who, along with Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret, gave Saint Joan of Arc the courage to save her country from the English during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1455).Pope Pius XII (r. 1939-1958) named him patron of policemen.

According to legend, Michael instructed St Aubert, bishop of Avranches to build a church on the rocky islet now known as Mont Saint Michel in 708. Also dedicated to Michael was the French Order of St Michel founded in 1469. Today, however, he is more usually associated with police officers, paramedics, EMTs and other emergency workers. He is also claimed as the patron saint of the American airborne units. He is the patron of Ukraine and its capital Kiev and of the archdiocese of Seattle.

Under the influence of the widely read angelology of the Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, among Church fathers much time was spent allotting Michael a rank in the celestial hierarchy: Alfonso Salmeron, Cardinal Bellarmine, Saint Basil the Great's homily (''De Angelis'') and other Greek fathers place Saint Michael over all the angels; they say he is called ''"Archangel"'' because he is the prince of the other angels. Others (cf. P. Bonaventura, ''op. cit.'') believe that he is the prince of the Seraphim, the first of the nine angelic orders. According to Saint Thomas Aquinas (''Summa'' Ia. 113.3), he is the Prince of the last and lowest choir, the angels.

A favorite angelic subject in art, matched only by Saint Gabriel, Saint Michael is often depicted as winged and with unsheathed sword. As with all angels' iconography, his wings represent swiftness, his sword means authority or power, and his white raiment stands for his enlightenment. In the Renaissance period, he is shown as young, strong, and handsome, and is most often depicted as a proud, handsome angel in white or magnificent armor or a splendid coat of mail and equipped with sword, shield and spear. His wings are generally conspicuous and very grand. He is usually shown holding in his hand a banner or the scales of justice. Quite often he is seen, like Saint George and in some representations of the Madonna, in conflict with a dragon or standing upon a vanquished devil, who most of the time is Satan.

Apparitions of Saint Michael the Archangel

The Sacred Tradition of the Orthodox Church celebrates the Miracle of the Archangel Michael at Chonae in Phrygia. According to the account, pagans diverted the stream of the river Lycus against the sanctuary of St Michael in order to destroy it, but Michael the Archangel appeared and split the rock by lightning (or, according to some accounts, with a spear) to open up a new bed for the stream, directing the flow away from the church and sanctifying forever the waters which came from the new gorge. The Orthodox celebrate a feast day in commemoration of this event on 6 September. The Monastery of the Miracle (Chudov Monastery) in the Moscow Kremlin, where the Russian Tsars were baptized, was dedicated to the Feast of the Miracle at Chonae.

The Roman Breviary for May 8 relates the story of the apparition of Saint Michael (494 or 530-40) at his sanctuary on Monte Gargano, where his original glory as patron in war was restored to him. This is further alluded to in a paragraph listed for the feast day of St Michael on this date found in the "Saint Andrew Daily Missal." To his intercession, the Lombards of Sipontum (modern-day Manfredonia) attributed their victory over the Greek Neapolitans May 8, 663. To commemorate this victory, the Church of Sipontum instituted a special feast on May 8 in honour of the archangel, which spread throughout the Latin Church under the name "Apparition of St Michael", although it originally commemorated the victory, not the apparition. The Tridentine Calendar gave this feast the rank of "Double", which was raised in 1602 to the newly invented rank of "Greater Double". In 1960, Pope John XXIII removed it from the General Roman Calendar, along with other cases of second feasts of a single saint.

There is a legend in Cornwall that in the 5th century, the Archangel appeared to fishermen on St Michael's Mount, which according to author Richard Freeman Johnson is perhaps a nationalistic twist to a myth. Cornish legends also hold that the mount itself was constructed by giants and that King Arthur battled giant there.

Also a Portuguese Carmelite nun, Antónia d'Astónaco, had reported an apparition and private revelation of the Archangel Michael who had told to this devoted Servant of God, in 1751, that he would like to be honored, and God glorified, by the praying of nine special invocations. These nine invocations correspond to invocations to the nine choirs of angels and origins the famous Chaplet of Saint Michael. This private revelation and prayers were approved by Pope Pius IX in 1851.

During the years 1961 to 1965, four young schoolgirls had reported several apparitions of Saint Michael the Archangel in the small village of San Sebastian de Garabandal, in Cantabria, north Spain. At Garabandal, the apparitions of the Archangel Michael were mainly reported as announcing the arrivals of the Virgin Mary. The Catholic Church has never condemned Garabandal apparitions, and the Vatican has never made an official pronouncement.

Major shrines

:''For a larger gallery (and hence a structured list) of church images, please see'': Saint Michael church gallery.

St. Michael's Cathedral (Toronto), Ontario, Canada

St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral, in Brussels, Belgium

Mont Saint Michel, Normandy, France - a World Heritage Site

Skellig Michael, off the Irish west coast - a World Heritage Site

Archangel Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin - a World Heritage Site

Chudov Monastery in the Moscow Kremlin, where the future Russian tsars were baptized

St. Michael Chapel in Košice, Slovakia

Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano, Gargano, Italy

St Michael's Mount, Cornwall, UK

St Michael's Cathedral, Coventry, UK

Michaelhouse Chapel, Balgowan, KZN, South Africa

St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, Kiev, Ukraine

St Michael's Church in Vienna, Austria

St. Michael and All Angels' Anglican Church, Weltevreden Park, Johannesburg, South Africa

Basilica of St Michael the Archangel, Tayabas, Quezon, Philippines

Archangel Michael’s Church, Znojmo, Czech Republic

St. Michael's Cathedral in Belgrade, Serbia

Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that there is only one "archangel" in heaven and in the Bible. They teach that the pre-human and post-resurrection Jesus and the Archangel Michael are the same person, saying: "the evidence indicates that the Son of God was known as Michael before he came to earth and is known also by that name since his return to heaven where he resides as the glorified spirit Son of God." They point out that the actual term "Archangel" in the Bible is only used in the singular, never clearly in the plural. They also say that Michael is the same "Angel of the Lord" who led the Israelites in the wilderness. He later took perfect human form as Jesus and led a life without sin. Additionally, the spirit being who bears the name Michael is referred to as "one of the chief princes," "the great prince who has charge of your (Daniel's) people," and as "the archangel." (Daniel 10:13; 12:1: Jude 9) This view is held because of the prominence Michael has among the heavenly sons of God in the Bible, and takes the lead in the vindication of the Heavenly Father's sovereignty and the sanctification of the Heavenly Father's name, and as the prince and protector of God's covenant people, the similarity of Michael’s and Jesus’ mission and the connection of Jesus with the archangelic office in 1 Thessalonians 4:16, where it is said: "Because the Lord himself will descend from Heaven with a commanding call, with an archangel's voice." Taking also into account that the Bible refers to one archangel only using a definite article (Jude 9), Jehovah's Witnesses have concluded that Michael and the pre-human and post-resurrection Jesus are one and the same.

Seventh-day Adventists

Seventh-day Adventists believe that Michael was another name for the ''Word-of-God'' (John 1) before He became incarnate as ''Jesus''. ''Archangel'' (meaning "Chief of the Angels") was the leadership position held by the Word-of-God as Michael while among the angels. Michael was the Word-of-God, not a created being, by whom all things were created. The Word-of-God was then born incarnate as Jesus.

Latter-day Saint belief

Latter-day Saints believe that Michael is Adam, the Ancient of Days (Dan. 7), a prince, and the patriarch of the human family (Doctrine and Covenants 27:11; 107: 53-56; 128:21)

Islam

Michael (Arabic: ميخائيل, ''Mikhail'' ميكائيل, ''Mikael'' ), is one of the Archangels in Islam, and one of the two archangels mentioned in the Qur'an, alongside Jibreel (Gabriel). In the Qur'an, Michael is mentioned once only, in Sura 2:98. }}

Michael is mentioned in the ''Hadith'' numerous times. According to Muslim belief, Mikhail is often depicted as an angel of mercy, and the one through whom God supplies rain and thunder for mankind. Furthermore, Muslims also believe that God has also put Mikhail in charge of rewarding the righteous in their life on Earth. Mikhail is also credited with being present with the Muslims in their first victory in Arabia, at the Battle of Badr.

Muslim commentators state with reference to Sura 11:69 that Michael was one of the three angels who visited Abraham.

Bahá'í

In ''Thief in the Night'', the Bahá'í writer, William Sears, interpreted references to Michael as referring to Bahá'u'lláh. He quotes Daniel (10:13): "But the prince of the kingdom of Persia withstood me one and twenty days: but, lo, Michael, one of the chief princes, came to help me...'. Daniel was told that this vision concerned "...what shall befall thy people (Israel) in the latter days." Sears interprets this as a prophecy about Bahá'u'lláh, who was a Persian nobleman of Sassanian royal lineage. He also quotes from the Book of Enoch (69:14): "He (God) spoke to holy Michael to discover to them the sacred name, that they might understand that secret name".

Occult

According to esoteric writer Rudolf Steiner: "in 1879, in November, a momentous event took place, a battle of the Powers of Darkness against the Powers of Light, ending in the image of Michael overcoming the Dragon".

Literature

In the English epic poem ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton, Michael commands the army of angels loyal to God against the rebel forces of Satan. Armed with a sword from God's armory, he bests Satan in personal combat, wounding his side.

See also

Angel

Adam

Saint Michael (Roman Catholic)

Chaplet of Saint Michael

Congregation of Saint Michael the Archangel

Legion of the Archangel Michael

Novena to Saint Michael

Prayer to Saint Michael

San Michele

St. George

St. Michael Fighting the Dragon by Albrecht Durer

Bibliography

Bamberger, Bernard Jacob, (March 15, 2006). ''Fallen Angels: Soldiers of Satan's Realm.'' Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0797-0

Briggs, Constance Victoria, 1997. ''The Encyclopedia of Angels : An A-to-Z Guide with Nearly 4,000 Entries.'' Plume. ISBN 0-452-27921-6.

Bunson, Matthew, (1996). ''Angels A to Z : A Who's Who of the Heavenly Host.'' Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-517-88537-9.

Cruz, Joan C. 1999. ''Angels and Devils.'' Tan Books & Publishers. ISBN 0-89555-638-3.

Davidson, Gustav. ''A Dictionary of Angels: Including the Fallen Angels''. Free Press. ISBN 0-02-907052-X

Graham, Billy, 1994. ''Angels: God's Secret Agents.'' W Pub Group; Minibook edition. ISBN 0-8499-5074-0

Guiley, Rosemary, 1996. ''Encyclopedia of Angels.'' ISBN 0-8160-2988-1

Kreeft, Peter J. 1995. ''Angels and Demons: What Do We Really Know About Them?'' Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-89870-550-9

Lewis, James R. (1995). ''Angels A to Z.'' Visible Ink Press. ISBN 0-7876-0652-9

Melville, Francis, 2001. ''The Book of Angels: Turn to Your Angels for Guidance, Comfort, and Inspiration.'' Barron's Educational Series; 1st edition. ISBN 0-7641-5403-6

Ronner, John, 1993. ''Know Your Angels: The Angel Almanac With Biographies of 100 Prominent Angels in Legend & Folklore-And Much More!'' Mamre Press. ISBN 0-932945-40-6.

Gallery

References

External links

''Catholic Encyclopedia'': St. Michael

''Jewish Encyclopedia'': Michael

Category:Archangels Category:Perspectives on Jesus Category:Individual angels Category:Hebrew Bible topics Category:Old Testament saints Category:Deities in the Hebrew Bible Category:Angels in Christianity Category:Angels in Judaism Category:Angels in Islam Category:Christian saints Category:Oriental Orthodox saints Category:Eastern Orthodox saints Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar Category:Roman Catholic saints Category:Anglican saints

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