Coordinates	54°38′34″N17°32′31″N
name	Xerxes I of Persia
title	Khshayathiya Khshayathiyanam, King of Kings
native lang1	Old Persian
reign	486 to 465 BC
coronation	October 485 BC
birth date	519 BC
birth place	Persia
death date	465 BC (aged 54)
death place	Persia
place of burial	Persia
predecessor	Darius the Great
successor	Artaxerxes I
consort	Amestris
royal house	Achaemenid
father	Darius I of Persia (the Great)
mother	Atossa
religion	Zoroastrianism }}

Xerxes I of Persia (), ''Ḫšayāršā'', , ), also known as Xerxes the Great, was the fifth Zoroastrian king of kings of the Achaemenid Empire.

Life

Youth and rise to power

Immediately after seizing the kingship, Darius I of Persia (son of Hystaspes) married Atossa (daughter of Cyrus the Great). They were both descendants of Achaemenes from different Achaemenid lines. Marrying a daughter of Cyrus strengthened Darius' position as king. Darius was an active emperor, busy with building programs in Persepolis, Susa, Egypt, and elsewhere. Toward the end of his reign he moved to punish Athens, but a new revolt in Egypt (probably led by the Persian satrap) had to be suppressed. Under Persian law, the Achaemenian kings were required to choose a successor before setting out on such serious expeditions. Upon his great decision to leave (487-486 BC), Darius prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. Darius' failing health then prevented him from leading the campaigns, and he died in October 486 BC.

Xerxes was not the oldest son of Darius, and according to old Iranian traditions should not have succeeded the King. Xerxes was however the oldest son of Darius and Atossa hence descendent of Cyrus. This made Xerxes the chosen King of Persia. Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa have had. Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius' rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes' mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC when he was about 36 years old. The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to great authority of Atossa and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.

Almost immediately, he suppressed the revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out the year before, and appointed his brother Achaemenes as governor of satrap (Old Persian: khshathrapavan) over Egypt. In 484 BC, he outraged the Babylonians by violently confiscating and melting down the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the rightful king of Babylon had to clasp each New Year's Day. This sacrilege led the Babylonians to rebel in 484 BC and 482 BC, so that in contemporary Babylonian documents, Xerxes refused his father's title of King of Babylon, being named rather as King of Persia and Media, Great King, King of Kings (Shahanshah) and King of Nations (i.e. of the world).

Although Herodotus' report in the ''Histories'' has created certain problems concerning Xerxes' religious beliefs, modern scholars consider him a Zoroastrian.

Campaigns

Invasion of the Greek mainland

Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of Sardis and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC Xerxes prepared his expedition: A channel was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, two bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Egyptians and Jews.

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes' first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus bridge; Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes' second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. Xerxes concluded an alliance with Carthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus exaggerated to be more than two million strong with at least 10,000 elite warriors named Persian Immortals. The actual Persian strength was around two to three hundred thousands. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.

Thermopylae and Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured and the Athenians and Spartans were driven back to their last line of defense at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf.

What happened next is a matter of some controversy. According to Herodotus, upon encountering the deserted city, in an uncharacteristic fit of rage particularly for Persian kings, Xerxes had Athens burned. He almost immediately regretted this action and ordered it rebuilt the very next day. However, Persian scholars dispute this view as pan-Hellenic propaganda, arguing that Sparta, not Athens, was Xerxes' main foe in his Greek campaigns, and that Xerxes would have had nothing to gain by destroying a major center of trade and commerce like Athens once he had already captured it.

At that time, anti-Persian sentiment was high among many mainland Greeks, and the rumor that Xerxes had destroyed the city was a popular one, though it is equally likely the fire was started by accident as the Athenians were frantically fleeing the scene in pandemonium, or that it was an act of "scorched earth" warfare to deprive Xerxes' army of the spoils of the city.

At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Xerxes was induced by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus) to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September 29, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly.

Due to unrest in Babylon, Xerxes was forced to send his army home to prevent a revolt, leaving behind an army in Greece under Mardonius, who was defeated the following year at Plataea. The Greeks also attacked and burned the remaining Persian fleet anchored at Mycale. This cut off the Persians from the supplies they needed to sustain their massive army, and they had no choice but to retreat. Their withdrawal roused the Greek city-states of Asia.

Construction projects

After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and completed the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He built the Gate of all Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He completed the Apadana, the Palace of Darius and the Treasury all started by Darius as well as building his own palace which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace at Susa.

Death

In 465 BC Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court (Hazarapat/commander of thousand). He was promoted to this prestigious position in the Achamenid court through his successful withdrawal of the second Persian army from Greece, even though this involved refusing to help Mardonius in Plataea. Although Artabanus bore the same name as the famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a plan to dethrone the Achamenids.

In August 465 BC, Artabanus assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes' eldest son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes' sons, Artaxerxes, to avenge the patricide by killing Darius.

But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder he killed Artabanus and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to switch sides probably saved the day for the Achamenids.

Children

By queen Amestris

Amytis, wife of Megabyzus

Artaxerxes I

Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus.

Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I.

Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.

Rhodogune

By unknown wives

Artarius, satrap of Babylon.

Tithraustes

Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas satrap of Egypt.

Parysatis Ratashah

Cultural depictions

Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera ''Serse'' by the German-English Baroque composer George Frederic Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, and particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in works of popular culture. For instance, he was played by David Farrar in the 1962 fiction film ''The 300 Spartans'', where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novel ''300'' by Frank Miller, as well as the movie adaptation (portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro), in which he is represented as a giant. This portrayal has attracted controversy, especially in Iran.

Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also referenced Xerxes, such as the video game ''Assassin's Creed II'' and the film ''One Night with the King'', in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game ''Civilization II'' and ''III'' (along with Scheherazade), although ''Civilization IV'' replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.

Gore Vidal, in his historical fiction novel ''Creation'', describes at length the rise of Achemenids, and especially Darius I and presents the life and death circumstances of Xerxes. His vision of history goes against the grain of Greek histories.

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources

Category:465 BC deaths Category:465 BC crimes Category:Monarchs of Persia Category:Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt Category:Monarchs of the Hebrew Bible Category:Battle of Thermopylae Category:Murdered monarchs Category:Book of Esther Category:Achaemenid kings Category:5th-century BC rulers Category:People of the Greco-Persian Wars

af:Ahasveros ar:خشایارشا الأول be:Ксеркс I bs:Kserks I od Perzije bg:Ксеркс І ca:Xerxes I de Pèrsia cs:Xerxés I. cy:Xerxes I, brenin Persia da:Xerxes 1. af Persien de:Xerxes I. el:Ξέρξης Α' της Περσίας es:Jerjes I eo:Kserkso la 1-a (Persio) eu:Xerxes I.a Persiakoa fa:خشایارشا fr:Xerxès Ier gl:Xerxes I ko:크세르크세스 1세 hr:Kserkso I. id:Xerxes I dari Persia it:Serse I di Persia he:חשיארש הראשון ku:Xeşeyerşa la:Xerxes I (rex Persarum) lt:Kserksas I hu:I. Khsajársá perzsa király mr:झेरेक्सिस पहिला ms:Xerxes I dari Parsi nl:Xerxes I ja:クセルクセス1世 no:Xerxes I av Persia nn:Xerxes I ps:خشایارشا pl:Kserkses pt:Xerxes I da Pérsia ro:Xerxes I ru:Ксеркс I simple:Xerxes sk:Xerxes I. sl:Kserkses I. sr:Ксеркс I sh:Kserks I fi:Kserkses I sv:Xerxes I th:จักรพรรดิเซอร์ซีสมหาราช tr:I. Serhas uk:Ксеркс vi:Xerxes I của Ba Tư war:Xerxes I han Persia zh:薛西斯一世

Virgilijus Kęstutis Noreika (born 22 September 1935, Šiauliai) is a Lithuanian tenor.

Career

Noreika graduated with honors from the Lithuanian State Conservatory in 1958. A year earlier, while still a student, he was engaged as a performer at the National Opera and Ballet Theater of Lithuania. In 1959, Noreika sang the part of ''Alfredo Germont'' in Verdi's ''La traviata'', one of Noreika's favorite and most frequently performed roles. Later in 1965, he continued his career at the La Scala, in Milan. There he mastered six new roles, and also sang the part of Pinkerton, from Puccini's ''Madame Butterfly,'' at the famous Opera House.

Noreika's creative biography comprises more than 40 operatic roles: Cavaradossi from ''Tosca'' by Puccini, Faust from ''Faust'' by Gounod, Rudolfo from ''La bohème'' by Puccini, Otello from ''Otello'' by Verdi, to name a few. Noreika has performed in Moscow at the Bolshoi Theatre, in Buenos Aires at the Teatro Colón, in Paris at the Opéra National de Paris, and many other famous Opera houses. Noreika has sung in more than 30 foreign theaters, participated in more than 1000 performances, given approximately 600 solo concerts, recorded some 20 phonographic records and CDs. In 1997, he celebrated his 40th anniversary as an operatic tenor, and received the Kipras Award from the Opera Fellow Society. Noreika, semi-retired, is currently a Professor at the Music Academy of Lithuania.

References

. ''Virgilijus Kęstutis Noreika''. Seimas of Lithuania.

Category:1935 births Category:Living people Category:Lithuanian singers Category:People from Šiauliai Category:Operatic tenors Category:People's Artists of the USSR Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 2nd Class

lt:Virgilijus Noreika ru:Норейка, Виргилиус-Кястутис Леоно

Coordinates	54°38′34″N17°32′31″N
name	William Orbit
background	non_vocal_instrumentalist
birth name	William Mark Wainwright
alias	William Ørbit
birth date	December 15, 1956
origin	Shoreditch, Hackney, East London
instrument	Keyboards, guitar
genre	Electronic music, house music, ambient music, downtempo
occupation	Composer, record producer
years active	circa 1982–present
label	IRS, EMI, Virgin, N-GRAM, Maverick, Sanctuary, Kobalt, Decca
associated acts	Torch Song, Bassomatic
website	http://www.williamorbit.com }}

William Orbit (born William Mark Wainwright, 15 December 1956) is an English musician, composer and record producer, perhaps best known to most for his work on Madonna's album ''Ray of Light''. He has also co-produced several unreleased Madonna songs originally recorded for other albums. He produced ''13'' by Blur and remixed some of the songs on the album.

Biography

Orbit was born in Shoreditch, London. In addition to being a producer, Orbit is also a composer and multi-instrumentalist who has specialised in keyboard electronica. Much of his work also features accomplished guitar and bass guitar playing. He has also recorded several largely instrumental solo albums on I.R.S. No Speak under the name Strange Cargo which features vocals by Beth Orton, Laurie Mayer and Joe Frank, among others. "Water from a Vine Leaf" was a popular track from the album ''Strange Cargo 3''.

Prior to that he formed the group Torch Song with Laurie Mayer in the 1980s. At that time the band developed Guerilla Studios in an abandoned school on the Harrow Road. They shared the premises with a group of Spanish anarchists and it became known as El Centro Iberico. They were later joined by a third member, Rico Conning.

Orbit was the musical force behind Bassomatic in the early 1990s; "Fascinating Rhythm" hit in 1990.

He has also produced and remixed songs by other artists, such as French pop star Étienne Daho. With Rico Conning he produced the Pop Satori album, Scottish act One Dove and Seal. He remixed Prince's song "Batdance", from ''Batman'' in 1989. Orbit's remixes carry his signature electronic sounds and techniques, making them sought after by fans of his solo work.

Orbit produced a version of Samuel Barber's "Adagio for Strings" (the original version of which gained fame as the main theme of the soundtrack to ''Platoon''). "Adagio" was lifted from the album ''Pieces in a Modern Style'' a compilation of classical re-workings, released under the alternatively-spelled artist name William Ørbit. Orbit's version of the track was remixed in 1999 by Ferry Corsten and became a big club music hit.

He has worked with girl groups All Saints ("Pure Shores", "Black Coffee", "Dreams", "Surrender") and Sugababes ("Spiral") and Pink ("Feel Good Time" from ''Charlie's Angels 2''). He produced "Dice" for Finley Quaye in collaboration with Beth Orton; Quaye also played guitar and sang on other Orbit tracks including the unreleased 'Arioso' featuring Madonna. He produced and played keyboards with U2 in the song "Electrical Storm" of their album ''The Best of 1990-2000''.

He founded Guerilla Records in 1989.

Orbit has also created several radio shows. In the late 1990s, he had a series on Los Angeles KCRW called ''Stereo Odyssey''. Orbit's song "Time To Get Wise" was used as a tag line in the 2004 film ''What the Bleep Do We Know!?''. Orbit worked with Madonna on her 1998 album, ''Ray of Light''.

In 2006 Orbit's album ''Hello Waveforms'' was released on the Sanctuary label. Subsequently he produced two tracks — "Louise" and "Summertime" — for Robbie Williams' 2006 album, ''Rudebox''. He also mixed several tracks on Laurie Mayer's most recent album, ''Black Lining''.

In autumn 2006 "Purdy", a track Orbit co-composed with Laurie Mayer and Rico Conning was used as the soundtrack in a television ad campaign for H&M; which starred Madonna and was directed by her and Dan Cadan.

Orchestral Suite

In 2007 Orbit composed his first orchestral suite for a full orchestra. The composition debuted on 8 July 2007 by the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra in the Bridgewater Hall at the Manchester International Festival.

2009 - present days

The 4 May 2009 saw Orbit's return with a new album, ''My Oracle Lives Uptown''.

Orbit lives in North London and Los Angeles and has his office and studio in Hoxton Square, London.

Live performances

He often DJs at various locations. Additional information concerning the dates and places of his live performances appears on his webpage.

A remix of his track "Purdy" done by Chicane can be found on ''Ministry of Sound: Inferno'' (2009).

William Orbit Odyssey by Ministry of Sound ‘Odyssey’ is a compilation of 42 tracks, including some of William Orbit’s own exclusives. The album was released in January 2010 and is divided into 3 discs; Discs 1 and 2 are unmixed, with many tracks reinterpreted to a greater or lesser extent, while Disc 3 is a continuous DJ mix by William Orbit.

Orbit Streamcast

Orbit has recently enabled an internet radio (streamcast) which allow listeners to hear more than 10 hours of his music, completely for free. In the playlist are variations of his well-known tracks, as well as released material. In addition, and what's more appreciated by fans, unreleased and rare material can also be found in this streamcast.

Latest productions

He produced Katie Melua's fourth album, called ''The House''. It was released on 24 May 2010 and had a remarkable chart performance (Gold in Germany and United Kingdom, as well as Platinum in Poland).

He also produced a track on Nadine Coyle's debut solo album "Insatiable" released on 8 November 2010.

Solo career

In August 2010 Orbit released ''Pieces in a Modern Style 2'', on Decca, which is follow-up a to the successful ''Pieces in a Modern Style''. The two CD version containing some notable remixes of interpretations of Vaughan Williams Violin Concerto - Lark Ascending.

Orbit is working as part of the art collective Luxor, with former English National Ballet dancer Anna-Mi Fredriksson and the artist Pauline Amos.

Discography

Artist	William Orbit
Studio	15
Compilation	3
Singles	9
Miscellaneous	8
References	}}

''More details and information about his discography can be found when exploring external links''

Torch Song

Year	Album
1984	''Wish Thing''	*Labels: I.R.S. Records
1986	''Ecstasy''	*Labels: Y II Records
1987	''Exhibit A''	*Labels: I.R.S.
1995	''Toward the Unknown Region''	*Labels: N-GRAM Recordings

Bassomatic

Year	Album
1990	''Set the Controls for the Heart of the Bass''	*Labels: Virgin Records
1991	''Science & Melody''	*Labels: Virgin

Solo

;Studio albums

Year	Album	Chart positions
		! style="width:3em;font-size:75%;"	! style="width:3em;font-size:75%;"	! style="width:3em;font-size:75%;"
	align="left"	*Labels: I.R.S. Records	–	–	–
align="left"	*Labels: I.R.S.	–	–	–
1990		*Labels: I.R.S.	–	–	–
1993		*Labels: Virgin Records	–	–	–
		*Labels: N-GRAM Recordings	–	–	–
	, Warner Music Group>WEA (2000 release)	2	33	198
2006		*Labels: Sanctuary Records	136	–	–
2009		*Labels: Kobalt	–	–	–
2010		*Labels: Decca Records	–	–	–

;Compilation albums

''The Best of Strange Cargos'' (1996, I.R.S.) — A compilation from Orbit's first three ''Strange Cargo'' albums, highlighted by two versions of "Water From A Vine Leaf", another collaboration with Beth Orton

''Strange Cargo Vol.1-3'' (2000, EMI Records) — 3 CD Box Set

''William / Orbit'' (2002, Universal) — U.S. two-disc publishing CD set to support William Orbit's publishing catalogue

;Singles

Year	Single	Chart positions			Album
		! style="width:3em;font-size:75%;"	! style="width:3em;font-size:75%;"	! style="width:3em;font-size:75%;"
		–	–	–
	–	–	–
1993		59	–	–
1999	align="left"	4	23	13
2000	align="left"	31	–	–
	align="left"	3	7	8
	–	–	–	''Much More Than Much Love'' (Finley Quaye album)
		–	–	–
	–	–	–

Miscellaneous

''Stereo Odyssey'' — 4-CDR set of KCRW radio show William produced circa 1996

''Rare Orbit Vol.1'' — A 3-CDR collection of rare & unreleased material & productions. 2008, source unknown. Contained unreleased sessions with Madonna, and some new material.

''Essential Mix'' — 2-CDR set of UK BBC Radio 1 Essential Mix, 6 February 2000

''XFM 2003'' — 30 minute CDR of UK XFM Radio 'Superchunk', a mix/mashup collection of special rare and unreleased material, 17 August 2003

''XFM 2006'' — 30 minute CDR of UK XFM Radio 'Superchunk', another mix/mashup collection, 12 March 2006

''World Odyssey Mix'' — 25 minute CDR of UK BBC Asia Network Radio 'Pathaans Musical Rickshaw', a diversified mix/mashup collection, 17 May 2009

''KCRW 2009'' — 40 minute CDR of Los Angeles KCRW Radio Station show 'Morning Becomes Eclectic', a two piece live session with Laurie Mayer and interviews with Jason Bentley - 2 July 2009

In 2010, some of the rare tracks were made public on www.orbitstreamcast.com.

References

External links

Official website

Category:1956 births Category:Maverick Records artists Category:Living people Category:Ableton Live users Category:English electronic musicians Category:English record producers Category:Grammy Award winners

bg:Уилям Орбит de:William Orbit el:Ουίλιαμ Όρμπιτ es:William Orbit fr:William Orbit it:William Orbit ka:უილიამ ორბიტი nl:William Orbit pl:William Ørbit pt:William Orbit ru:Орбит, Уильям sq:William Orbit fi:William Orbit sv:William Orbit tr:William Orbit

George Frideric Handel (German: Georg Friedrich Händel; ) (23 February 1685 – 14 April 1759) was a German-British Baroque composer, famous for his operas, oratorios, anthems and organ concertos. Handel was born in 1685, in a family indifferent to music. He received critical musical training in Halle, Hamburg and Italy before settling in London (1712) and becoming a naturalised British subject in 1727. By then he was strongly influenced by the great composers of the Italian Baroque and the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition.

Within fifteen years, Handel, a dramatic genius, started three commercial opera companies to supply the English nobility with Italian opera, but the public came to hear the vocal bravura of the soloists rather than the music. In 1737 he had a physical breakdown, changed direction creatively and addressed the middle class. As ''Alexander's Feast'' (1736) was well received, Handel made a transition to English choral works. After his success with ''Messiah'' (1742) he never performed an Italian opera again. Handel was only partly successful with his performances of English Oratorio on mythical or biblical themes, but when he arranged a performance of ''Messiah'' to benefit the Foundling Hospital (1750) the critique ended. The pathos of Handel's oratorio is an ethical one, they are hallowed not by liturgical dignity but by the moral ideals of humanity. Almost blind, and having lived in England for almost fifty years, he died a respected and rich man.

Handel is regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time, not only because of his ''Water Music'', and ''Music for the Royal Fireworks''. But since the late 1960s, with the revival of baroque music and original instrument interest in Handel's opera seria has revived too. Handel composed forty operas in about thirty years; some are considered as masterpieces, with many sweeping arias and much admired improvisations. His operas contain remarkable human characterization, by a composer not known for his love affairs.

Early years

Handel was born in 1685 in Halle, Duchy of Magdeburg, to Georg Händel and Dorothea Taust. His father, 63 when his son was born, was an eminent barber-surgeon who served to the court of Saxe-Weissenfels and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. According to Handel's first biographer, John Mainwaring, he "had discovered such a strong propensity to Music, that his father who always intended him for the study of the Civil Law, had reason to be alarmed. He strictly forbade him to meddle with any musical instrument but Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately convey'd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep". At an early age Handel became a skilful performer on the harpsichord and pipe organ.

Handel and his father travelled to Weissenfels to visit either Handel's half-brother, Carl, or nephew, Georg Christian, who was serving as valet to Duke Johann Adolf I. Handel and the duke convinced his father to allow him to take lessons in musical composition and keyboard technique from Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow, the organist of the Lutheran Marienkirche. He learned about harmony and contemporary styles, analysed sheet music scores, learned to work fugue subjects, and to copy music. In 1698 Handel played for Frederick I of Prussia and met Giovanni Battista Bononcini in Berlin.

From Halle to Italy

In 1702, following his father's wishes, Handel started studying law under Christian Thomasius at the University of Halle; and also earned an appointment for one year as the organist in the former cathedral, by then an evangelical reformed church. Handel seems to have been unsatisfied and in 1703, he accepted a position as violinist and harpsichordist in the orchestra of the Hamburg Oper am Gänsemarkt. There he met the composers Johann Mattheson, Christoph Graupner and Reinhard Keiser. His first two operas, ''Almira'' and ''Nero'', were produced in 1705. He produced two other operas, ''Daphne'' and ''Florindo'', in 1708. It is unclear whether Handel directed these performances.

According to Mainwaring, in 1706 Handel travelled to Italy at the invitation of Ferdinando de' Medici, but Mainwaring must have been confused. It was Gian Gastone de' Medici, whom Handel had met in 1703-1704 in Hamburg. Ferdinando tried to make Florence Italy's musical capital, attracting the leading talents of his day. He had a keen interest in opera. In Italy Handel met librettist Antonio Salvi, with whom he later collaborated. Handel left for Rome and, since opera was (temporarily) banned in the Papal States, composed sacred music for the Roman clergy. His famous ''Dixit Dominus'' (1707) is from this era. He also composed cantatas in pastoral style for musical gatherings in the palaces of cardinals Pietro Ottoboni, Benedetto Pamphili and Carlo Colonna. Two oratorios, ''La Resurrezione'' and ''Il Trionfo del Tempo'', were produced in a private setting for Ruspoli and Ottoboni in 1709 and 1710, respectively. ''Rodrigo'', his first all-Italian opera, was produced in the Cocomero theatre in Florence in 1707. ''Agrippina'' was first produced in 1709 at Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo, the prettiest theatre at Venice, owned by the Grimanis. The opera, with a libretto by cardinal Vincenzo Grimani, and according to Mainwaring it ran for 27 nights successively. The audience, thunderstruck with the grandeur and sublimity of his style, applauded for ''Il caro Sassone''.

Move to London

In 1710, Handel became ''Kapellmeister'' to German prince George, Elector of Hanover, who in 1714 would become King George I of Great Britain. He visited Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici and her husband in Düsseldorf on his way to London in 1710. With his opera ''Rinaldo'', based on ''La Gerusalemme Liberata'' by the Italian poet Torquato Tasso, Handel enjoyed great success, but it is difficult to see why he lifted from old Italian works unless he was in a hurry. This work contains one of Handel's favourite arias, ''Cara sposa, amante cara'', and the famous Lascia ch'io pianga. In 1712, Handel decided to settle permanently in England. He received a yearly income of £200 from Queen Anne after composing for her the ''Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate'', first performed in 1713.

One of his most important patrons was the young and wealthy Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. For him Handel wrote ''Amadigi di Gaula'', a magical opera, about a damsel in distress, based on the tragedy by Antoine Houdar de la Motte.

The conception of an opera as a coherent structure was slow to capture Handel's imagination and he renounced it for five years. In July 1717 Handel's ''Water Music'' was performed more than three times on the Thames for the King and his guests. It is said the compositions spurred reconciliation between the King and Handel.

Cannons (1717–18)

In 1717 Handel became house composer at Cannons in Middlesex, where he laid the cornerstone for his future choral compositions in the twelve ''Chandos Anthems''. Romain Rolland stated that these anthems were as important for his oratorios as the cantatas were for his operas. Another work he wrote for the Duke of Chandos, the owner of Cannons, was ''Acis and Galatea'': during Handel's lifetime it was his most performed work. Winton Dean wrote, "the music catches breath and disturbs the memory".

In 1719 the Duke of Chandos became one of the main subscribers to Handel's new opera company, the Royal Academy of Music, but his patronage of music declined after he lost money in the South Sea bubble, which burst in 1720 in one of history's greatest financial cataclysms. Handel himself invested in South Sea stock in 1716, when prices were low and sold before 1720.

Royal Academy of Music (1719–34)

In May 1719 Lord Chamberlain Thomas Holles, the Duke of Newcastle ordered Handel to look for new singers. Handel travelled to Dresden to attend the newly-built opera. He saw ''Teofane'' by Antonio Lotti, and engaged the cast for the Royal Academy of Music, founded by a group of aristocrats to assure themselves a constant supply of baroque opera or opera seria. Handel may have invited John Smith, his fellow student in Halle, and his son Johann Christoph Schmidt, to become his secretary and amanuensis. By 1723 he had moved into a Georgian house at 25 Brook Street, which he rented for the rest of his life. This house, where he rehearsed, copied music and sold tickets, is now the Handel House Museum. During twelve months between 1724 and 1725, Handel wrote three outstanding and successful operas, ''Giulio Cesare'', ''Tamerlano'' and ''Rodelinda''. Handel's operas are filled with da capo arias, such as ''Svegliatevi nel core''. After composing ''Silete venti'', he concentrated on opera and stopped writing cantatas. ''Scipio'', from which the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards is derived, was performed as a stopgap, waiting for the arrival of Faustina Bordoni.

In 1727 Handel was commissioned to write four anthems for the coronation ceremony of King George II. One of these, ''Zadok the Priest'', has been played at every British coronation ceremony since. In 1728 John Gay's ''The Beggar's Opera'' premiered at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre and ran for 62 consecutive performances, the longest run in theatre history up to that time. After nine years Handel's contract was ended but he soon started a new company.

The Queen's Theatre at the Haymarket (now Her Majesty's Theatre), established in 1705 by architect and playwright John Vanbrugh, quickly became an opera house. Between 1711 and 1739, more than 25 of Handel's operas premièred there. In 1729 Handel became joint manager of the Theatre with John James Heidegger.

Handel travelled to Italy to engage seven new singers. He composed seven more operas, but the public came to hear the singers rather than the music. After two commercially successful English oratorios ''Esther'' and ''Deborah'', he was able to invest again in the South Sea Company. Handel reworked his ''Acis and Galatea'' which then became his most successful work ever. Handel failed to compete with the Opera of the Nobility, who engaged musicians such as Johann Adolf Hasse, Nicolo Porpora and the famous castrato Farinelli. The strong support by Frederick, Prince of Wales caused conflicts in the royal family. In March 1734 Handel directed a wedding anthem ''This is the day which the Lord hath made'', and a serenata ''Parnasso in Festa'' for Anne of Hanover.

Opera at Covent Garden (1734–41)

In 1733 the Earl of Essex received a letter with the following sentence: "Handel became so arbitrary a prince, that the Town murmurs". The board of chief investors expected Handel to retire when his contract ended, but Handel immediately looked for another theatre. In cooperation with John Rich he started his third company at Covent Garden Theatre. Rich was renowned for his spectacular productions. He suggested Handel use his small chorus and introduce the dancing of Marie Sallé, for whom Handel composed ''Terpsichore''. In 1735 he introduced organ concertos between the acts. For the first time Handel allowed Gioacchino Conti, who had no time to learn his part, to substitute arias. Financially, ''Ariodante'' was a failure, although he introduced ballet suites at the end of each act. Alcina, his last opera with a magic content, and ''Alexander's Feast or the Power of Music'' based on John Dryden's ''Alexander's Feast'' starred Anna Maria Strada del Pò and John Beard.

In April 1737, at age 52, Handel apparently suffered a stroke which disabled the use of four fingers on his right hand, preventing him from performing. In summer the disorder seemed at times to affect his understanding. Nobody expected that Handel would ever be able to perform again. But whether the affliction was rheumatism, a stroke or a nervous breakdown, he recovered remarkably quickly . To aid his recovery, Handel had travelled to Aachen, a spa in Germany. During six weeks he took long hot baths, and ending up playing the organ for a surprised audience.

''Deidamia'', his last and only baroque opera without an accompagnato, was performed three times in 1741. Handel gave up the opera business, while he enjoyed more success with his English oratorios.

Oratorio

''Il Trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno'', an allegory, Handel's first oratorio was composed in Italy in 1707, followed by ''La Resurrezione'' in 1708 which uses material from the Bible. The circumstances of ''Esther'' and its first performance, possibly in 1718, are obscure. Another 12 years had passed when an act of piracy caused him to take up ''Esther'' once again. Three earlier performances aroused such interest that they naturally prompted the idea of introducing it to a larger public. Next came ''Deborah'', strongly coloured by the Anthems and ''Athaliah'', his first English Oratorio. In these three oratorios Handel laid foundation for the traditional use of the chorus which marks his later oratorios. Handel became sure of himself, broader in his presentation, and more diverse in his composition.

It is evident how much he learnt from Arcangelo Corelli about writing for instruments, and from Alessandro Scarlatti about writing for the solo voice; but there is no single composer who taught him how to write for chorus. Handel tended more and more to replace Italian soloists by English ones. The weightiest reason for this change was the dwindling financial returns from his operas. Thus a tradition was created for oratorios which was to govern their future performance. The performances were given without costumes and action; the performers appeared in a black suit.

In 1736 Handel came with ''Alexander's Feast''. John Beard appeared for the first time as one of Handel's principal singers and became Handel's permanent tenor soloist for the rest of Handel's life. The piece was a great success and it encouraged Handel to make the transition from writing Italian operas to English choral works. In ''Saul'', Handel was collaborating with Charles Jennens and experimenting with three trombones, a carillon and extra-large military kettledrums (from the Tower of London), to be sure "...it will be most excessive noisy". ''Saul'' and ''Israel in Egypt'' both from 1739 head the list of great, mature oratorios, in which the da capo and dal segno aria became the exception and not the rule. ''Israel in Egypt'' consists of little else but choruses, borrowing from the ''Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline''. In his next works Handel changed his course. In these works he laid greater stress on the effects of orchestra and soloists; the chorus retired into the background. ''L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato'' has a rather diverting character; the work is light and fresh.

During the summer of 1741, the 3rd Duke of Devonshire invited Handel to Dublin to give concerts for the benefit of local hospitals. His ''Messiah'' was first performed at the New Music Hall in Fishamble Street, on 13 April 1742, with 26 boys and five men from the combined choirs of St Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals participating. Handel secured a balance between soloists and chorus which he never surpassed.

The use of English soloists reached its height at the first performance of ''Samson''. The work is highly theatrical. The role of the chorus became increasingly import in his later oratorios. ''Jephtha'' was first performed on 26 February 1752; even though it was his last oratorio, it was no less a masterpiece than his earlier works.

Later years

In 1749 Handel composed ''Music for the Royal Fireworks''; 12,000 people attended the first performance. In 1750 he arranged a performance of ''Messiah'' to benefit the Foundling Hospital. The performance was considered a great success and was followed by annual concerts that continued throughout his life. In recognition of his patronage, Handel was made a governor of the Hospital the day after his initial concert. He bequeathed a copy of ''Messiah'' to the institution upon his death. His involvement with the Foundling Hospital is today commemorated with a permanent exhibition in London's Foundling Museum, which also holds the ''Gerald Coke Handel Collection''. In addition to the Foundling Hospital, Handel also gave to a charity that assisted impoverished musicians and their families.

In August 1750, on a journey back from Germany to London, Handel was seriously injured in a carriage accident between The Hague and Haarlem in the Netherlands. In 1751 one eye started to fail. The cause was a cataract which was operated on by the great charlatan Chevalier Taylor. This led to uveitis and subsequent loss of vision. He died eight years later in 1759 at home in Brook Street, at age 74. The last performance he attended was of ''Messiah''. Handel was buried in Westminster Abbey. More than three thousand mourners attended his funeral, which was given full state honours.

Handel never married, and kept his personal life private. His initial will bequeathed the bulk of his estate to his niece Johanna, however four codicils distributed much of his estate to other relations, servants, friends and charities.

Handel owned an art collection that was auctioned posthumously in 1760. The auction catalogue listed approximately seventy paintings and ten prints (other paintings were bequeathed).

Works

:''Main articles: List of compositions by George Frideric Handel and List of operas by Handel. Handel's compositions include 42 operas, 29 oratorios, more than 120 cantatas, trios and duets, numerous arias, chamber music, a large number of ecumenical pieces, odes and serenatas, and 16 organ concerti. His most famous work, the oratorio ''Messiah'' with its "Hallelujah" chorus, is among the most popular works in choral music and has become the centrepiece of the Christmas season. Among the works with opus numbers published and popularised in his lifetime are the Organ Concertos Op.4 and Op.7, together with the Opus 3 and Opus 6 concerti grossi; the latter incorporate an earlier organ concerto ''The Cuckoo and the Nightingale'' in which birdsong is imitated in the upper registers of the organ. Also notable are his sixteen keyboard suites, especially ''The Harmonious Blacksmith''.

Handel introduced previously uncommon musical instruments in his works: the viola d'amore and violetta marina (''Orlando''), the lute (''Ode for St. Cecilia's Day''), three trombones (Saul), clarinets or small high cornetts (''Tamerlano''), theorbo, horn (''Water Music''), lyrichord, double bassoon, viola da gamba, bell chimes, positive organ, and harp (''Giulio Cesare'', ''Alexander's Feast'').

Handel's works have been catalogued in the ''Händel-Werke-Verzeichnis'' and are commonly referred to by an HWV number. For example, ''Messiah'' is catalogued as HWV 56.

Legacy

Handel's works were collected and preserved by two men in particular: Sir Samuel Hellier, a country squire whose musical acquisitions form the nucleus of the Shaw-Hellier Collection, and abolitionist Granville Sharp. The catalogue accompanying the National Portrait Gallery exhibition marking the tercentenary of the composer's birth calls them two men of the late eighteenth century "who have left us solid evidence of the means by which they indulged their enthusiasm".

After his death, Handel's Italian operas fell into obscurity, except for selections such as the aria from ''Serse'', "Ombra mai fù". The oratorios continued to be performed but not long after Handel's death they were thought to need some modernisation, and Mozart orchestrated a German version of ''Messiah'' and other works. Throughout the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, particularly in the Anglophone countries, his reputation rested primarily on his English oratorios, which were customarily performed by enormous choruses of amateur singers on solemn occasions.

Since the Early Music Revival many of the forty-two operas he wrote have been performed in opera houses and concert halls.

Handel's music was studied by composers such as Haydn , Mozart and Beethoven

Recent decades have revived his secular cantatas and what one might call 'secular oratorios' or 'concert operas'. Of the former, ''Ode for St. Cecilia's Day'' (1739) (set to texts by John Dryden) and ''Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne'' (1713) are noteworthy. For his secular oratorios, Handel turned to classical mythology for subjects, producing such works as ''Acis and Galatea'' (1719), ''Hercules'' (1745) and ''Semele'' (1744). These works have a close kinship with the sacred oratorios, particularly in the vocal writing for the English-language texts. They also share the lyrical and dramatic qualities of Handel's Italian operas. As such, they are sometimes performed onstage by small chamber ensembles. With the rediscovery of his theatrical works, Handel, in addition to his renown as instrumentalist, orchestral writer, and melodist, is now perceived as being one of opera's great musical dramatists.

Handel's work was edited by Samuel Arnold (40 vols., London, 1787–1797), and by Friedrich Chrysander, for the German Händel-Gesellschaft (105 vols., Leipzig, 1858–1902).

Handel adopted the spelling "George Frideric Handel" on his naturalisation as a British subject, and this spelling is generally used in English-speaking countries. The original form of his name, Georg Friedrich Händel, is generally used in Germany and elsewhere, but he is known as "Haendel" in France. Another composer with a similar name, Handl, was a Slovene and is more commonly known as Jacobus Gallus.

Musician's musician

Handel has generally been accorded high esteem by fellow composers, both in his own time and since. Bach attempted, unsuccessfully, to meet with Handel while he was visiting Halle. Mozart is reputed to have said of him, "Handel understands affect better than any of us. When he chooses, he strikes like a thunder bolt." To Beethoven he was "the master of us all... the greatest composer that ever lived. I would uncover my head and kneel before his tomb". Beethoven emphasised above all the simplicity and popular appeal of Handel's music when he said, "Go to him to learn how to achieve great effects, by such simple means".

Homages

After Handel's death, many composers wrote works based on or inspired by his music. The first movement from Louis Spohr's ''Symphony No. 6'', Op. 116, "The Age of Bach and Handel", resembles two melodies from Handel's ''Messiah''. In 1797 Ludwig van Beethoven published the ''12 Variations in G major on ‘See the conqu’ring hero comes’ from Judas Maccabaeus by Handel'', for cello and piano. Guitar virtuoso Mauro Giuliani composed his ''Variations on a Theme by Handel, Op. 107'' for guitar, based on Handel's Suite No. 5 in E major, HWV 430, for harpsichord. In 1861, using a theme from the second of Handel's harpsichord suites, Johannes Brahms wrote the ''Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel'', Op. 24, one of his most successful works (praised by Richard Wagner). Several works by the French composer Félix-Alexandre Guilmant use Handel's themes, for example his ''March on a Theme by Handel'' uses a theme from ''Messiah''. French composer and flautist Philippe Gaubert wrote his ''Petite marche'' for flute and piano based on the fourth movement of Handel's Trio Sonata, Op. 5, No. 2, HWV 397. Argentine composer Luis Gianneo composed his ''Variations on a Theme by Handel'' for piano. In 1911, Australian-born composer and pianist Percy Grainger based one of his most famous works on the final movement of Handel's Suite No. 5 in E major (just like Giuliani). He first wrote some variations on the theme, which he titled ''Variations on Handel's ‘The Harmonious Blacksmith’ ''. Then he used the first sixteen bars of his set of variations to create ''Handel in the Strand'', one of his most beloved pieces, of which he made several versions (for example, the piano solo version from 1930). Arnold Schoenberg's Concerto for String Quartet and Orchestra in B flat major (1933) was composed after Handel's Concerto Grosso, Op. 6/7.

Veneration

Handel is honored together with Johann Sebastian Bach and Henry Purcell with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on 28 July.

He is commemorated as a musician in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on 28 July, with Johann Sebastian Bach and Heinrich Schütz.

Editions

Between 1787 and 1797 Samuel Arnold compiled a 180-volume collection of Handel's works—however it was far from complete. Also incomplete was the collection produced between 1843 and 1858 by the English Handel Society (found by Sir George Macfarren).

The 105-volume Händel-Gesellschaft edition was published in the mid 19th century and was mainly edited by Friedrich Chrysander (often working alone in his home). For modern performance, the realisation of the basso continuo reflects 19th century practice. Vocal scores drawn from the edition were published by Novello in London, but some scores, such as the vocal score to Samson are incomplete.

The still-incomplete Hallische Händel-Ausgabe started to appear in 1956 (named for Halle in Saxony-Anhalt Eastern Germany, not the Netherlands). It did not start as a critical edition, but after heavy criticism of the first volumes, which were performing editions without a critical apparatus (for example, the opera Serse was published with the title character recast as a tenor reflecting pre-war German practice), it repositioned itself as a critical edition. Influenced in part by cold-war realities, editorial work was inconsistent: misprints are found in abundance and editors failed to consult important sources. In 1985 a committee was formed to establish better standards for the edition.

See also

Handel Commemoration

Handel Reference Database

Letters and writings of George Frideric Handel

en.wikisource.org/wiki/Handel/His Life of George Frideric Handel

List of compositions by George Frideric Handel

List of operas by Handel

Publications by Friedrich Chrysander

Valentine Snow

Will of George Frideric Handel

Notes

References

Chrissochoidis, Ilias. "Early Reception of Handel's Oratorios, 1732–1784: Narrative – Studies – Documents" (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 2004), available through UMI.

Chrissochoidis, Ilias. "Handel at a Crossroads: His 1737–1738 and 1738–1739 Seasons Re-Examined", ''Music & Letters'' 90/4 (November 2009), 599–635.

Chrissochoidis, Ilias. "Handel, Hogarth, Goupy: Artistic intersections in Handelian biography", ''Early Music'' 37/4 (November 2009), 577–596.

Chrissochoidis, Ilias. "'hee-haw ... llelujah': Handel among the Vauxhall Asses (1732)", ''Eighteenth-Century Music'' 7/2 (September 2010), 221–262.

Frosch, W.A., ''The "case" of George Frideric Handel'', New England Journal of Medicine, 1989; 321:765–769, 14 September 1989. content.nejm.org

Harris, Ellen T. (general editor) ''The librettos of Handel's operas: a collection of seventy librettos documenting Handel's operatic career'' New York: Garland, 1989. ISBN 0-8240-3862-2

Harris, Ellen T. ''Handel as Orpheus. Voice and Desire in the Chamber Cantatas'' Harvard University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-674-00617-8

Hogwood, Christopher. ''Handel.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1984. ISBN 0-500-01355-1

Keates, Jonathan. ''Handel, the man and his music.'' London: V. Gollancz, 1985. ISBN 0-575-03573-0

Leopold, Silke. "Händel die Opern" Bärenreiter 2009, ISBN 978-3-7618-1991-3

Meynell, Hugo. ''The Art of Handel's Operas'' The Edwin Mellen Press (1986) ISBN 0-88946-425-1

External links

Edward Dent's Handel biography from Project Gutenberg

The second volume of Winton Dean for "Handel's Operas" covering the years 1726–1741

Friedrich Chrysander's Handel biography (in German)

Biographical details web site

Handel Houses:

*The Handel House Museum

*The Händel-Haus in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt

References on Handel

Handel Reference Database

Scores and recordings

: includes Complete Works Edition ''(Ausgabe der Deutschen Händelgesellschaft)''

The Mutopia Project provides free downloading of sheet music and MIDI files for some of Handel's works.

Free typeset sheet music of Handel's works from ''Cantorion.org''

Handel cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.

Handel's Sheet Music by free-scores.com

Kunst der Fuge: George Frideric Handel – MIDI files

Water Music, Organ Concertos op. 4, Tamerlano, etc. Creative Commons recordings

Category:1685 births Category:1759 deaths Category:People from Halle, Saxony-Anhalt Category:Opera composers Category:Baroque composers Category:English classical organists Category:English composers Category:English people of German descent Category:German composers Category:German emigrants to the United Kingdom Category:German classical organists Category:Organ improvisers Category:Composers for pipe organ Category:Members of the Royal Society of Musicians Category:People from the Duchy of Magdeburg Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar Category:18th-century German people Category:Walhalla enshrinees Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey Category:Anglican saints Category:Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom Category:Classical composers of church music

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