The wolverine, pronounced , ''Gulo gulo'' (''Gulo'' is Latin for "glutton"), also referred to as glutton, carcajou, skunk bear, quickhatch, or gulon, is the largest land-dwelling species of the family Mustelidae (weasels). It is a stocky and muscular carnivore, more closely resembling a small bear than other mustelids. The wolverine has a reputation for ferocity and strength out of proportion to its size, with the documented ability to kill prey many times its size.

The wolverine can be found primarily in remote reaches of the Northern boreal forests and subarctic and alpine tundra of the Northern hemisphere, with the greatest numbers in the U.S. state of Alaska, northern Canada, the Nordic countries of Europe, and throughout western Russia and Siberia. Their populations have experienced a steady decline since the 19th century in the face of trapping, range reduction and habitat fragmentation, such that they are essentially absent in the southern end of their European range. It is, however, estimated that large populations remain in North America and northern Asia.

Taxonomy

Genetic evidence suggests that the wolverine is most closely related to the tayra and martens (scientific names ''Eira'' and ''Martes'' respectively), all of which shared a Eurasian ancestor.

Within the ''Gulo'' genus, there is a clear separation between two subspecies: the Old World form ''Gulo gulo gulo'' and the New World form ''G. g. luscus''. Some authors had described as many as four additional North American subspecies, including ones limited to Vancouver Island (''G. g. vancouverensis'') and the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska (''G. g. katschemakensis''). However, the most currently accepted taxonomy recognizes either the two continental subspecies or recognize ''G. gulo'' as a single Holarctic taxon.

Recently compiled genetic evidence suggests that most of North America's wolverines are descended from a single source, likely originating from Beringia during the last glaciation and rapidly expanding thereafter, though there is considerable uncertainty to this conclusion due to the difficulty of collecting samples in the extremely depleted southern extent of the range.

Physical characteristics

Anatomically, the wolverine is a stocky and muscular animal. With short legs, broad and rounded head, and small eyes with short rounded ears, it resembles a bear more than other mustelids. Its legs are short, while its large five-toed paws and plantigrade posture facilitate movement through deep snow.

The adult wolverine is about the size of a medium dog, with a length usually ranging from 65–107 cm (26–42 inches), a tail of 17–26 cm (7–10 inches), and a weight of 9–25 kg (20–55 lb), though exceptionally large males can weigh over 31 kg (70 lb). The males are as much as 30 percent larger than the females and can be twice the female's weight. Shoulder height is reported from 30 to 45 cm (12-18 in). It is the largest of terrestrial mustelids; only the marine-dwelling sea otter and giant otter of the Amazon basin are larger.

Wolverines have thick, dark, oily fur which is highly hydrophobic, making it resistant to frost. This has led to its traditional popularity among hunters and trappers as a lining in jackets and parkas in Arctic conditions. A light silvery facial mask is distinct in some individuals, and a pale buff stripe runs laterally from the shoulders along the side and crossing the rump just above a 25–35 cm bushy tail. Some individuals display prominent white hair patches on the throat or chest.

Like many other mustelids, it has potent anal scent glands used for marking territory and sexual signaling. The pungent odor has given rise to the nicknames "skunk bear" and "nasty cat." Wolverines, like other mustelids, possess a special upper molar in the back of the mouth that is rotated 90 degrees, towards the inside of the mouth. This special characteristic allows wolverines to tear off meat from prey or carrion that has been frozen solid.

Behavior

thumb|left|Wolverine pelts from Siberia (left) and Alaska (right) The wolverine is a powerful and versatile predator and scavenger. Prey is mainly compromised by small to large-sized mammals and the wolverine has been recorded as killing prey such as adult deer that are many times larger than this predator. Prey species include porcupine, squirrel, beaver, marmot, rabbit, vole, mice, shrew, lemming, caribou, roe deer, white-tailed deer, mule deer, sheep, moose, and elk. Smaller predators are occasionally preyed on, including martens, mink, foxes, canada lynx, Eurasian lynx , weasels, coyotes and wolf pups. Wolverines often pursue live prey that's relatively easy to obtain, including animals caught in furbear's traps, newborn mammals and large moose and elk when they're weakened by winter and momentarily incapacitated by heavy snow. The diet is sometimes supplemented by bird's eggs, birds (especially geese), roots, seeds, insect larvae and berries. A majority of the wolverine's sustainance is derived from carrion, which they depend on almost exclusively in winter and early spring. Wolverine may find their carrion themselves, feed on it after the predator is done feeding (especially wolf packs) or simply take it from another predator. Whether eating live prey or carrion, the wolverine's feeding style appears voracious, leading to the nickname of "glutton" (also the basis of the scientific name). However, this feeding style is believed to an adaptation to food that is scarcely encountered, especially in the winter.

Armed with powerful jaws, sharp claws, and a thick hide, wolverines, like most mustelids, are remarkably strong for their size. They may defend kills against larger or more numerous predators. There is at least one published account of a 12-kg (27-pound) wolverine's apparent attempt to steal a kill from a black bear (adult males weigh 400 to 500 pounds, around 200 kg). Unfortunately for the mustelid, the bear won what was ultimately a fatal contest. Another account placed a polar bear of unknown age and weight together with a similar wolverine where the smaller, tenacious predator came out the victor. Cougars and lone gray wolves have also reportedly lost conflicts to wolverines over carcass but have been recorded as killing wolverines in conflicts as well.

Wolverines inhabiting the Old World (specifically, Fennoscandia) are more active hunters than their North American cousins. This may be because competing predator populations in Eurasia are not as dense, making it more practical for the wolverine to hunt for itself than to wait for another animal to make a kill and then try to snatch it. They often feed on carrion left by wolves, so changes in the population of wolves may affect the population of wolverines. Wolverines are also known on occasion to eat plant material.

Successful males will form lifetime relationships with 2–3 females which they will visit occasionally, while other males are left without a mate. Mating season is in the summer, but the actual implantation of the embryo (blastocyst) in the uterus is stayed until early winter, delaying the development of the fetus. Females will often not produce young if food is scarce. The wolverine gestation period is 30–50 days. Litters of typically two or three young ("kits") are born in the spring. Kits develop rapidly, reaching adult size within the first year of a lifespan that may reach anywhere from five to (in exceptional individuals) thirteen years. Fathers make visits to their offspring until they are weaned at 10 weeks of age; also, once the young are about 6 months old, some reconnect with their fathers and travel together for a time.

Range

thumb|right|200px|Wolverine on rocky terrain Wolverines live primarily in isolated northern areas, for example the arctic and alpine regions of Alaska, northern Canada, Siberia, and Scandinavia; they are also native to Russia, the Baltic countries, and Northern China and Mongolia. In 2008 and 2009, wolverines were sighted as far south as the Sierra Nevada, near Lake Tahoe, for the first time since 1922. They are also found in low numbers in the Rocky Mountains and northern Cascades of the United States, and have been sighted as far south and east as Michigan. However, most New World wolverines live in Canada.

The world's total wolverine population is unknown. The animal exhibits a low population density and requires a very large home range. The range of a male wolverine can be more than 620 km² (240 sq mi), encompassing the ranges of several females which have smaller home ranges of roughly 130–260 km² (50–100 sq mi). Adult wolverines try for the most part to keep non-overlapping ranges with adults of the same sex. Radio tracking suggests an animal can range hundreds of miles in a few months.

Female wolverines burrow into snow in February to create a den, which is used until weaning in mid-May. Areas inhabited nonseasonally by wolverines are thus restricted to zones with late-spring snowmelts. This fact has led to concern that global warming will shrink the ranges of wolverine populations.

The Wildlife Conservation Society reported in June 2009 that a wolverine researchers had been tracking for almost three months had crossed into northern Colorado. Society officials had tagged the young male wolverine in Wyoming near Grand Teton National Park and it had traveled southward for approximately 500 miles. It was the first wolverine seen in Colorado since 1919, and its appearance was also confirmed by the Colorado Division of Wildlife.

! Country	! Population	! Area	! Year	! State of population
Sweden	265+	Norrbotten	1995–97	Stable
Norway	150+	Snøhetta plateau and North	1995–97	Decline
Finland	155–170	Karelia and North	2008	Stable
Russia	1500	Taiga	1970, 1990,	Decline
	885	-	1990	-
	410		1990	Limited
Russia – Kola Peninsula	160	Hunting Districts	1990	Decline
United States – Alaska	Unknown	Kobuk Valley National Park, Selawik National Wildlife Refuge	1998	Decline
United States – Alaska	3.0 (± 0.4 SE) wolverines/1,000 km2		2004	-
United States – Rocky Mountains	28–52	Montana, Idaho, Wyoming	1989–2007	Unknown
United States – California	1	Tahoe National Forest	2008	Unknown
Canada – Yukon	9.7 (± 0.6 SE) wolverines/1,000 km2	Old Crow Flats	2004	-
Canada – Ontario	Unclear		2004	Stable to expanding
Canada – Overall	15000–19000	Overall	-	Stable

This requirement for large territories brings wolverines into conflict with human development, and hunting and trapping further reduce their numbers, causing them to disappear from large parts of their former range; attempts to have them declared an endangered species have met with little success.

In captivity

Around a hundred wolverines are held in zoos across North America and Europe, and they have been successfully bred in captivity, but only with difficulty and high infant mortality.

Name

The wolverine's questionable reputation as an insatiable glutton (reflected in the Latin genus name ''Gulo'') may be in part due to a false etymology. The animal's name in Old Swedish, ''fjellfräs'', meaning "mountain cat", worked its way into German as ''Vielfraß'', which means roughly "devours much". Its name in other West Germanic languages is similar (e.g. ).

The Finnish name is ''ahma'', derived from ''ahmatti,'' which is translated as "glutton". Similarly, the Estonian name is ''ahm'', with the equivalent meaning to the Finnish name. In Lithuanian is ''ernis'', in Latvian—''tinis''.

The Eastern Slavic ''росомаха'' (rosomakha) and the Polish and Czech name ''rosomak'' seem to be borrowed from the Finnish ''rasva-maha'' (fat belly). Similarly, the Hungarian name is ''rozsomák'' or ''torkosborz'' which means "gluttonous badger".

In French-speaking parts of Canada, the wolverine is referred to as ''carcajou'', borrowed from the Innu-aimun or Montagnais ''kuàkuàtsheu''.

Purported gluttony is reflected neither in English nor in North Germanic languages. The English word ''wolverine'' (alteration of the earlier form ''wolvering'' of uncertain origin) probably implies "a little wolf". The name in Proto-Norse, ''erafaz'' and Old Norse, ''jarfr'', lives on in the regular Icelandic name ''jarfi'', regular Norwegian name ''jerv'', regular Swedish name ''järv'' and regular Danish name ''jærv''.

In culture

Many cities, teams, and organizations use the wolverine as a mascot. For example, the U.S. state of Michigan is, by tradition, known as "The Wolverine State", and the University of Michigan takes the wolverine as its mascot. The association is well and long established: for example, many Detroiters volunteered to fight during the American Civil War and George Armstrong Custer, who led the Michigan Brigade, called them the "Wolverines". The origins of this association are obscure; it may derive from a busy trade in wolverine furs in Sault Ste. Marie in the 18th century or may recall a disparagement intended to compare early settlers in Michigan with the vicious mammal. Wolverines are, however, extremely rare in Michigan. A sighting in February 2004 near Ubly was the first confirmed sighting in Michigan in 200 years. The animal was found dead in 2010.

The wolverine figures prominently in the mythology of the Innu people of eastern Québec and Labrador. In at least one Innu myth, it is the creator of the world.

Wolverine is the name of a popular fictional character by Marvel Comics—named for his highly individualistic and aggressive behavior, as well his great ferocity despite his small stature.

Film

The 91-minute motion picture ''Running Free'' (also known as ''One Paw'') is about a young boy and his friendship with an Alaskan wolverine. The wolverines seen in the film were born in captivity and directed by U.S.D.A.-licensed filmmaker, Steve Kroschel. Many of the wolverine scenes are documentary footage of trained wolverines that are being filmed in their natural habitat. The movie was screened on October 5, 1994. The American Humane Society was involved before the start of filming and during some of the filming.

The PBS series "Nature" released a documentary, "Wolverine: Chasing the Phantom" as episode #166 on 14 November 2010.. This 53 minute documentary focuses on the efforts of a number of naturalists in the United States to track wolverines, collect genetic data, and learn more about wolverine populations, individual behavior and social behavior. It also tracks the raising of two male wolverines in captivity at an Alaska nature reserve from birth to maturity, and profiles the naturalists making these efforts.

Gallery

References

External links

Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe: Wolverine: scientific articles about wolverines

Wolverine Tracks: How to identify wolverine tracks in the wild.

Forest Service Wolverine research

Category:Mustelinae Category:Mammals of Canada Category:Mammals of North America Category:Mammals of Europe Category:Mammals of Asia Category:Arctic land animals Category:Fauna of the Arctic Category:Mammals of Finland Category:Megafauna of Eurasia Category:Megafauna of North America Category:Monotypic mammal genera Category:Animals described in 1758

br:Karkajou bg:Росомаха ca:Golut cs:Rosomák sibiřský da:Jærv de:Vielfraß nv:Dziłbąąh dlǫ́ʼiitsoh hashkéhé et:Ahm es:Gulo gulo eo:Gulo eu:Jatun fr:Glouton hr:Gorska kuna ik:Qavvik is:Jarfi it:Gulo gulo he:גרגרן kn:ವೊಲ್ವೆರಿನ್ kk:Құну sw:Fisi-milima lv:Tinis lt:Ernis hu:Rozsomák mk:Лакомец ms:Wolverin mdf:Куне mn:Нохой зээх nl:Veelvraat (zoogdier) ja:クズリ no:Jerv nn:Jerv koi:Лана pl:Rosomak pt:Glutão ru:Росомаха sah:Сиэгэн se:Geatki simple:Wolverine sl:Rosomah sr:Ждеравац fi:Ahma sv:Järv ta:வால்வரின் th:วูล์ฟเวอรีน uk:Росомаха ug:بۆرە بورسۇق vi:Chồn gulô vls:Veelvroate zh:貂熊

Character name	Captain America
Converted	y
Alter ego	Steven "Steve" Rogers
Publisher	Marvel Comics
Debut	''Captain America Comics'' #1 (March 1941)
Creators	Joe SimonJack Kirby
Alliances	Illuminati"Secret Avengers" (Civil War)AvengersInvadersAll-Winners SquadSecret DefendersS.H.I.E.L.D.Project: RebirthU.S. ArmyRedeemersNew AvengersSecret Avengers
Aliases	Nomad, The Captain, Brett Hendrick, Roger Stevens, Weapon I
Partners	Bucky (James Barnes)FalconNomad (Monroe)Bucky (Rick Jones)Free SpiritJack FlagBucky (Rikki)Demolition ManSharon Carter
Supports
Powers	Physical attributes enhanced to peak of human potentialExpert martial artist and hand-to-hand combatantAll-terrain acrobaticsMaster tactician and field commanderVibranium-steel alloy shield
Cat	super
Subcat	Marvel Comics
Hero	y
Sortkey	Captain America }}

Captain America is a fictional character, a superhero that appears in comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character first appeared in ''Captain America Comics'' #1 (March 1941), from Marvel Comics' 1940s predecessor, Timely Comics, and was created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby. Over the years, an estimated 210 million copies of "Captain America" comic books have been sold in a total of 75 countries. For nearly all of the character's publication history, Captain America was the alter ego of Steve Rogers, a frail young man who was enhanced to the peak of human perfection by an experimental serum in order to aid the United States war effort. Captain America wears a costume that bears an American flag motif, and is armed with an indestructible shield that can be thrown as a weapon.

An intentionally patriotic creation who was often depicted fighting the Axis powers of World War II, Captain America was Timely Comics' most popular character during the wartime period. After the war ended, the character's popularity waned and he disappeared by the 1950s aside from an ill-fated revival in 1953. Captain America was reintroduced during the Silver Age of comics when he was revived from suspended animation by the superhero team the Avengers in ''The Avengers'' #4 (March 1964). Since then, Captain America has often led the team, as well as starring in his own series.

Steve Rogers was purportedly assassinated in ''Captain America'' vol. 5, #25 (March 2007), although he was later revealed to be alive. The comic-book series ''Captain America'' continued to be published, with Rogers' former sidekick, James "Bucky" Barnes, having taken up the mantle, and keeping it at the insistence of Rogers, who upon his return began operating as an intelligence agent in the ''Secret Avengers'' title, and in the limited series ''Steve Rogers: Super Soldier''.

Captain America was the first Marvel Comics character adapted into another medium with the release of the 1944 movie serial ''Captain America.'' Since then, the character has been featured in several other films and television series, including ''Captain America: The First Avenger,'' released on July 22, 2011. Captain America was ranked 6th on IGN's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes in 2011.

Publication history

In 1940, writer Joe Simon conceived the idea for Captain America and made a sketch of the character in costume . "I wrote the name 'Super American' at the bottom of the page," Simon said in his autobiography. "No, it didn't work. There were too many 'Supers' around. 'Captain America' had a good sound to it. There weren't a lot of captains in comics. It was as easy as that. The boy companion was simply named Bucky, after my friend Bucky Pierson, a star on our high school basketball team."

Simon recalled in his autobiography that Timely Comics publisher Martin Goodman gave him the go-ahead from and directed that a Captain America solo comic book series be published as soon as possible. Needing to fill a full comic with primarily one character's stories, Simon did not believe that his regular creative partner, artist Jack Kirby, could handle the workload alone:

Al Liederman would ink that first issue, which was lettered by Simon and Kirby's regular letterer, Howard Ferguson.

Simon said Captain America was a consciously political creation; he and Kirby were morally repulsed by the actions of Nazi Germany in the years leading up to the United States' involvement in World War II and felt war was inevitable: "The opponents to the war were all quite well organized. We wanted to have our say too."

''Captain America Comics'' #1 — cover-dated March 1941 and on sale in December 1940, a year before the attack on Pearl Harbor, but a full year into World War II — showed the protagonist punching Nazi leader Adolf Hitler in the jaw — sold nearly one million copies. While most readers responded favorably to the comic, some took objection. Simon noted, "When the first issue came out we got a lot of... threatening letters and hate mail. Some people really opposed what Cap stood for." Though preceded as a "patriotically themed superhero" by MLJ's The Shield, Captain America immediately became the most prominent and enduring of that wave of superheroes introduced in American comic books prior to and during World War II. With his sidekick Bucky, Captain America faced Nazis, Japanese, and other threats to wartime America and the Allies. Stanley Lieber, now better known by his pen name Stan Lee, contributed to the character in issue #3 in the filler text story "Captain America Foils the Traitor's Revenge," which introduced the character's use of his shield as a returning throwing weapon. Captain America soon became Timely's most popular character and even had a fan-club called the "Sentinels of Liberty."

Circulation figures remained close to a million copies per month after the debut issue, which outstripped even the circulation of news magazines like ''Time'' during the period. After the Simon and Kirby team moved to DC in late 1941, having produced ''Captain America Comics'' through issue #10 (January 1942), Al Avison and Syd Shores became regular pencillers of the celebrated title, with one generally inking over the other. The character was also featured in ''All Winners Comics'' #1-19 (Summer 1941 – Fall 1946), ''Marvel Mystery Comics'' #80-84 and #86-92, ''USA Comics'' #6-17 (Dec. 1942 – Fall 1945), and ''All Select Comics'' #1-10 (Fall 1943 – Summer 1946).

In the post-war era, with the popularity of superheroes fading, Captain America led Timely's first superhero team, the All-Winners Squad, in its two published adventures, in ''All Winners Comics'' #19 and #21 (Fall–Winter 1946; there was no issue #20). After Bucky was shot and wounded in a 1948 ''Captain America'' story, he was succeeded by Captain America's girlfriend, Betsy Ross, who became the superheroine Golden Girl. ''Captain America Comics'' ended with issue #75 (Feb. 1950), by which time the series had been titled ''Captain America's Weird Tales'' for two issues, with the finale being a horror/suspense anthology issue with no superheroes.

Atlas Comics attempted to revive its superhero titles when it reintroduced Captain America, along with the original Human Torch and the Sub-Mariner, in ''Young Men'' #24 (Dec. 1953). Billed as "Captain America, Commie Smasher!" Captain America appeared during the next year in ''Young Men'' #24-28 and ''Men's Adventures'' #27-28, as well as in issues #76-78 of an eponymous title. Atlas' attempted superhero revival was a commercial failure, and the character's title was canceled with ''Captain America'' #78 (Sept. 1954).

Silver Age revival

In the Human Torch story titled "Captain America" in Marvel Comics' ''Strange Tales'' #114 (Nov. 1963), writer-editor Stan Lee and artist and co-plotter Jack Kirby depicted the brash young Fantastic Four member Johnny Storm, the Human Torch, in an exhibition performance with Captain America, described as a legendary World War II and 1950s superhero who has returned after many years of apparent retirement. The 18-page story ends with this Captain America revealed as an impostor: it was actually the villain the Acrobat, a former circus performer the Torch had defeated in ''Strange Tales'' #106, who broke two thieves out of jail, hoping to draw the police away while trying to rob the local bank. Afterward, Storm digs out an old comic book in which Captain America is shown to be Steve Rogers. A caption in the final panel says this story was a test to see if readers would like Captain America to return.

Captain America was then formally reintroduced in ''The Avengers'' #4 (March 1964), which explained that in the final days of WWII, he had fallen from an experimental drone plane into the North Atlantic Ocean and spent decades frozen in a block of ice in a state of suspended animation. He quickly became leader of that superhero team. Following the success of other Marvel characters introduced during the 1960s, Captain America was recast as a hero "haunted by past memories, and trying to adapt to 1960s society."

After then guest-starring in the feature "Iron Man" in ''Tales of Suspense'' #58 (Oct. 1964), Captain America gained his own solo feature in that "split book," beginning the following issue. Kirby, Captain America's co-creator, was illustrating his hero's solo adventures again for the first time since 1941. Issue #63 (March 1965), which retold Captain America's origin, through issue #71 (Nov. 1965) was a period feature set during World War II and co-starred Captain America's Golden Age sidekick, Bucky.

In the 1970s, the post-war versions of Captain America were retconned into separate, successive characters who briefly took up the mantle of Captain America after Steve Rogers went into suspended animation near the end of World War II. The hero found a new generation of readers as leader of the all-star superhero team the Avengers, and in a new solo feature beginning in ''Tales of Suspense'' #59 (Nov. 1964), a "split book" shared with the feature "Iron Man". Kirby drew all but two of the stories in ''Tales of Suspense,'' which became ''Captain America'' with #100 (April 1968); Gil Kane and John Romita, Sr., each filled in once. Several stories were finished by penciller-inker George Tuska over Kirby layouts, with one finished by Romita Sr. and another by penciller Dick Ayers and inker John Tartaglione. Kirby's regular inkers on the series were Frank Giacoia (as "Frank Ray") and Joe Sinnott, though Don Heck and Golden Age Captain America artist Syd Shores inked one story each. The new title ''Captain America'' continued to feature artwork by Kirby, as well as a short run by Jim Steranko, and work by many of the industry's top artists and writers. It was called ''Captain America and the Falcon'' from #134-222 (although the Falcon's name was not on the cover for issues #193, 200, and 216).

This series — considered ''Captain America'' volume one by comics researchers and historians, following the 1940s ''Captain America Comics'' and its 1950s numbering continuation — ended with #454 (Aug. 1996).

After the Silver Age

This series was almost immediately followed by the 13-issue ''Captain America'' vol. 2 (Nov. 1996 – Nov. 1997), the 50-issue ''Captain America'' vol. 3 (Jan. 1998 – Feb. 2002), the 32-issue ''Captain America'' vol. 4 (June 2002 – Dec. 2004), and ''Captain America'' vol. 5 (Jan. 2005 – July 2009). Beginning with the 600th overall issue counting these series, ''Captain America'' resumed its original numbering with issue #600, as if the series numbering had continued uninterrupted after #454.

As part of the aftermath of Marvel Comics' company-crossover storyline "Civil War", Steve Rogers was ostensibly killed in ''Captain America'' vol. 5, #25 (March 2007). Series writer Ed Brubaker remarked, "What I found is that all the really hard-core left-wing fans want Cap to be standing out on and giving speeches on the street corner against the George W. Bush administration, and all the really right-wing fans all want him to be over in the streets of Baghdad, punching out Saddam Hussein." The character's co-creator, Joe Simon, remarked, "It's a hell of a time for him to go. We really need him now." Artist Alex Ross designed a slightly revised Captain America costume that former sidekick Bucky Barnes began to wear as the new Captain America in vol. 5, #34 (March 2008)

The storyline of Rogers' return began in issue #600. Rogers, who was not dead but caroming through time, returned to the present day in the six-issue miniseries ''Captain America: Reborn'' (Sept. 2009 – March 2010).

After Rogers' return, Barnes, at Rogers' insistence, continued as Captain America, beginning in the one-shot comic ''Captain America: Who Will Wield the Shield?'' (Feb. 2010). While Bucky Barnes continued adventuring in the pages of ''Captain America'', Steve Rogers received his own miniseries (''Steve Rogers: Super-Soldier'') as well as taking on the leadership position in a new ''Secret Avengers'' ongoing series.

Spinoff series included ''Captain America Sentinel of Liberty'' (Sept. 1998 – Aug. 1999) and ''Captain America and the Falcon'' (May 2004 – June 2005). The 1940s Captain America appeared alongside the 1940s Human Torch and Sub-Mariner in the 12-issue miniseries ''Avengers/Invaders''. The 2007 mini-series ''Captain America: The Chosen'', written by David Morrell and penciled by Mitchell Breitweiser, depicts a dying Steve Rogers' final minutes, at S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters, as his spirit guides James Newman, a young American marine fighting in Afghanistan. ''The Chosen'' is not part of the main Marvel Universe continuity.

Fictional character biography

1940s

Steve Rogers was born July 4, 1917, in the Lower East Side of Manhattan, New York City, to Irish immigrants Sarah and Joseph Rogers. Joseph Rogers died when Steve was only a child and his mother, Sarah, died of pneumonia while Steve was a teen. By early 1940, before America's entry into World War II, Rogers is a tall but scrawny fine arts student specializing in illustration. Disturbed by the rise of the Third Reich, Rogers attempts to enlist, only to be rejected due to being in poor shape. U.S. Army General Chester Phillips, looking for test subjects, offers Rogers the chance to serve his country by taking part in a top-secret defense project — Operation: Rebirth, which seeks to develop a means of creating physically superior soldiers. Rogers volunteers for the research and, after a rigorous selection process, is chosen as the first human test subject for the Super-Soldier serum developed by the scientist "Dr. Josef Reinstein", later retroactively changed to a code name for the scientist Abraham Erskine.

That night, Operation: Rebirth is implemented and Rogers receives injections and oral doses of the Super-Soldier Serum. He is then exposed to a controlled burst of "Vita-Rays" that activate and stabilize the chemicals in his system. Although the process is arduous physically, it successfully alters his physiology almost instantly from its relatively frail form to the maximum of human efficiency, greatly enhancing his musculature, reflexes, agility, stamina and intelligence. Erskine declares Rogers to be the first of a new breed of man, a "nearly perfect human being."

The process he underwent has varied from account to account. In the original 1941 story, he was injected with the formula. When the origin was retold in ''Tales of Suspense'' #63, the Comics Code Authority and its prohibitions on demonstrations of drug use were in force, and the injection was replaced with drinking a formula. In ''Captain America'' #109, the Vita-Rays were first introduced, although a dialogue comment preserved continuity by mentioning that he had also drunk the formula beforehand. The retelling of the story in ''Captain America'' #255, however, stated that all three were used in combination. In addition, the limited series, ''The Adventures of Captain America'' reveals that Rogers also underwent rigorous physical training in combat prior to his enhancement.

After the physical transformation, Nazi spy Heinz Kruger reveals himself and shoots Erskine. Because the scientist had committed crucial portions of the Super-Soldier formula to memory, duplicating it perfectly would be unlikely. The spy dies, killed either while running away to escape Rogers or because Rogers threw him into live machinery. In the 1941 origin story and the ''Tales of Suspense'' #63 version, he dies when running into the machinery but is not killed by Rogers; in the ''Captain America'' #109 and #255 revision, however, Rogers causes the spy's death by punching him into the machinery.

The United States government, making the most of its one super-soldier and to hide all information about Operation: Rebirth and its failure, re-imagines him as a superhero who serves as both a counter-intelligence agent and a propaganda symbol to counter Nazi Germany's head of terrorist operations, the Red Skull. To that end, Rogers is given a uniform modeled after the American flag (based on Rogers' own sketches) a bulletproof shield, a personal side arm, and the codename Captain America. He is also given a cover identity as a clumsy infantry private at Camp Lehigh in Virginia. Barely out of his teens himself, Rogers makes friends with the camp's teenage mascot, James Buchanan "Bucky" Barnes.

Barnes accidentally learns of Rogers' dual identity and offers to keep the secret if he can become Captain America's sidekick. Rogers agrees and trains Barnes. Rogers meets President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who presents him with a new shield, forged from an alloy of steel and vibranium, fused by an unknown catalyst. The alloy is indestructible, yet the shield is light enough to use as a discus-like weapon that can be angled to return to him. It proves so effective that Captain America forgoes the sidearm. Throughout World War II, Captain America and Bucky fight the Nazi menace both on their own and as members of the superhero team the Invaders (as seen in the 1970s comic of the same name). Captain America also battles a number of criminal menaces on American soil, including a wide variety of costumed villains: the Wax Man, the Hangman, the Fang, and the White Death, the superhero team the Avengers discovers Steve Rogers' body in the North Atlantic, the Captain's uniform under his soldier's fatigues and still carrying his shield. After he revives, they piece together that Rogers had been preserved in a block of ice since 1945, surviving in such a state only because of his enhancements from Operation: Rebirth. The block had begun to melt after the Sub-Mariner, enraged that an Arctic Inuit tribe is worshiping the frozen figure, throws it into the ocean. Rogers accepts membership in the Avengers, and although long out of his time, his considerable combat experience makes him a valuable asset to the team. He quickly assumes leadership, and has typically returned to that position throughout the team's history.

Captain America is plagued by guilt for having been unable to prevent Bucky's death—a feeling that does not ease for some time. Although he takes the young Rick Jones (who closely resembles Bucky) under his tutelage, he refuses for some time to allow Jones to take up the Bucky identity, not wishing to be responsible for another youth's death. Insisting that his hero finally move on from that loss, Jones eventually convinces Rogers to let him don the Bucky costume, but this partnership lasts only a short time; a disguised Red Skull, impersonating Rogers with the help of the Cosmic Cube, drives Jones away.

Rogers also reunites with his old war comrade Nick Fury, who is similarly well-preserved due to the "Infinity Formula." As a result, Rogers regularly undertakes missions for the security agency S.H.I.E.L.D. for which Fury is public director. Through Fury, Rogers befriends Sharon Carter, a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, with whom he eventually begins a romantic relationship.

Rogers later meets and trains Sam Wilson, who becomes the superhero the Falcon, the first African-American superhero in mainstream comic books. The characters established an enduring friendship and adventuring partnership, sharing the series title for some time as ''Captain America and the Falcon''. The two later encounter the revived but still insane 1950s Captain America. Although Rogers and the Falcon defeat the faux Rogers and Jack Monroe, Rogers becomes deeply disturbed that he could have suffered his counterpart's fate.

The series also dealt with the Marvel Universe's version of the Watergate scandal, making Rogers so uncertain about his role that he abandons his Captain America identity in favor of one called Nomad, emphasizing the word's meaning as "man without a country". During this time, several men unsuccessfully assume the Captain America identity. Rogers eventually re-assumes it after coming to consider that the identity could be a symbol of American ideals and not its government; it's a personal conviction epitomized when he later confronted a corrupt Army officer attempting to manipulate him by appealing to his loyalty, "I'm loyal to nothing, General... except the [American] Dream." Jack Monroe, cured of his mental instability, later takes up the Nomad alias. During this period, Rogers also temporarily gains super strength. Immediately after witnessing Number One's suicide, he is summoned to the future to participate in the Destiny War between Kang the Conqueror and Immortus (it is revealed over the course of the story that Rogers was selected from this time frame as, had he been taken from any other time period, his strong personality- shaken at this point by the events he had just witnessed- would have dominated the team and deprived them of the flexibility required to succeed in their mission, although his presence alone still brought cohesion to the group). He also learns of the apparent death of Sharon Carter.

1980s to 1990s

The early 1980s included runs from such creators as Roger Stern, John Byrne, and J. M. DeMatteis. Stern had Steve Rogers considers a run for President of the United States in ''Captain America'' #250 (June 1980), and and introduced a new love interest, law student Bernie Rosenthal, in ''Captain America'' #248 (Aug. 1980). Stern also revisited and expanded Captain America's origin story.

DeMatteis revealed the true face and full origin of the Red Skull in ''Captain America'' #298-300, and had Captain America take on Jack Monroe, Nomad, as a partner for a time. It is also around this time that the heroes gathered by the Beyonder elect Rogers as leader during their stay on Battleworld in the 1984 miniseries ''Secret Wars''

Also during the 1980s, Mark Gruenwald wrote 137 issues of the book for 10 consecutive years from 1985 to 1995, the most issues by any single author in the character's history. Gruenwald created several new foes, including Crossbones and the Serpent Society. Other Gruenwald characters included new love interest Diamondback., Super Patriot (who would go on to become a replacement Captain America in a two-year story arc and became USAgent at that arc's conclusion), and some short-lived new partners that included Demolition Man.

Gruenwald explores numerous political and social themes as well, such as extreme idealism when Captain America fights the anti-nationalist terrorist Flag-Smasher; and vigilantism when he hunts the murderous Scourge of the Underworld. Homophobia was also dealt with as Steve Rogers runs into a childhood friend named Arnold Roth who is gay.

Rogers receives a large back-pay reimbursement dating back to his disappearance at the end of World War II, and a government commission orders him to work directly for the U.S. government. Already troubled by the corruption he had encountered with the Nuke incident in New York City, Rogers chooses instead to resign his identity, and then takes the alias of "the Captain". A replacement Captain America, John Walker, struggles to emulate Rogers' ideals until pressure from hidden enemies helps to drive Walker insane. Rogers returns to the Captain America identity while a recovered Walker becomes the U.S. Agent.

Sometime afterward, Rogers avoids the explosion of a methamphetamine lab, but the drug triggers a chemical reaction in the Super-Soldier serum in his system. To combat the reaction, Rogers has the serum removed from his body, and trains constantly to maintain his physical condition.

A retcon later establishes that the serum was not a drug per se, which would have metabolized out of his system, but in fact a virus-like organism that effected a biochemical and genetic change. This additionally explained how arch-nemesis Red Skull, who at the time inhabited a body cloned from Rogers' cells, also has the formula in his body.

Because of his altered biochemistry, Rogers' body begins to deteriorate, and for a time he must wear a powered exoskeleton and is eventually placed again in suspended animation. During this time, he is given a transfusion of blood from the Red Skull, which cures his condition and stabilizes the Super-Soldier virus in his system. Captain America returns both to crime fighting and the Avengers.

Following Gruenwald's departure on the book, Mark Waid took over and resurrected Sharon Carter as Cap's love interest. The book was then relaunched under Rob Liefeld as Cap became part of the Heroes Reborn universe for 13 issues before another relaunch restored Waid to the title in an arc that saw Cap lose his shield for a time using an energy based shield as a temporary replacement. Following Waid's run, Dan Jurgens took over and introduced new foe Protocide, a failed recipient of the Super Soldier serum prior to the experiment that successfully created Rogers.

2000s

Rogers reveals his identity to the world, and establishes a residence in the Red Hook neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York.

Following the events of ''Avengers Disassembled'', again under the employ of S.H.I.E.L.D., Rogers discovers that Bucky is alive, having been saved and deployed by Soviet espionage interests as the Winter Soldier. Rogers also resumes his on-again, off-again relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter, who, after his death, believes she is pregnant with Steve Rogers' child.

In the 2006-2007 "Civil War" crossover, Captain America opposes mandatory federal registration of all super-powered beings, which he sees as an erosion of civil liberties for the superhero community, and leads the Anti-Registration faction and resistance movement. He becomes a fugitive and opposes the heroes of the Pro-Registration group, including his former friend Iron Man. He adopts the alias "Brett Hendrick", a mall security guard, to avoid government detection. As the War continues, Cap enlists the assistance of several figures with whom he would not choose to ally himself under normal circumstances, such as the Punisher and the Kingpin.

Captain America battles Iron Man during the climactic battle and has victory within his grasp when a group of civilians attempt to restrain him. Rogers realizes that he is endangering the very people he has sworn to protect. He then surrenders to the authorities and orders the Anti-Registration forces to stand down. As Rogers is led away in handcuffs, the Punisher retrieves Captain America's discarded mask.

''The Death of Captain America'' story arc follows his surrender. Steve Rogers is indicted on multiple criminal charges; as he is brought to a federal courthouse, a sniper shoots him in the back. In the chaos that ensues, he is wounded three more times in the stomach and chest by Sharon Carter. Rogers is taken to a hospital, where by all evidence he dies. The assassination, orchestrated by the Red Skull, involves Crossbones as the sniper and Dr. Faustus posing as a S.H.I.E.L.D. psychiatrist, who gives Carter a hypnotic suggestion to shoot Rogers at a crucial moment.

The superhero community is shaken by the assassination. The Punisher temporarily adopts a costume similar to that of Captain America, while Winter Soldier and Wolverine seek to avenge Rogers' death. The Winter Soldier steals Captain America's shield, and the Punisher provides him with the mask from Steve Rogers' uniform. Captain America is publicly laid to rest in Arlington National Cemetery, under a monument built in his honor. The body in Arlington is a fake: Tony Stark, accompanied by Hank Pym and Janet Van Dyne, returns Rogers' body to the Arctic where Rogers had been found years before. Namor attends the small private ceremony and vows no one will disturb the site.

Stark receives a letter containing Rogers' final requests: Stark should "save" Bucky, and that, despite his demise, the world still needs Captain America. Bucky accepts Stark's offer to take on the mantle of Captain America in exchange for a promise of autonomy from Stark. Bucky kept Rogers' trademark shield, but donned a new costume and began carrying a pistol and a knife.

''Captain America: Reborn'' #1 revealed that Rogers did not die; instead, the villainous Red Skull had Sharon Carter use a gun that transported him to a fixed position in space and time. Since then, Captain America had been phasing in and out of space and time, appearing at events in his lifetime and fighting battles. The Red Skull brings Rogers back to the present, where he takes control of Rogers' mind and body. Rogers eventually regains control, and with help from his allies, defeats the Red Skull.

In the one-shot comic ''Captain America: Who Will Wield the Shield?'', taking place after the conclusion to ''Reborn'', Rogers formally hands Bucky his Captain America shield and asks his former sidekick to continue as Captain America. Later, the American President grants Rogers a full pardon for his actions in ''Civil War''.

2010s

Following the company-wide "Dark Reign" and "Siege" story arcs, the Steve Rogers character became part of the "Heroic Age" arc. The U.S. president appoints Rogers, in his civilian identity, as head of the nation's security, replacing Norman Osborn. The Superhuman Registration Act is repealed and Rogers reestablishes the superhero team the Avengers. In the miniseries ''Steve Rogers: Super Soldier'', he encounters Jacob Erskine, the grandson of Professor Abraham Erskine and the son of Tyler Paxton, one of Rogers' fellow volunteers in the Super-Soldier program, the serum in his body being briefly deactivated before Rogers manages to force his enemies to restore it thanks to his combat training allowing him to hold his own despite his weakened physique. Rogers also becomes the leader of the Secret Avengers, a black-ops team that operates under a veil of secrecy.

Marvel stated in May 2011 that Rogers, following the death of Bucky Barnes in the ''Fear Itself'' miniseries, would resume his Captain America identity in a sixth volume of ''Captain America'', by writer Ed Brubaker and artist Steve McNiven.

Powers and abilities

Captain America has no superhuman powers, although as a result of the Super-Soldier Serum and "Vita-Ray" treatment, he is transformed from a frail young man into a "perfect" specimen of human development and conditioning. Captain America's strength, endurance, agility, speed, reflexes, durability, and healing are at the zenith of natural human potential. Rogers' body regularly replenishes the super-soldier serum; it does not wear off.

The formula enhances all of his metabolic functions and prevents the build-up of fatigue poisons in his muscles, giving him endurance far in excess of an ordinary human being. This accounts for many of his extraordinary feats, including bench pressing 1200 pounds (545 kg) and running a mile (1.6 km) in approximately 73 seconds. Furthermore, his enhancements are the reason why he was able to survive being frozen in suspended animation for decades. Rogers cannot become intoxicated by alcohol, drugs, or impurities in the air and is immune to terrestrial diseases. He is also highly resistant to hypnosis or gases that could limit his focus. The secrets of creating a super-soldier were lost with the death of its creator, Dr. Abraham Erskine. However, in the ensuing decades there have been numerous secret attempts to recreate Erskine's treatment, only to have predominantly all end in failure. Even worse, the attempts have instead often created psychopathic supervillains of which Captain America's 1950s imitator and Nuke are the most notorious examples.

Rogers' battle experience and training make him an expert tactician and an excellent field commander, with his teammates frequently deferring to his orders in battle. Rogers' reflexes and senses are also extraordinarily keen. He has blended judo, western boxing, kickboxing, and gymnastics into his own unique fighting style and is a master of multiple martial arts. Years of practice with his indestructible shield make him able to aim and throw it with almost unerring accuracy. His skill with his shield is such that he can attack multiple targets in succession with a single throw or even cause a boomerang-like return from a throw to attack an enemy from behind. In canon, he is regarded by other skilled fighters as one of the best hand-to-hand combatants in the Marvel Universe. Although the super-soldier serum is an important part of his strength, Rogers has shown himself still sufficiently capable against stronger opponents, even when the serum has been deactivated reverting him to his pre-Captain America physique.

Rogers has vast U.S. military knowledge and is often shown to be familiar with ongoing, classified Defense Department operations. He is an expert in combat strategy, survival, acrobatics, military strategy, piloting, and demolitions. Despite his high profile as one of the world's most popular and recognizable superheroes, Rogers also has a broad understanding of the espionage community, largely through his ongoing relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. He occasionally makes forays into relatively mundane career fields, including commercial arts, comic book artistry, education (high school history), and law enforcement.

Weapons and equipment

Captain America uses several shields throughout his history, the most prevalent of which is a nigh-indestructible disc-shaped shield made from an experimental alloy of steel and the fictional vibranium. The shield was cast by American metallurgist Dr. Myron MacLain, who was contracted by the U.S. government, from orders of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, to create an impenetrable substance to use for tanks during World War II. This alloy was created by accident and never duplicated, although efforts to reverse-engineer it resulted in the discovery of adamantium.

Captain America often uses his shield as an offensive throwing weapon. The first instance of Captain America's trademark ricocheting shield-toss occurs in Stan Lee's first comics writing, the two-page text story "Captain America Foils the Traitor's Revenge" in ''Captain America Comics'' #3 (May 1941).

The legacy of the shield among other comics characters includes the time-traveling mutant superhero Cable telling Captain America that his shield still exists in one of the possible futures; Cable carries it into battle and brandishes it as a symbol.

When without his trademark shield, Captain America sometimes uses other shields made from less durable metals such as steel, or even a photonic energy shield designed to mimic a vibranium matrix. Rogers, having relinquished his regular shield to Barnes, carried a variant of the energy shield which can be used with either arm, and used to either block attacks or as an improvised offensive weapon able to cut through metal with relative ease. Much like his vibranium shield, the energy shield can also be thrown, including ricocheting off multiple surfaces and returning to his hand.

Captain America's uniform is made of a fire-retardant material, and he wears a lightweight, bulletproof "duralumin" scale armor beneath his uniform for added protection. Originally, Rogers' mask was a separate piece of material, but an early engagement had it dislodged, thus almost exposing his identity. To prevent a recurrence of the situation, Rogers modified the mask with connecting material to his uniform, an added benefit of which was extending his armor to cover his previously exposed neck. As a member of the Avengers, Rogers has an Avengers priority card, which serves as a communications device.

Captain America has also used a custom specialized motorcycle, modified by the S.H.I.E.L.D. weapons laboratory, as well as a custom-built battle van, constructed by the Wakanda Design Group with the ability to change its color for disguise purposes (red, white and blue), and fitted to store and conceal the custom motorcycle in its rear section with a frame that allows Rogers to launch from the vehicle riding it.

Enemies

Captain America has faced numerous foes in over 60 years of published adventures. Many of his recurring foes embody ideals contrary to the American values Captain America is shown to strive for and believe. Some examples of these opposing values are Nazism (Red Skull, Baron Zemo), Neo-Nazism (Crossbones, Doctor Faustus), technocratic fascism (AIM, Arnim Zola), Communism (Aleksander Lukin), anarchism (Flag Smasher and Viper), and international and domestic terrorism (HYDRA).

Other versions

In other media

Collected editions

The contents of ''Captain America Comics'' #1-10 were previously published as ''Captain America: The Classic Years'' two hardcover slipcase set in 1990. These were later re-issued as trade paperbacks in the late 1990s once again under the title ''Captain America: The Classic Years'' featuring new cover art by Kevin Maguire re-creating classic covers. Previous editions of ''War and Remembrance'', ''The Bloodstone Hunt'', ''Operation Rebirth'', ''Man Without a Country'', and ''To Serve and Protect'' were released prior to 2010 editions leading up to the Captain America: The First Avenger feature film.

! Title !! Material collected !! ISBN
''Marvel Masterworks Golden Age Captain America Comics, Vol. 1''	''Captain America Comics'' #1-4
''Marvel Masterworks Golden Age Captain America Comics, Vol. 2''	''Captain America Comics'' #5-8
''Marvel Masterworks Golden Age Captain America Comics, Vol. 3''	''Captain America Comics'' #9-12
''Marvel Masterworks Atlas Era Heroes, Vol. 1''	Includes Captain America stories from ''Astonishing'' #3-6, ''Young Men'' #24-28
''Marvel Masterworks Atlas Era Heroes, Vol. 2''	Includes Captain America stories from ''Men's Adventures'' #27-28, ''Captain America Comics'' #76-78
''Essential Captain America, Vol. 1''	''Tales of Suspense'' #59-99; ''Captain America'' #100-102
''Essential Captain America, Vol. 2''	''Captain America'' #103-126
''Essential Captain America, Vol. 3''	''Captain America'' #127-156
''Essential Captain America, Vol. 4''	''Captain America'' #157-186
''Essential Captain America, Vol. 5''	''Captain America'' #187-205, ''Annual'' #3, ''Marvel Treasury Special: Captain America's Bicentennial Battles''
''Essential Captain America, Vol. 6''	''Captain America'' #206-230, ''Annual'' #4; ''Incredible Hulk'' #232
''Captain America and the Falcon: Secret Empire''	''Captain America'' #169-176
''Captain America and the Falcon: Nomad''	''Captain America'' #177-186
''Captain America and the Falcon: Madbomb''	''Captain America'' #193-200
''Captain America: Bicentennial Battles''	''Captain America'' #201-205; ''Bicentennial Battles'' #1
''Captain America and the Falcon: The Swine''	''Captain America'' #206-214, ''Annual'' #3-4
''Captain America: War and Remembrance''	''Captain America'' #247-255
''Captain America: Deathlok Lives''	''Captain America'' #286-288
''Captain America: Scourge of the Underworld''	''Captain America'' #318-320, back-up stories from #358-362; ''USAgent'' #1-4;
''Captain America: The Captain''	''Captain America'' #332-350; ''Iron Man'' #228
''Captain America: The Bloodstone Hunt''	''Captain America'' #357-364
''Captain America: Streets of Poison''	''Captain America'' #372-378
''Avengers: Galactic Storm, Book 1''	''Captain America'' #398-399, ''Avengers West Coast'' #80-81, ''Quasar'' #32-33, ''Wonder Man'' #7-8, ''Avengers'' #345-346, ''Iron Man'' #278 and ''Thor'' #445
''Avengers: Galactic Storm, Book 2''	''Iron Man'' #279, ''Thor'' #446, ''Captain America'' #400-401, ''Avengers West Coast'' #82, ''Quasar'' #34-35, ''Wonder Man'' #9, ''Avengers'' #347, ''What If?'' #55-56
''Captain America: Man and Wolf''	''Captain America'' #402-408
''Captain America: Fighting Chance: Denial''	''Captain America'' #425-430
''Captain America: Fighting Chance: Acceptance''	''Captain America'' #431-437
''Captain America: Operation Rebirth''	''Captain America'' #444-448
''Captain America: Man Without a Country''	''Captain America'' #450-453
''Heroes Reborn: Captain America''	''Captain America'' vol. 2, #1-12
''Captain America: To Serve and Protect''	''Captain America'' vol. 3, #1-7
''Captain America: American Nightmare''	''Captain America'' vol. 3, #8-13, ''Annual 1998''
''Captain America: Red Glare''	''Captain America'' vol. 3, #14-19, ''Captain America Spotlight''
''Captain America: Sentinel of Liberty''	''Captain America: Sentinel of Liberty'' #1-12
''Captain America: The New Deal''	''Captain America'' vol. 4, #1-6
''Captain America: The Extremists''	''Captain America'' vol. 4, #7-11
''Captain America: Ice''	''Captain America'' vol. 4, #12-16
''Captain America: Cap Lives''	''Captain America'' vol. 4, #17-20; ''Tales of Suspense'' #66
''Captain America: Homeland''	''Captain America'' vol. 4, #21-28
''Captain America and the Falcon: Two Americas''	''Captain America and the Falcon'' #1-4
''Avengers Disassembled: Captain America''	''Captain America'' vol. 4, #29-32; ''Captain America and the Falcon'' #5-7
''Captain America and the Falcon: Brothers and Keepers''	''Captain America and the Falcon'' #8-14
''Captain America: Winter Soldier, Book One''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #1-7
''Captain America: Winter Soldier, Book Two''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #8-9, #11-14
''Captain America: Red Menace, Book One''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #15-17; ''Captain America 65th Anniversary Special''
''Captain America: Red Menace, Book Two''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #18-21
''Captain America: Civil War''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #22-24; ''Winter Soldier: Winter Kills''
''The Death of Captain America, Vol. 1: The Death of the Dream''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #25-30
''The Death of Captain America, Vol. 2: The Burden of Dreams''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #31-36
''The Death of Captain America, Vol. 3: The Man Who Bought America''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #37-42
''Captain America: The Man with No Face''	''Captain America'' vol. 5, #43-48
''Captain America: Road to Reborn'' (HC)	''Captain America'' #600-601; vol. 5, #49-50
''Captain America: Reborn'' (HC)	''Captain America: Reborn'' #1-6
''Captain America: Two Americas''	''Captain America'' #602-605; ''Who Will Wield the Shield?''
''Captain America: No Escape''	''Captain America'' #606-610
''Steve Rogers: Super Soldier''	''Steve Rogers: Super-Soldier'' #1-4
''Captain America: The Trial of Captain America	''Captain America'' #611-615 and #615.1, and material from CAPTAIN AMERICA 70TH ANNIVERSARY MAGAZINE
''Captain America: Prisoner of War	''Captain America'' #616-619
Miscellaneous
''Captain America: The Legacy of Captain America''	''Captain America Comics'' (1941) #1; ''What If?'' (1977) #4; ''Captain America'' #155, #333; ''Captain America'' vol. 5, #34; material from ''Captain America'' (1968) #178-183	SC:
''Captain America Vs. The Red Skull''	''Captain America Comics'' (1941) #1; ''Tales Of Suspense'' #79-81; and ''Captain America'' #143, #226-227, #261-263 and #370; and material from ''Captain America Annual'' #13 and ''Captain America: Red, White & Blue'' #1''	SC:

References

Further reading

External links

Captain America Library

Captain America: The First Avenger (July 2011)

"Captain America: An all-American hero goes back to his roots" - Aug 2011 review by Sasha Simic

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The Red Skull is a name shared by several fictional characters, all supervillains from the Marvel Comics universe. All incarnations of the character are enemies of Captain America, other superheroes, and the United States in general.

The first two Red Skulls are Nazi agents and the third is a Communist. The Red Skull was first introduced in ''Captain America Comics'' #1 in 1941. The first Red Skull (George Maxon) to appear in comics was an American industrialist turned Nazi saboteur. Maxon turned out to be an agent of the true Red Skull (Johann Schmidt), considered (according to S.H.I.E.L.D.) as one of the greatest threats to humanity, and a long-time archenemy of Captain America. The third Red Skull (Albert Malik) is best known for causing the deaths of the parents of Peter Parker, and thus orphaning the boy who would become Spider-Man. The Red Skull was ranked number 21 on Wizard Magazine's Top 100 Greatest Villains Ever list and was also ranked as IGN's 14th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time.

Publication history

The Red Skull was introduced in Timely Comics' ''Captain America Comics'' #1 (cover-dated March 1941), written and drawn by the team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby. The character was subsequently revived in the Silver Age of Comic Books first in ''Tales of Suspense'' #65 in the short-lived Captain America World War II period story run, and then established as a contemporary villain in #79.

For decades, the character's true face was hidden, but in ''Captain America'' vol. 1 #297 the Red Skull unmasked in front of the superhero with his face, albeit extremely aged, fully revealed. In the next issue, the Red Skull retells his story with his face fully visible in his various ages. When the character was revealed to be alive in issue #350, in a story called "Resurrection," by John Byrne, the face of Johann Schmidt's original body is hidden again, but the Skull's face is fully visible, albeit in his cloned copy of Captain America's body.

In 2011, the character's origin is being more fully illustrated in the limited series, ''Red Skull: Incarnate'', with Schmidt's face fully visible again.

Fictional character biography

The Red Skull, Johann Schmidt (sometimes spelled Shmidt), was a former Nazi general officer and confidant of Adolf Hitler. He has been closely affiliated with HYDRA and is an enemy of S.H.I.E.L.D., the Avengers, and the interests of the United States and the free world in general. He was physically augmented by having his mind placed into the body of a clone of Captain America, the pinnacle of human perfection. He has been seemingly killed in the past, only to return time and time again to plague the world with schemes of world domination and genocide.

World War II era

George Maxon

Chronologically by publication date, the first Red Skull to appear in the 1940s comics was George John Maxon, an American businessman and Nazi agent who led a ring of spies and saboteurs. He faced Captain America during two of the latter's first missions. A formidable opponent in his own right, Maxon was thought killed during the last encounter, though he would reappear for one last encounter with Captain America in the Silver Age. Maxon was later revealed to be the agent of Johann Schmidt, the true Red Skull.

Johann Schmidt, the true Red Skull

Johann Schmidt was born in a village in Germany to Hermann and Martha Schmidt. Schmidt's mother died in childbirth and his father blamed Johann for it and tried to murder him, only to be stopped by the attending doctor. The father later committed suicide and Johann was orphaned. He grew up on the streets as a beggar and a thief struggling to survive and his hatred of humanity grew with each day. A key episode was when he fell for a local Jewish girl, but when she spurned his clumsy advances, he murdered her, finding a release for his frustrations. With that, his depravity grew even more.

Schmidt worked as a menial laborer and in his late teens, during the rise of the Third Reich, Schmidt got his most prosperous job; a bellhop in a major hotel. While there, he served the rooms of Adolf Hitler himself. By chance, Schmidt was present when the Führer was furiously scolding an officer, during which Hitler pledged that he could create a better National Socialist out of the bellhop. Looking closely at the youth and sensing his dark inner nature, Hitler decided to take up the challenge and recruited Schmidt. The Skull later temporarily brainwashed three of the Invaders into serving him. The Red Skull and Captain America continued to engage in a series of skirmishes throughout the war, ending with a final battle that left the Skull buried under the rubble of a bombed building. Exposed to an experimental gas as the building collapsed, he remained there in suspended animation for decades along with a couple of henchmen.

Post-World War II era

Albert Malik

With Schmidt's disappearance after 1945, the reputation of the Skull was still formidable enough to prove useful. In 1953, a Communist agent named Albert Malik set up his spy/criminal organization in Algeria and assumed the identity of the Red Skull, pretending that he was the original, when he was actually serving Soviet interests. During the 1950s, he faced the then active version of Captain America who was also using the identity of Steve Rogers, pretending to be the original. The two impersonators continued to battle each other throughout the decade. While the Captain and Bucky (Jack Monroe) were placed into suspended animation when his flawed replicate of the Super-Soldier formula seriously affected his and Bucky's minds, Malik continued his activities, and over time cut his links to the Soviet Union. Among other notorious deeds, he was responsible for the deaths of Richard Parker and Mary Fitzpatrick-Parker, the parents of Peter Parker (a.k.a. Spider-Man), tipped off by the super-criminal Gustav "The Gentleman" Fiers.

Malik was eventually shot and killed by the mysterious Scourge of the Underworld at the original Red Skull's orders.

Johann Schmidt's legacy continued to cause trouble in the years of his absence. This primarily came in the form of powerful destructive robots called Sleepers which were intended to activate at preset times by his agents to devastate the Earth in the event of Nazi Germany's defeat. Captain America was able to neutralize all the machines in turn.

Modern era

Johann was eventually rescued and revived from suspended animation in modern times by the terrorist organization, AIM. The Skull quickly subverted a cell to his own ambitions of world conquest and the death of Captain America. He stole the Cosmic Cube after taking control of its Keeper's mind, and revealed that he gave Zemo the order to steal the bomb plane that led to Bucky's death. Schmidt fought Captain America again for the first time in years, and was about to send him to another dimension when Captain America offered to become his servant. Captain America defeated him by pretending to become subserviant to him and in the fight the island split apart due to the Cube's power, and the Skull fell off a cliff while trying to get the Cosmic Cube. When Johann reappeared, he and Albert, though his age was starting to catch up with him, started to antagonize each other while both claiming the identity of the Red Skull. Finally Albert was the victim of an assassination organized by Johann, at the hands of a rogue agent of the Scourge of the Underworld.

Thus the two enemies resumed their war, with Captain America, among other opponents, frustrating the Skull's schemes. The Skull captured part of Manhattan Island, unleashed the fourth Sleeper, and captured Captain America on Exile Island. The Skull then regained the reality-altering Cosmic Cube and temporarily switched bodies with Captain America. He also used the Cube to alter the personality of "Snap" Wilson, the future Falcon. Some time later, he first fought Doctor Doom. The Red Skull then fomented racial hatred in New York, and was revealed as the true power behind the Las Vegas HYDRA faction, and first clashed with the Kingpin.

Some time later, the Skull killed the would-be Captain America, Roscoe, while Rogers had temporarily given up the role. He also revived the use of his "dust of death." The Skull later fought Doctor Doom on the moon but was defeated. With Arnim Zola, the Skull sought to transplant Hitler's brain into Captain America's body. He transformed a number of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents into his skull-faced slaves. The Skull teamed with the Hate-Monger, a clone of Hitler, and trapped him in a flawed Cosmic Cube. The Skull led the Nihilist Order for a brief time. Establishing a Nazi colony on a deserted island, the Skull fathered a daughter who would eventually become known as Mother Superior.

The war between Captain America and Red Skull in the modern era reached a breaking point when Red Skull one day discovered that the gas that had placed him in suspended animation was now wearing off and that his body was rapidly aging to what would be Skull's normal age. Now physically in his mid-80s, a weak and feeble Red Skull planned for a final showdown with his arch-rival. Kidnapping Captain America's closest allies, he forced Captain America to surrender himself to Skull and forcibly undergo a medical treatment that aged Captain America's body to its rightful age. The two men, their bodies now ancient, fought one last battle to the death. Yet at the last minute, Captain America refused to kill the Red Skull and Skull himself died cursing Captain America, as his elderly body shut down. Dead at last, it seemed like the threat of the Red Skull had finally ended while The Avengers were able to restore Rogers' youth.

Resurrection

The Red Skull would not stay dead for long; Nazi geneticist Arnim Zola, who had obtained DNA samples of Captain America years earlier, arranged for Skull's mind to be transplanted into a clone body of Captain America at the moment of his death. Assuming the identity of "John Smith" (the English equivalent of his natural German name), Skull decided that he would reinvent himself and his quest for absolute power as a means to celebrate his cheating death. The Red Skull abandoned his longstanding beliefs in National Socialism and Hitler, on the belief that the Nazi philosophy made him look like a relic of the past. Skull instead turned towards American ideology for his new motivation. Skull saw much potential in the American dream of capitalism and self-determination and set about establishing his own foothold inside Washington DC, culminating in him gaining control over "The Commission", a government body in Washington that monitored and regulated superhero activities.

Skull also changed his mode of operations: rather than "living from one grand scheme to the next", he began financing a score of evil organizations that reported directly to him, most notably the militia group the Watchdogs. He also employed one of the Scourges, an organization who terrorized supervillains with a killing spree.

Despite all of this, Skull's biggest move would be his plot to remove Rogers from the position of Captain America and replace him with a jingoist named John Walker. Although Walker initially attempted to live up to his predecessor's ideals, The Skull arranged for the murders of Walker's parents, driving him insane and into a downward spiral of murder as part of his plan to blacken the name of Captain America.

Yet like all things, Skull's plans fell apart when Skull's chief pawn in the Commission was killed by Skull, right in front of Captain America. About to be exposed, Skull tried to manipulate Walker into killing Rogers. When Rogers defeated Walker, the Skull appeared to gloat at what he had done to Rogers and Walker and the reputation of Captain America. The Skull explained that this is part of his new operational method of engaging in multiple concurrent projects instead of investing consecutive grand schemes that his enemies could focus all their energies on stopping. Furthermore, these projects include killing Rogers at a time of his own choosing and that he could not touch Skull due to his status as a wealthy American businessman. Rogers, disturbed and puzzled by this mystery man with a face identical to his own and claiming to be his dead archenemy, noted that the Skull was not inhaling from the cigarette holder he had in his mouth. The cigarette turned out to be holding a lethal dose of the Skull's favorite poison, the Dust of Death, intended for Rogers - but the trap backfired against Schmidt when Walker suddenly hit him from behind with his shield. As a result, Schmidt suffered the facial disfigurement attributed to the Dust, as his face took on the appearance of a living red skull; his head is hairless and its skin has shriveled, clinging tightly to his actual skull, and has taken on a red discoloration. Skull did not die though, due to the effects of the Super-Soldier formula.

After this, the Skull masterminded a conflict between the United States and Symkaria, the nation of Silver Sable He joined the "Acts of Vengeance" conspiracy, but was attacked by the mutant terrorist Magneto, a Holocaust survivor who wanted to punish him for his involvement in Hitler's regime. Magneto buried him alive with enough water for a few months. The Skull remained imprisoned, close to death and beginning to see the error of his ways, until he was rescued by his henchman Crossbones.

The Red Skull's relationship with other villains was fraught with problems due to many villains shunning him because of his Nazi background. In the "Streets of Poison" storyline, the Skull proposes an alliance with the Kingpin to bring a new designer drug to New York but the Kingpin refuses to ally with the Nazi and the two engage in a drug war. He then defeats a weakened Skull in hand to hand combat, sparing his life on the condition he never come near the Kingpin's territory again. In the "Acts of Vengeance" crossover, the Skull demands the Wizard apologize for an insult to which the Wizard replies "You'll see yourself welcomed into Heaven before I speak those words!" Not long after that, he was kidnapped by Magneto. One prominent exception is fellow Nazi, Baron Wolfgang von Strucker, leader of the terrorist organization HYDRA. After the Skull's agents allow Strucker to be reborn, a grateful Strucker allows the Skull the use of HYDRA resources.

On the run

Skull's tenure in Washington came to an end when Skull was captured by Hauptmann Deutschland, and taken to Germany to stand trial for crimes against humanity, stemming from his days as an agent of the Third Reich. Skull narrowly escaped and was rescued by Arnim Zola, and was forced to fake his death in order go back into hiding in a compound in the Rocky Mountains. He recruited the female sociopath "The Viper", a move that alienated his minions and was further rocked when his chief henchman Crossbones kidnapped Captain America's girlfriend Diamondback, resulting in Captain America finding Skull's new lair. Skull fired Crossbones, and went into hiding while the Viper, using funds she plied from Red Skull as part of a scheme to use televisions across America to blind TV viewers, was defeated by Captain America.

Skull resurfaced during "Operation: AIM Island", where Skull discovered that he was facing the same permanent paralysis that Captain America was facing due to their exposure to the Super-Soldier formula. When the evil scientist Superia offered Captain America a cure, Captain America refused it on account of Superia proclaiming that Captain America would "owe her". Skull took the cure and apparently killed Superia, then arranged for Captain America to be kidnapped by his remaining forces and given a blood transfusion that cured him.

Reluctant allies

Captain America's recovery would segue into a reluctant team-up between him and Skull; a Nazi cult that worshiped Adolf Hitler as a god had discovered a Cosmic Cube that contained Hitler's mind, put there in the cube by Skull himself. The two sought to stop the cult from fully powering the Hitler Cosmic Cube but Skull opted instead to send Captain America (against his will) into the cube to kill Hitler and allow him to imprison Captain America in the cube while he used its power to conquer humanity. Captain America escaped and in the process used his shield to sever one of Skull's arms, causing him to drop the cube. The Cube then became unstable, destroying Skull.

Cosmic resurrection

Yet as most evil never dies, the same was true for that of Skull. Trapped in a hellish nightmare dimension and forced to serve as a bellhop to a world of immigrants, Skull's evil ultimately was so great that he was able to escape his prison. As a result, Skull now possessed limited reality warping powers that made him a truly cosmic threat. He was further aided by Korvac, who was posing as Kang the Conqueror. He was sent to Galactus' ship to steal more power from it (in particular the power of omniscience), which would remove all limits to Skull's reality warping powers. This led to Skull's undoing as Skull was ambushed by Korvac. Korvac stole Skull's cosmic powers for his own and banished Skull back to Earth.

The Red Skull later manipulated his way into the position of Secretary of Defense as Dell Rusk (an anagram for "red skull") to develop a biological weapon he tested at Mount Rushmore. He was exposed and defeated by the Avengers. The Black Panther beat him so badly that he broke the Skull's jaw in half.

Aleksander Lukin and the Winter Soldier

The Red Skull was assassinated by the mysterious Winter Soldier, under orders from the renegade former Soviet general Aleksander Lukin, who wanted to possess the new Cosmic Cube the Skull had manufactured. When the Skull was shot, he attempted to use the Cube to switch bodies with Lukin to survive, but as the Cube was still weak he only managed to transfer his mind into Lukin's body, so that the two enemies are trapped together, waging a constant war for dominance which the Red Skull seems to be progressively winning. During a plot to lure out Captain America, Red Skull/Lukin recruited several German skinheads and made them the successors to the Master Man. He then had these soldiers, dubbed the "Master Race," launch an attack on London, which was thwarted by Captain America, Spitfire, and Union Jack. Then, Red Skull/Lukin activated a Sleeper, a robot programmed for mass destruction, that was presumably created by Doctor Doom. The robot damaged a significant portion of the new London Kronas HQ, and was ultimately destroyed by Captain America and Bucky. In the aftermath, Red Skull sent a videotape, announcing to the world his return, followed by Lukin holding a press conference condemning the actions of both the Red Skull and Captain America, and supporting the Superhero Registration Act. Then, in his office, Red Skull introduced Lukin to his old/new associates, Crossbones and Sin.

With America's superheroes divided over the act, the Skull manipulates events to his own ends, with the aid of Doctor Faustus, Doctor Doom, and Arnim Zola. His plans involved the reunion of Captain America and his former lover Sharon Carter, who is being manipulated by Faustus.

In the immediate aftermath of the Civil War, the Skull puts his plans into action, arranging for Crossbones to shoot Captain America as he enters a courthouse in New York City; in the ensuing chaos, Carter, acting under Faustus' mental directive, assassinates Captain America. This is only the first phase of the Skull's evil plan. Upon the discovery of his identity as Lukin, the Skull fakes his death, and initiates the second part of his plan: using Kronas Corporation's vast holdings to economically cripple the United States, before having S.H.I.E.L.D. agents brainwashed by Doctor Faustus open fire on crowds of protesters in front of the White House. The Red Skull continues his assault by engineering a riot by placing Kronas security troops and drugged water in a protest on the Lincoln Monument.

All of this has apparently been to elevate his puppet politician, Gordon Wright, elevated in the public's eye with being credited as "resolving" the situations, as well as surviving a (staged) attack by the Serpent Squad. Once elected, Wright will lead the country directly into a police state secretly controlled by the Red Skull. The Skull also plans to transfer his consciousness into Sharon's unborn child, apparently sired by Steve Rogers himself and potentially having inherited his Project Rebirth enhancements.

Both schemes fail because of the impatience and incompetence of the Skull's daughter - her near-fatal attack on Sharon Carter causes her to lose the baby, and she intentionally botches her pseudo-assassination of Gordon Wright by attempting to kill him for real. As Faustus has surreptitiously tampered with Sharon's programming, she is able to rebel, and before escaping shoots Lukin to death. This isn't the end of Red Skull, since Arnim Zola had seconds earlier transferred his mind to one of his spare robotic bodies, but after having his current form damaged by the imposter Captain America, he's unable to return back to Red Skull, essentially trapping him in his current robotic form for the time being.

Captain America: Reborn

It has been revealed that Red Skull did not actually kill Steve Rogers, but trapped his body in a fixed position in space and time. He was planning on using Sharon and a machine created by Doctor Doom to return his body back to their time, but since Sharon destroyed the machine, his body is now drifting through time and space. Apparently, it is presumed that the Red Skull intended to transfer his mind into Rogers' body. Norman Osborn decides to assist in completing his plan as Captain America leading his team of Avengers would increase his popularity in his stolen Iron-Man suit. Sin and Crossbones find him and take him to Latveria in order to place the Red Skull's mind in a living body. The Red Skull, Sin, and Crossbones land in Latveria and Doom confronts them, saying that he would kill them if he wasn't a man of his word. Doom and Zola complete the machine and, after Ms. Hand brings Sharon to them, they strap her in. They activate the machine and soon Steve Rogers' body returns. When Steve opens his eyes, they are shown to be red, signifying that the Red Skull is now in control. Steve Rogers still resides in the body, and during the Red Skull's invasion of Washington D.C., he and Steve battle in the mind of Steve's body. Steve eventually forces Red Skull out, placing him back into his robot body. To prevent him from escaping the immediate area, Sharon Carter hits the Red Skull with a shot of Pym Particles, making him a massive robot who cannot elude any pursuer's attention. While Rogers and the Avengers occupy this giant menace's attention, he is destroyed by a missile barrage fired by Sharon Carter on a hijacked AIM battleship. In the epilogue, it was shown that Sin was too close to the exploding robot, and her face was heavily scarred, leaving her looking just like her father.

Powers and abilities

Although the Red Skull has no superhuman abilities, he possesses an intellect and inventive genius on the level of supervillains such as Doctor Doom, and is a highly gifted subversive strategist and political operative. At one point, the Red Skull's mind inhabited a body cloned from Captain America's, and hence possessed the mutagenic alterations induced by the Super-Soldier formula. He was thus endowed with a body that was in perfect physical condition, with strength, speed, durability, agility, dexterity, reflexes, coordination, balance, and physical endurance that exceeded that of any Olympic athlete who ever performed. Despite the scar tissue covering his face and head, his senses were still above-average. He has been shown as a superb martial artist, though he was never on par with Captain America himself; he was originally trained by German athletes appointed by Hitler, and is heavily trained as a skilled marksman with various forms of handguns, and well-versed in the use of fire arms and explosives. The Red Skull is commonly portrayed as one of the Marvel Universe's most genuinely frightening major villains.

While sharing Alexander Lukin's body, he lost his superhuman abilities. Since then he resides in one of the android bodies engineered by Arnim Zola, with enhanced endurance and resilience.

He typically armed himself with a trick cigarette that could fire fatal poison gas — his trademark "Dust of Death" — toward his victim. The "Dust of Death" is a red powder which kills a victim within seconds of skin contact. The powder causes the skin of the victim's head to shrivel, tighten, and take on a red discoloration, while causing the hair to fall out. Hence the victim's head resembles a "red skull". He also carries a large arsenal of conventional and advanced fire arms and explosives.

Other versions

Earth-110

Red Skull allied with Doctor Doom, Hulk, Magneto, Namor, and Ultron in order to take over Manhattan.

Earth X

Johann Schmidt was killed by Captain America some time previous to Earth X. After the Red Skull killed Bernie Rosenthal and then hailed Captain America as the realization of the Nazi dream, Captain America decapitated the Red Skull using his trademark shield. As a result of his disillusionment from taking a life, Captain America retired from the Avengers, only to further spiral into depression after the Avengers were killed in Washington, D.C. Schmidt was later seen in the Land of the Dead, and then as one of those in Mar-Vell's Paradise waiting to live in his own personal version of Heaven.

Despite his death, the Red Skull's legacy lived on in the Earth X universe. Ben Beckley took on the identity of the Skull (not the Red Skull, as he had no idea who the Red Skull was) and set out to conquer the world, starting with a coast-to-coast drive across America. Using his power of control over the cerebrum (and thereby actions) of anyone, he gathered an army of thousands, only to come into conflict with Steve Rogers in his identity of Captain America. Insulting Captain America as old and out of date, the Skull spared him but took several of Captain America's allies as part of his army. After reaching New York City, the Skull was opposed by Captain America and other heroes, with Captain America breaking the Skull's neck in order to stop him. Beckley would later be seen in the Land of the Dead with his father, Comet Man, and would help the heroes to convince the dead that they were deceased.

Elseworlds

In the 1997 DC/Marvel special "Batman/Captain America", the Skull hires the Joker to steal an atomic bomb during World War II. Joker evades Batman, Cap, Bucky, and Robin and delivers it to the Skull, but is horrified when he learns that the Skull is a Nazi (saying "I may be a criminal lunatic but I'm an ''American'' criminal lunatic!"). When the Skull threatens to drop the bomb on Washington D.C., the Joker actually fights him in the plane's cargo bay. When Captain America and Batman take over the plane and bring it over the ocean, the two villains are dropped out with the bomb just before it explodes. Both Captain America and Batman are convinced the two are still alive somehow.

Marvel Zombies

In ''Marvel Zombies'', Red Skull is an undead zombie with an unquenchable hunger for the flesh of the living. In issue #5, he finally manages to kill Colonel America, by ripping out the last of the Colonel's exposed brain before being decapitated by Spider-Man, and his head crushed by Giant Man's boot. His last words were "It was worth it, all of it, just for this."

Old Man Logan

In a possible future where a final battle between the heroes and villains ended with the villains winning, the Red Skull is revealed as the mastermind of the villains' conquest and has made himself President of the United States. Living in the Nazi redecorated White House, Red Skull had taken to wearing Captain America's old bloodstained uniform and collecting gruesome trophies from fallen heroes. When his men bring in a wounded Wolverine, Logan and the Red Skull fight in his trophy room. Unwilling to pop his claws during the fight, Wolverine decapitates the Red Skull with Captain America's shield, ending his villainous rule.

Ultimate Red Skull

The Ultimate Red Skull first appears in ''Ultimate Comics: Avengers'' created by Mark Millar. This Red Skull is the illegitimate son of Captain America and his girlfriend Gail Richards, conceived before the Captain's presumed death during WWII. Taken from Richards, the Red Skull is raised on an army base where he appears to be a well-adjusted, physically superior, and tactically brilliant young man who greatly resembles his father. His easy-going personality is a ruse. Around the age of seventeen, he kills over 200 men on the base, and then cuts off his own face, this last act being interpreted as part of his efforts to reject his father. As a final symbol of his rebellion against the system that created him, he assassinates President John F. Kennedy in 1963.

After decades of working as a professional assassin, the Red Skull joins A.I.M. He and his men steal the blueprints of the Cosmic Cube at the Baxter Building. There he finally meets his father in his helicopter and brutally attacks him. Before throwing Captain America out of the helicopter, Red Skull reveals his true identity. At the A.I.M. headquarters in Alaska, the Red Skull has his men kill the leading officer, and takes charge of the operation. With control of the Cosmic Cube he gains great power; as a sadistic display of his power he has the entire Alaskan A.I.M. team cannibalize each other. When the Avengers arrive on the scene they immediately try to destroy him but the Cube imbues him with nearly unlimited power, making him absolutely invulnerable. During the battle with the Avengers he beats them mercilessly. Captain America arrives in a stolen Teleporter Jet, but Skull forces the jet to crash. Cap survives the crash and teleports the jet to the Red Skull's exact coordinates, impaling him on one of the two rods that protrude from its nose.

The Red Skull is taken to a hospital and kept alive long enough for Gail Richards (his mother) to say her goodbyes. Skull explains to Nick Fury that all he wanted to do with the Cosmic Cube was to turn back time and prevent Steve Rogers (his father) from being lost during the war so that he could grow up with him and lead a normal life, rather than the one he was given. Petra Laskov (the woman whom he forced to kill her husband, then her infant son himself) enters the room dressed as a doctor and shoots the Red Skull in the head, killing him. When Gregory Stark asks Nick Fury if he was responsible for calling out the Red Skull from his retirement and hiring him, in order to regain his position in S.H.I.E.L.D., Fury doesn't give an answer.

Unlike the flamboyant Nazi/military costume of the 616 counterpart, Ultimate Red Skull wears simple khaki pants and a white tee shirt. He also appears in the episode "World War Witch". The Red Skull appears in ''The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes'' episode "Meet Captain America", voiced by Steven Blum. In this show, he is depicted as HYDRA's founder and it's super-soldier.

Film

In the 1990 low-budget film, ''Captain America'', Scott Paulin portrayed Red Skull. In this adaptation, the character is an Italian Fascist officer called Tadzio de Santis, who had been kidnapped by the Italian army stormtroopers for their experiments when he was a child; his family is murdered immediately afterward. Cooperating with German scientists, they succeed in creating their first (and only) "übermensch", albeit deformed with scarred red skin and no hair by the process. After the war, he receives elaborate plastic surgery to gain a more normal appearance, albeit still badly scarred. He is still nearly as strong and agile as Captain America in 1993 when the film takes place, despite being well into his 70s. The scientist responsible for the super-soldier procedure is disgusted by the Axis using a child as its subject and escapes to America, creating a greatly improved version of the serum and testing it on a polio stricken adult volunteer named Steve Rogers.

The Red Skull is featured in ''Captain America: The First Avenger'', portrayed by Hugo Weaving. He is the commander of the Nazi Research Division HYDRA. Johann Schmidt was an ex-Schutzstaffel Officer with the rank of Obergruppenführer who was closely affiliated with Adolf Hitler. The two shared a passion for Norse Mythology according to Abraham Erskine, a German scientist developing a serum that can turn ordinary people into super soldiers. Hitler locates Erskine and asks him to make the German Forces stronger. Erskine says he has no interest, so Hitler sends Schmidt to work with Erskine and force him to finish the serum, only for Schmidt to take the serum and injects it into himself as part of his desire to "become the superior man" as he believes that there is a great power of the gods resting on earth waiting to to be reclaimed. The unfinished serum makes Schmidt stronger, however it turns his face into a crimson-like red skull. Schmidt steals the tesseract, a powerful artifact believed to be of Asgardian descent from a monastery in Tønsberg, Norway and uses its energy to power his armaments and weaponry. Schmidt later executes a trio of Nazi Officer's who have discovered his plan to destroy every capital on earth, including Berlin, as he believes HYDRA couldn't grow any further under Hitler's command. He sends an agent to assassinate Erskine before he can infuse an American test subject with the super soldier serum and retrieve the perfected version of the serum. Confronting Steve Rogers, the only viable test subject for the completed serum, Schmidt is outraged at the discovery that his 'counterpart' is nothing but a "kid from Brooklyn", becoming increasingly hostile as Rogers' forces decimate various HYDRA bases throughout occupied Europe. In Schmidt's final plan to destroy America with a tesseract-powered plane, the plane is hi-jacked by Rogers, who damages the device that transferred the tesseract's power to the ship. When Schmidt attempts to pick up the Cube, it creates a portal in the sky (also showing a vision of another galaxy) before turning Schmidt into a beam of light that subsequently vanishes through the portal, leaving the Cube to fall through the aircraft floor and into the ocean.

Video games

The Red Skull is the final boss of the video game ''Captain America and the Avengers''.

Red Skull appears in the video game based on the feature film, ''Captain America: Super Soldier''. , voiced by Keith Ferguson.

Red Skull appears in the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of ''Marvel Super Hero Squad: The Infinity Gauntlet'', voiced by Mark Hamill.

References

External links

Red Skull (disambiguation) at Marvel.com

Red Skull (Johann Shmidt) at Marvel.com

Red Skull (Albert Malik) at Marvel.com

Category:Comics characters introduced in 1941 Category:Comics characters introduced in 1947 Category:Captain America Category:Characters created by Jack Kirby Category:Characters created by Joe Simon Category:Fictional cryonically preserved characters Category:Fictional dictators Category:Fictional German people Category:Fictional mass murderers Category:Film characters Category:Golden Age supervillains Category:Marvel Comics martial artists Category:Marvel Comics supervillains Category:Nazis in comic book fiction Category:Timely Comics characters

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